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+{"id": "3278", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3278", "title": "M-theory", "text": "M-theory is an idea in small-particle physics that is part of superstring theory that was initially proposed in 1995 by Edward Witten. The idea, or theory, often causes arguments among scientists, because there is no way to test it to see if it is true. If ever proven true, M-theory and string theory would mean big progress for science. \nString theory.\nTo understand M-theory one must first have some knowledge of string theory. For hundreds of years, scientists have thought that the simplest objects in the universe are points, like dots. String theory says that this is wrong and that the simplest objects in the universe are shaped like pieces of string. These strings are so small that even when looked at very closely they look like points. Each elementary particle is created by the strings vibrating in different patterns. The reason scientists had not thought of this idea for so long is that strings are much harder to work with than points. They seem to break such rules as causality and special relativity, which says that information cannot travel faster than the speed of light.\nString theory has been developed because of a very important problem that has existed for almost 100 years. Albert Einstein's theory describes the universe on very large scales (it is called general relativity), and it disagrees with two theories that describe things on very small scale (they are called quantum mechanics and the standard model). There are also problems with the Standard Model: it includes about 20 numbers that seem to have no explanation; it has too many \"basic particles\" - some scientists think it needs to have fewer; and it does not include gravity, which is needed to explain weight.\nMany of these problems can be solved by thinking of basic particles as strings. Now there is only one number with no explanation, which gives the size of the strings. String theory includes particles that cause gravity, called gravitons; finding this out delighted the scientists who work on string theory. So, string theory successfully brings General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics together.\nBut there are some problems with string theory. Normally, we think of the universe as having 4 dimensions, or \"basic directions\". 3 of these basic directions can be thought of as \"up/down\", \"forward/backward\" and \"left/right\". The other direction is time. String theory needs 10 basic directions.\nThese six other directions can be explained if they are \"curled up\", so they are much too small to see. For example, by following the path of a spiral, it is possible to go a great distance along it without moving very far. The 6 other directions can be thought of as tiny spirals - strings can move along them a great distance but not seem to move. This can be looked at as a mathematical trick\u2014a trick that has little to do with the real world that can be seen and touched. Such tricks are allowed if they give a theory that can better tell us how things work.\nAnother problem with string theory is that there are 5 different versions of it. Each version allows different kinds of strings and says they work in different ways. String theory is supposed to be a \"theory of everything\" so there should be only one version, not 5. M-theory solves this problem.\nM-theory.\nIn 1995 Edward Witten started what has been called the \"Second Superstring Revolution\" by introducing M-theory to the world. This theory combines the 5 different string theories (along with a previously abandoned attempt to unify General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics called 11D-Supergravity) into one theory. What Witten actually did was to predict that the fact that all these different theories were connected was a result of there being some underlying theory of which they were all approximations. This theory is somewhat vague in nature and has not yet been pinned down. Additionally, it was found that the equations that required string theory to exist in 10 dimensions were actually approximations as well. The proposed M-theory would need one extra dimension and instead be a theory that takes place in \"11 dimensions\". Witten has himself compared this idea in simple terms to a general who takes up a position on a hilltop, the extra space-coordinate, to get a better view of the battlefield's two other dimensions. \nThe combination is accomplished by knitting together a web of relationships between each of the string theories called dualities (specifically, S-duality, T-duality, and U-duality). Each of these dualities provides a way of converting one of the string theories into another. T-duality is probably the most easily explained of the dualities. It has to do with the size, written as R, of the curled up dimensions of the string theories. It was discovered that by taking a Type IIA string theory that has a size R and changing the radius to 1/R the result will end up being what is equivalent to a Type IIB theory of size R. This duality, along with the others, creates connections between all 5 (or 6, if supergravity is counted) theories. The fact that these dualities existed had been known before Witten came up with the idea of M-theory. \nAdditional amusement has come for many in guessing what the M might stand for (possibilities include Matrix, Magic, Muffin, Mystery, Mother and Membrane). Regardless of what the M might possibly mean, M-theory has become one of the most interesting and active areas of research in theoretical physics today.\n\"For a more technical explanation, see w:M-theory (simplified explanation).\""}
+{"id": "3279", "revid": "10409648", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3279", "title": "Jaguar Cars", "text": "Jaguar Cars was a British car manufacturer and the Jaguar marque is now owned by Jaguar Land Rover. The original company was established in 1922 by William Lyons and was renamed Jaguar in 1935. Jaguar is known for its luxury saloons and sportscars. 1922 but now owned TATA Motors in india.\nHistory.\nJaguar was a private company until it merged with the British Motor Corporation in 1966. The new company was called British Motor Holdings. In 1968 that company joined with Leyland Motors to became British Leyland. In 1975 British Leyland was nationalised. In 1984 Jaguar was made private again by Margaret Thatcher. Ford bought Jaguar in 1989. In 1999 it was made part of Ford's \"Premier Automotive Group\" along with Aston Martin, Land Rover, Volvo and Lincoln. In 2008, Ford sold Jaguar and Land Rover to Tata Motors. Jaguar is now a brand of the merged company called Jaguar Land Rover (JLR).\nThe company was originally in Blackpool, but moved to Coventry. Today Jaguar automobiles are made at the JLR factory in Castle Bromwich in Birmingham. In late 2018 was open new plant in Slovakia.\nJaguar owns the Daimler brand (not Daimler-Benz). Jaguar bought the British Daimler Company in 1960. Daimler became a brand for some of Jaguar's saloon automobiles, but is not used now.\nAs of 2017, JLR sells the following different Jaguar automobile ranges: XJ, XF, XE, XK, F-Pace, E-Pace, iPace, and the F-Type.\nSportscar racing.\nJaguar has won many sports car races, like the Le Mans 24 Hours and other races."}
+{"id": "3280", "revid": "103847", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3280", "title": "Scientific method", "text": "The scientific method refers to ways to get facts, correct errors and mistakes, and test theories.\nThe Oxford English Dictionary says that scientific method is: \"a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century\". It is observation, measurement, and experiment, plus the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.\nA scientist gathers empirical and measurable evidence, and uses sound reasoning. \nNew knowledge often needs adjusting, or fitting into, previous knowledge.\nCriterion.\nWhat distinguishes a scientific method of inquiry is a question known as the criterion'. It is an answer to the question: is there a way to tell whether a concept or theory is science, as opposed to some other kind of knowledge or belief? \nThere have been many ideas as to how it should be expressed. Logical positivists thought a theory was scientific if it could be verified (proved true). \nKarl Popper thought this was a mistake. He thought a theory was not scientific unless there was some way it might be refuted (shown to be wrong). \nOn the other hand, Paul Feyerabend thought there was no criterion. For him, \"anything goes\", or whatever works, works.\nScientists try to let reality speak for itself. They support a theory when its predictions are confirmed, and challenge it when its predictions prove false. Scientific researchers offer hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experiments to test these hypotheses. Since big theories cannot be tested directly, it is done by testing predictions derived from the theory. These steps must be repeatable, to guard against mistake or confusion by any particular experimenter.\nScientific inquiry is generally intended to be as objective as possible. To reduce bias, scientists publish their work, and so share data and methods with other scientists.\nStages.\nScience and things that are not science (such as pseudoscience) are often distinguished by whether they use the scientific method. One of the first people to create an outline of the steps in the scientific method was John Stuart Mill.\nThere is no one scientific method. Some fields of science are based on mathematical models, such as physics. Other fields, such as social science, have rough theories. They rely more on patterns that emerge from their data. Sometimes scientists focus on testing and confirming hypotheses, but open-ended exploration is also important. Some scientific fields use laboratory experiments. Others collect observations from real-world situations. Many areas of science are quantitative, emphasizing numerical data and mathematical analysis. But some areas, especially in social science, use qualitative methods, such as interviews or detailed observations of human or animal behavior. Focusing too much one kind of method can lead us to ignore knowledge produced by other methods.\nSome textbooks focus on a single, standard \"scientific method\". This idea of a single scientific method is based on experimental, hypothesis-testing. It doesn't apply very well to other areas of science. It is often written as a number of steps:\nAlthough written as a list, scientists may go back and forth between different steps a number of times before being satisfied with the answer.\nNot all scientists use the above \"scientific method\" in their day-to-day work. Sometimes the actual work of science looks nothing like the above.\nExample: dissolving sugar in water.\nLet's say we are going to find out the effect of temperature on the way sugar dissolves in a glass of water. Below is one way to do this, following the scientific method step by step.\nAim.\nDoes sugar dissolve faster in hot water or cold water? Does the temperature affect how fast the sugar dissolves? This is a question we might want to ask.\nPlanning the experiment.\nOne simple experiment would be to dissolve sugar in water of different temperatures and to keep track of how much time it takes for the sugar to dissolve. This would be a test of the idea that the rate of dissolving varies according to the kinetic energy of the solvent.\nWe want to make sure to use exactly the same amount of water in each trial, and exactly the same amount of sugar. We do this to make sure that the temperature alone causes the effect. It might be, for example, that the ratio of sugar to water is also a factor in the rate of dissolving. To be extra careful, we might also run the experiment so that the water temperature does not change during the experiment.\nThis is called \"isolating a variable\". This means that, of the factors which might have an effect, only one is being changed in the experiment.\nRunning the experiment.\nWe will do the experiment in three trials, which are exactly the same, except for the temperature of the water.\nDrawing conclusions.\nOne way that makes it easy to see results is to make a table of them, listing all of the things that changed each time we ran the experiment. Ours might look like this:\nIf every other part of the experiment was the same (we did not use more sugar one time than the other, we did not stir one time or the other, etc.), then this would be very good evidence that heat affects how fast sugar is dissolved.\nWe cannot know for sure, though, that there is not something else affecting it. An example of a \"hidden cause\" might be that sugar dissolves faster each time more sugar is dissolved into the same pot. This is probably not true, but if it were, it could make the results exactly the same: three trials, and the last one would be fastest. We have no reason to think that this is true at this time, but we might want to note it as another possible answer.\nRepeatability.\nGood science is repeatable. but that can be difficult or impossible. Experiments on people is an example of this.\nIn psychology (in particular, social psychology) and in medicine, there can be failures of replication (cannot be repeated).\nHistory.\nElements of scientific method were worked out by some early students of nature."}
+{"id": "3281", "revid": "195", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3281", "title": "Plymouth Argyle F", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3283", "revid": "1467751", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3283", "title": "Gas", "text": "A gas is one of the main forms, or states, of matter, like solids, liquids, and plasmas. What makes gases special is that they do not have a fixed shape or a set volume. Instead, gas particles, tiny atoms or molecules, are spread out, move freely, and have a lot of energy. Because the particles are so far apart and do not stick to each other much, gases can spread out to fill any space or container they are in. Gases can also be squeezed into smaller spaces, which is called compression. Gases are really important in science. They help us understand how heat, pressure, and motion work. Gases are all around us, from the air we breathe to the fuel in engines, and they play big roles in nature and technology.\nGases have special physical properties that make them different from solids and liquids. For example, gases can be easily compressed (squeezed into a smaller space), they have low density (they are much lighter than the same volume of solid or liquid), and they can spread out and mix with other gases easily (this is called diffusion). Gases also push against the walls of whatever container they are in. This push is called pressure and comes from gas particles bouncing around and hitting the container\u2019s walls. Scientists use a formula called the ideal gas law to describe how gases behave. It is written as PV = nRT, where:\nThis formula helps predict how a gas will act if you change its temperature, pressure, or volume. But it is not perfect. Real gases do not always follow this rule, especially when they are under very high pressure or low temperature. In those cases, the gas particles get closer together and start to interact, which changes how they behave. Scientists use more detailed equations, like the van der Waals equation, to describe real gas behavior more accurately.\nGases can change into other forms of matter, like liquids or solids, when the temperature or pressure changes. For example, when a gas cools down or gets squeezed tightly (compressed), it can turn into a liquid in a process called condensation. If the conditions are right, a gas can even turn directly into a solid without becoming a liquid first. This is called deposition. The opposite can also happen. If you heat a liquid, it can become a gas through vaporization (like boiling water turning into steam). And sometimes, if you heat a solid, it can turn straight into a gas without melting first. This process is called sublimation (like dry ice turning into carbon dioxide gas). These changes, called phase transitions, are very important. They happen all around us, in cloud formation, breathing, and even during volcanic eruptions. They are also used in many industries, such as refrigeration, distilling liquids, and making chemicals.\nGases can be made of just one kind of element or of different elements combined. Some gases are elemental, meaning they are made of only one type of atom. Examples include hydrogen (H\u2082), oxygen (O\u2082), and the noble gases like helium and neon. Other gases are compounds, which means they are made of two or more different atoms joined together. Examples of these include carbon dioxide (CO\u2082), methane (CH\u2084), and ammonia (NH\u2083). Gases can also be mixtures, where many gases are blended together. A good example is air, which we breathe every day. Air is mostly made of nitrogen and oxygen, but it also contains small amounts of other gases like argon and carbon dioxide. These gas mixtures are super important. The mix of gases in Earth\u2019s atmosphere helps regulate the planet\u2019s temperature and makes breathing possible. In factories and hospitals, special gas mixtures are used for welding, surgery, and even to keep food fresh.\nSome gases belong to special groups because of how they behave or affect the world around us. Noble gases are a group of gases like helium, neon, and argon that do nott easily react with other substances. This is because their atoms have a \u201cfull\u201d outer shell of electrons, which makes them chemically stable or inert. That means they usually do not join with other atoms to form compounds. Greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide (CO\u2082) and methane (CH\u2084), are gases that trap heat in Earth\u2019s atmosphere. They let sunlight in but stop some of the heat from escaping, like a blanket. This helps keep the planet warm, but too much of these gases leads to global warming and climate change. There are also toxic gases, which can make people sick or be dangerous to breathe, and flammable gases, which can catch fire easily. These types of gases must be handled carefully to avoid accidents. To study and work with gases, scientists use special tools like gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. These tools help them identify what gases are present, measure how much there is, and even separate or analyze them in great detail.\nIntroduction.\nIn a pure gas, each molecule may be made of an individual atom. It may be elemental, where each molecule is made of more than one of the same atom bound together. It may be compounds where molecules are made of many types of atoms together. An example of a monoatomic gas is neon, an example of an elemental gas is hydrogen and an example of a compound gas is carbon dioxide.\nExamples.\nComposition.\nA gas mixture contains a mix of any of the above types. air comprises 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, less than 1% argon, around 0.03% carbon dioxide and more other in very small quantities.\nApplications.\nWar.\nPoison gases were used as chemical weapons in WWI.\nCharacteristics.\nAll gases can flow, like liquids. This means the molecules move about independently of each other. Most gases are colourless, like hydrogen. Gas particles will spread about, or diffuse, in order to fill all the space in any container such as a bottle or a room. Compared to liquids and solids, gases have a very low density and viscosity. We cannot directly see most gases since they aren't coloured. However it is possible to measure their density, volume, temperature and pressure.\nPressure.\nPressure is the measure of how much pushing force something is putting on another object. In a gas, this is usually the gas pushing on the container of the object or, if the gas is heavy, something inside the gas. Pressure is measured in pascals. Because of Newton's third law, we can change the pressure of a gas by putting force on the object containing it. For example, squeezing a bottle with air inside pressurises the air inside.\nWhen talking about gas, pressure is often related to the container. A lot of gas in a small container would have very high pressure. A small amount of a gas in a big container would have low pressure.\nGas can create pressure itself when there is a lot of it. The weight of the gas creates pressure on anything underneath it, including other gas. On a planet, this is called atmospheric pressure.\nTemperature.\nThe temperature of a gas is how hot or cold it is. In physics it is usually measured in Kelvin although degrees Celsius are used more elsewhere. In a gas, the average velocity, i.e. how fast they move, of the molecules is related to the temperature. The faster the gas molecules are moving, the more they collide, or smash into each other. These collisions release energy, which in a gas comes in the form of heat. Conversely if the temperature around the gas becomes hotter then the gas particles will convert the thermal energy to kinetic energy, making them move faster and making the gas hotter.\nState changes.\nA gas can go through two different state changes. If the temperature is low enough the gas can condense and turn into a liquid. Sometimes, if the temperature is low enough it can go through deposition, where it changes straight to a solid. Normally a gas must first condense to a liquid, and then freeze to become a solid, but if the temperature is very low it can skip the liquid stage and instantly become solid. Frost on the ground in winter is caused by this. Water vapour \u2013 a gas \u2013 goes into the air which is very cold, and instantly becomes ice due to deposition."}
+{"id": "3284", "revid": "10441970", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3284", "title": "Family", "text": "A family is a group of people who, in most cases, live together.They share their money and food and are supposed to take care of one another. Its members are either genetically related (like brother and sister) or legally bound to each other, for example by marriage. In many cultures, the members of a family have the same or a similar surname.\nThe family in accordance to the Catholic doctrine is treated in many articles of the Catechism of the Catholic Church starting from the article 2201. \nA family is said to be society's smallest unit, its nucleus. Family life is more private and intimate than public life. But in most countries there are laws for it. For example, there are restrictions for marrying within the family and bans for having a sexual relationship with relatives, especially with children.\nTypes of families.\nThree types of family on the basic of size\nare: \"nuclear family\", \"single-parent family\" and \"extended family\".\nBoth the \"nuclear family\" and the \"single-parent family\" are also called the \"immediate family\". \nFoster families are families where a child lives with and is cared for by people who are not his or her biological parents."}
+{"id": "3285", "revid": "10481772", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3285", "title": "Wave (physics)", "text": "A wave is a kind of disturbance that travels through space and matter. Wave motions transfer energy from one place to another.\nExamples.\nWaves are found everywhere in the natural world. Examples of waves are:\nProperties.\nWaves have properties that can be measured. All waves can be pictured by adding sine waves.\nSine waves can be measured too. The shape of a sine wave is given by its amplitude, phase, wavelength and frequency. The speed that the sine wave moves can be measured. The amplitude and wavelength of the sine wave are shown in the picture.\nThe highest point on a wave is called the crest. The lowest point is called the trough. The crest of a wave and the trough of a wave are always twice the wave's amplitude apart from each other. The part of the wave halfway in between the crest and the trough is called the baseline.\nComplicated waveforms (like the sound waves of music) can be made by adding up sine waves of different frequencies. This is how mp3 audio files are converted from their compressed form into the music we can hear. Complex waves can be separated into sine waves by Fourier analysis.\nWaves and matter.\nSome waves can move through matter while others cannot. For instance, some waves can move through empty space, light waves for example. Sound waves, on the other hand, cannot move through empty space. Inherently, all waves carry energy from one place to another when they move. In some applications of technology, waves may carry meaningful information from one place to another, such as news on the radio. \nUsually, after a wave moves through matter, the matter is the same as it was before the wave was introduced, though in some cases, matter can be affected by waves traveling through it. In 1922, Louis de Broglie found out that all waves are also particles, and all particles are also waves.\nTypes.\nIn matter:"}
+{"id": "3286", "revid": "17988", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3286", "title": "Weapon", "text": "A weapon is an object that can be used to attack or injure a person or animal. People have used weapons since ancient times. While other animals use weapons, in most cases they are attached to the animal (teeth, claws, tusks, etc.). In man's case they are detached and constantly selected for the purpose at hand. Man has been constantly developing newer and better weapons ever since he picked up the first rock.\nHistory.\nSome of the oldest remains that we have of ancient people are weapons made of stone. Ancient people also used spears. Bows and arrows were in use by about 20,000 BC. During the Bronze age people learned to make things of metal, many people used swords. People also built huge machines which could throw rocks to destroy the defensive walls of enemy cities. Some of these machines were called catapults or siege engines. Later, gunpowder was invented in China and the Europeans began using it to make guns and cannons. These weapons were much better than the older weapons, and helped the Europeans to conquer people in many parts of the world. People in many parts of the world used guns such as rifles and shotguns for hunting animals, and handguns for shooting other people.\nPeople continued to invent new weapons. In 1884 the machine gun was invented, which could shoot many bullets very fast. Soldiers began to use land mines, a bomb hidden in the ground, which explodes when someone walks on it. Small submarines were able to use torpedos to attack bigger ships and hide under the ocean. When airplanes were invented, people began to use them to shoot enemies and to drop bombs on them. They built tanks which had big guns and strong armor. Poison gas was used in World War I but was outlawed and rarely used afterwards. \nIn World War II, cities were heavily bombed from the air and Nazi Germany used V-2 missiles to carry bombs to England. Both sides used many firebombs. At the end of World War II, the United States used atomic bombs (nuclear bombs) to destroy the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. \nAfter World War II, people continued to develop new weapons, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. People became concerned about weapons of mass destruction, weapons that can kill many people very fast, and are usually cheap and easy to make and use. One kind of weapon of mass destruction is poison gas. New kinds of poison gas, such as nerve gas, are much more powerful than the old kinds. Another kind of weapon of mass destruction is disease germs, which could be used to make many people sick and maybe kill them. \nLaws.\nOld-fashioned weapons still kill many people in wars and fighting. In wars in Africa in the 1990s and early 21st century, many people were killed with machetes (big knives). People sometimes try to make laws, treaties, and international agreements to try to control weapons because they are worried about all the killing done with them. Laws vary from country to country, for example, in the United States, the \"right to keep and bear arms\" is guaranteed to all citizens by the Constitution. A country may say that people in that country cannot keep or use guns, or only when the government allows it. The laws of war forbid certain weapons, and countries may agree with each other that they should not use certain weapons against each other, or should not have more than a certain number of particular kinds of weapons.\nTypes of weapons.\nThings specifically made as weapons that most ordinary people can carry, include non lethal:\nWeapons that soldiers or police personnel carry, include:\nWeapons that the defense people of a national government have, include:\nOther types of weapons include:"}
+{"id": "3287", "revid": "9610349", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3287", "title": "Christmas cake", "text": "A Christmas cake is a heavy cake containing much dried fruit and usually having a covering of icing. It is made to be eaten at Christmas. It can also be called a fruitcake.\nA common favorite of many is the traditional Scottish Christmas cake, the \"Whisky Dundee.\" It was named this because the cake came from Dundee and is made with Scotch whisky. It is a light and crumbly cake, and light on fruit and candied peel\u2014only currants, raisins, sultanas and cherries. This Christmas cake is mostly good for people who do not like very sweet and moist cakes. As with all fruitcakes, almonds (or other nuts) can be removed by people who do not like them or those with bad nut allergies.\nAt the other end of the Christmas cake tradition, the apple cream Christmas cake is a sweet mix of sliced apples, raisins and other fruit, with eggs, cream cheese, and heavy whipping cream.\nIn the middle of the other two listed above is the mincemeat Christmas cake. It is simply any traditional or vegetarian mincemeat mixed with flour, eggs, and other pastry ingredients, to transform it into a cake batter; or it can also be steamed as a Christmas pudding.\nA premade fruitcake mix can be bought at a grocery store."}
+{"id": "3288", "revid": "7865046", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3288", "title": "Christmas cracker", "text": "A Christmas cracker is a hollow card tube covered with brightly coloured paper twisted on each end. When pulled apart, it makes a pop sound. It usually contains a small gift, a paper crown hat and a joke. It is generally used at Christmas celebrations, usually shared by two family members to compete by tugging on each end until it breaks apart, the person who retains the tube containing the gift gets to keep the gift. It is a British tradition which started back in the 1840s."}
+{"id": "3290", "revid": "1460981", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3290", "title": "Fingerplate", "text": "A fingerplate also known as a pushplate, is a plate that is fixed to a door near the handle or keyhole. It is for stopping dirt getting on the door. And is made of metal or glass. Their installation are no longer practical, and are now used for decoration."}
+{"id": "3291", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3291", "title": "Floodlight", "text": "A floodlight is a large electric light. It makes a very strong and bright beam of light. It is used for lighting the outside of buildings, football grounds, etc. at night."}
+{"id": "3292", "revid": "268071", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3292", "title": "Headrest", "text": "A headrest is something which supports the head. It is usually a suitably shaped part of the back of a chair or of a front seat in a car.\nIt is designed to support passenger's shoulder part and neck to prevent whiplash in cases of crash at the rear."}
+{"id": "3293", "revid": "6137628", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3293", "title": "Inkpad", "text": "An inkpad is a small box that contains a pad of cloth or other material. It is impregnated with ink (the pad is inky). A marker is pressed onto the pad, then onto paper. Any raised marks on the pad leave an impression in ink on the paper.\nInk pads are used with rubber stamps. On the stamp is the symbol of an organisation, for example. After a form has been passed by an official, it is stamped to show it is authentic. Another variation is a date stamp, placed on all letters which arrive in the building. Another version is a stamp with a facsimile (copy) of an official's signature. Using this, staff can send out letters when the official is not present. Rubber stamps and ink pads have been used for at least a hundred years by civil servants and businesses. They are still in use in many countries, but are gradually being replaced with other systems."}
+{"id": "3295", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3295", "title": "Jack-in-the-box", "text": "A jack-in-the-box, otherwise referred to as a jack box, is a children's toy which is a box from which a figure on a spring jumps when the top is opened. You twist the knob until the spring shoots out the toy, which you put back in the box and do it all over again. Many kids have fun when they see the jack jumping out from the box."}
+{"id": "3296", "revid": "215", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3296", "title": "Chritmas cake", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3297", "revid": "10394156", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3297", "title": "London boroughs", "text": "A London Borough is a district of Greater London. There are 32 of them, including one that also call itself a separate city - the City of Westminster (where Buckingham Palace and the Houses of Parliament are) and the City of London (the oldest part of London). Each Borough has its own local government.\n<br>"}
+{"id": "3299", "revid": "10173345", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3299", "title": "City of London", "text": "The City of London, also referred to as the Square Mile or simply the City, is a district of Greater London. The city's boundaries have remained almost unchanged since the Middle Ages. Although it is now only a small part of the metropolis, it is a notable part of central London. The City holds city status in its own right, and is also a ceremonial county. It is just over one square mile, in area.\nIt is here in the City of London where most of the United Kingdom's financial trade is done. It is a very small area, only a square mile, and has a very small resident population (8,000). However, many people come to work here and during the day it can be very busy, with some 300,000 people in it.\n\"London\" now refers to Greater London, which is made up of 32 boroughs (including the City of Westminster and the City of London). The city is in central London and is the oldest part of the city, dating back to Roman times. The City of London has its own mayor, the Lord Mayor of London, an office separate from (and much older than) the Mayor of London. There are other ancient features, dating back to medieval times. The city has its own police force, the City of London Police.\nHistory.\nThe city is the site of Roman \"Londinium\", and the archaeological remains are on display in the Museum of London, City Wall.\nThe city has many churches designed by Sir Christopher Wren, including St Paul's Cathedral. The city was the site of the Great Fire of London in 1666.\nFinancial markets.\nThe City vies with New York City as the financial capital of the world: many banking and insurance institutions have their headquarters there. The London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds), Lloyd's of London (insurance), the London Metal Exchange and the Bank of England are all based in the city.\nOver 500 banks have offices in the city, and the city is an established leader in trading in Eurobonds, foreign exchange, energy futures, metals, and global insurance. The Alternative Investment Market, a market for trades in equities of smaller firms, is a recent development. In 2008, the City of London accounted for 4% of UK GDP.\nLondon is the world's greatest foreign exchange market, with much of the trade conducted in the City of London. Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2007, trading in London accounted for around $1.36 trillion, or 34.1% of the total. The Pound Sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth most traded currency and the third most held reserve currency.\nSince 1991 Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, has become a second centre for London's financial services industry and houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile. This development does not appear to have damaged the city: both places have grown."}
+{"id": "3301", "revid": "1288841", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3301", "title": "City of Westminster", "text": "The City of Westminster is a city and London borough. It is to the west of the City of London. Its most important area, Westminster, contains the Houses of Parliament, Whitehall, Downing Street and Westminster Abbey. The main official residence of the British monarch, Buckingham Palace, is also located in the City of Westminster."}
+{"id": "3302", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3302", "title": "London Borough of Lambeth", "text": "The London Borough of Lambeth is a London Borough. It is in south west London, England."}
+{"id": "3303", "revid": "10394144", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3303", "title": "London Borough of Southwark", "text": "The London Borough of Southwark is a London Borough. It is in south east London. It is extramural to the City of London."}
+{"id": "3304", "revid": "10394163", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3304", "title": "London Borough of Camden", "text": "The London Borough of Camden is a London Borough. It is in north and central London. It is extramural to the City of London."}
+{"id": "3305", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3305", "title": "London Borough of Merton", "text": "The London Borough of Merton is a London Borough. It is in south west London. In the London Borough of Merton there is the towns of Morden, Wimbledon, Mitcham and other small towns like Pollards Hill, Colliers Wood and Summerstown."}
+{"id": "3306", "revid": "9225783", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3306", "title": "Brixton", "text": "Brixton is a place in south London. It has a lot of people from the Caribbean. It has a big market and many nightclubs."}
+{"id": "3307", "revid": "9315185", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3307", "title": "Bankside", "text": "Bankside is the old part of the London Borough of Southwark. It is next to the River Thames."}
+{"id": "3308", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3308", "title": "River Thames", "text": "The River Thames is a large river in England. It goes through London, the capital city of the United Kingdom.\nThe Thames is 346 kilometres (235 statute miles) long. Its source is near the village of Kemble in the Cotswolds; it flows through Oxford (where it is called \"The Isis\", a shortening of its Latin name), Reading, Maidenhead, Eton and then Windsor.\nFrom the outskirts of Greater London, it passes Syon House, Hampton Court Palace, Richmond (with the famous view of the Thames from Richmond Hill), and Kew. It then passes through London, then Greenwich and Dartford before it enters the sea in an estuary, The Nore. Part of the area west of London is sometimes called the Thames Valley. The area east of Tower Bridge is called Thames Gateway by development agencies and officials.\nAbout 90\u00a0kilometres from the sea, above London, the river begins to show the tide caused by the North Sea. It is said that London was made capital of Roman Britain at the spot where the tides reached in 43 AD, but different things have pushed this spot farther up the river in the over 2000 years since then. At London, the water is slightly salty with sea salt.\nHistory.\nLike the Celts who lived in the area, the Romans called the river \"Thamesis\".\nThe Thames was an important way to go between London and Westminster in the 16th and 17th centuries. The guild of watermen took Londoners back and forth by ferry. One of them, John Taylor, the Water Poet (15801653), described the river in a poem.\nIn the 17th and 18th century, at a time some call the \"Little Ice Age\", the Thames often froze over in the winter. This led to the first \"Frost Fair\" in 1607, with a tent city set up on the river with lots of odd amusements, like ice bowling. The last time the river froze over was in 1814. The building of a new London Bridge in 1825 may have helped stop it from freezing: the new bridge had fewer pillars than the old, allowing the river to flow more easily, and stopping it from flowing slowly enough to freeze in cold winters.\nBy the 18th century, the Thames was one of the world's busiest waterways, as London became the centre of the very big British Empire. During this time one of the worst river disasters in England took place on 3 September 1878 on the Thames, when the crowded pleasure boat \"Princess Alice\" crashed into the \"Bywell Castle\" killing over 640 people.\nIn the 'Great Stink' of 1858, pollution in the river became so bad that the House of Commons at Westminster had to quit sitting. \nThe authorities accepted a proposal from the civil engineer Joseph Bazalgette. He moved the effluent eastwards along a series of interconnecting sewers. These sloped towards outfalls beyond the metropolitan area.\nThe coming of rail transport and road transport, and the decline of the Empire in the years after 1945, made the river less important than it was. London itself is no longer used much as a port, and the \"Port of London\" has moved down the river to Tilbury. The Thames has been greatly cleaned up, and life has returned to its dead waters.\nIn the early 1980s, the Thames Barrier was opened to control flooding. It is used many times a year to stop water damage to London's low-lying areas up the river.\nThere are many bridges and tunnels crossing the Thames, including Tower Bridge, London Bridge, Lambeth Bridge, and the Dartford Crossing.\nIn September 2011 a British comedian, David Walliams, swam the entire 140\u00a0mile length of the river raising over \u00a31million for a charity called Sport Relief. On Red Nose Day, people swim the Thames for charity.\nThe Thames in literature.\nMany books have been written about the Thames. \"Three Men in a Boat\" by Jerome K. Jerome describes a boat trip up the Thames. Somewhere near Oxford is where the Lidells were rowing in the poem at the start of \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\". Somewhere near here was where Alice fell asleep in the book. The river is named in both \"The Wind in the Willows\" and the play \"Toad of Toad Hall\". In \"Heart of Darkness\" by Joseph Conrad, Marlow tells his tale while waiting for the tide near the mouth of the Thames.\nOther fictional events include Sherlock Holmes looking for a boat in \"A Study in Scarlet\" and Bill Sykes killing Nancy just near the river, in Charles Dickens's classic novel \" Oliver Twist\".\nCrossings of the Thames.\nSee Crossings of the River Thames for a full article. Famous crossings include\nIslands in the Thames.\nListed in upstream order."}
+{"id": "3309", "revid": "182869", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3309", "title": "Queen", "text": "A queen is a woman who rules a country which is a monarchy. She may either get this position because of inheritance or because she has married a king. \nA queen regnant is a queen who is the monarch of a country. She usually comes to power after the death of the previous king or queen, who is her parent. A country that is ruled by a queen is called a kingdom \u2013 the same as a country ruled by a king. Elizabeth II was a Queen Regnant. \nA queen consort is a queen who is not a monarch, but is married to one, such as a King. Camilla is a Queen Consort. However, the husband of a queen is not always called a king. For example, King George VI had a wife, who was called Queen Elizabeth. He had no sons, so he was followed by his elder daughter, who was also called Elizabeth. She became Queen Elizabeth II. She was married to The Duke of Edinburgh until his death on April 9, 2021; but when she became Queen he did not become King. This is because the title \"King Consort\" does not exist.\nQueen regnant.\nA \"queen regnant\" is head of state, and has all the powers of a sovereign.\nA queen regnant does not keep the title of queen if she \"abdicates\" (resigns). No queen has ever abdicated in the history of the United Kingdom, but three abdications have occurred in the Kingdom of the Netherlands:\nQueen consort.\nA \"queen consort\" is the wife of a king. She is not the head of state, and does not have any powers unless they are given by the King or another law.\nThe last King of Britain (George VI) had a wife (Elizabeth) who was called Queen Elizabeth. He had no sons, so he was followed by his elder daughter. She is also called Elizabeth and became Queen Elizabeth II. She was married to the late Duke of Edinburgh; but when she became Queen he did not become King.\nQueen dowager.\nA \"queen dowager\" is the widow of a king.\nA queen consort usually keeps the title of Queen after her husband's death, for example"}
+{"id": "3310", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3310", "title": "Male", "text": "Male is one of two biological sexes. Most species have two sexes male and female. Human males are usually men or boys; human females are usually women or girls (Except if their gender does not correlate with their sex assigned at birth). \nThe two sexes have different sexual organs, and different secondary sex characteristics. They also often have different biological functions. The female sexual organs can give birth to children with the semen provided by the male. \nIn many human societies, females often were involved in gathering, while men used to hunt, but over the course of time, Gender equality has been (or is being) recognized in more and more countries."}
+{"id": "3311", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3311", "title": "Female", "text": "Female is one of the two sexes. It is the sex that produces ova (\"egg\" cells) for sexual reproduction. Females of some species also bear offspring.\nWhen looking at seed plants, the plants that only produce seed are called female, those that only produce pollen are called male. The majority of seed plants produce both, and are called hermaphrodite.\nOrganisms can either be grouped as male or female. Female humans are called women and their bodies are different from male humans (who are called men). A woman has a vagina between her legs (a male has a penis) which is the main sexual organ. They also have breasts with milk glands, which allow them to nurse (feed) infants. A woman's shoulders are usually not as wide as a man's, but women usually have wider hips than men, because they need wide hips to be able to give birth.\nWomen who become pregnant are encouraged by doctors to seek professional care from an obstetrician or a gynecologist in order to prevent problems. Likewise, women should see a gynecologist often for routine screening exams for cancer."}
+{"id": "3312", "revid": "1572762", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3312", "title": "Camden", "text": "Camden is a place in north London, England. It has a big market which has lots of clothes. It is also good for music. It is an Urban Area. Regent's Canal runs through Camden."}
+{"id": "3313", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3313", "title": "Royal Borough of Greenwich", "text": "The Royal Borough of Greenwich is a London Borough. It is in south east London."}
+{"id": "3314", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3314", "title": "London Borough of Wandsworth", "text": "The London Borough of Wandsworth is a London Borough. It is in south west London."}
+{"id": "3315", "revid": "10394161", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3315", "title": "London Borough of Islington", "text": "The London Borough of Islington is a London Borough. It is north of Central London. It is extramural to the City of London."}
+{"id": "3316", "revid": "7650529", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3316", "title": "Bambuco", "text": "Bambuco is a type of music from Colombia. The beat of this music is like the European waltz or polska. Bambuco is often folk music. There is a dance that goes with Bambuco music. It is a group dance and has a 6/8 or 3/4 meter.\nSometimes Bambuco is called \"el bambuco\". People think Bambuco started in Africa. It is popular in the Andean region of Colombia and throughout Latin America."}
+{"id": "3317", "revid": "593910", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3317", "title": "Christmas", "text": "Christmas (which means \u201cThe Mass of Christ\u201d) is a Christian holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ, who Christians believe is the Son of God. Christmas is also a cultural holiday for many non-Christians all over the world. It is usually celebrated in the month of December, with the main day being Christmas Day on 25 December.\nMeaning.\nChristmas Day is celebrated on 25 December. It is an important day, mainly for Christians, along with Easter (which celebrates the death and resurrection of Jesus). The season of Advent begins on a Sunday about four weeks before Christmas. During Advent, people prepare for Christmas. The Christmas season (called Christmastide) ends 6 January, also called the Twelfth Day of Christmas. On this day, Christians celebrate \u2018\u2019Epiphany\u2018\u2019. Many Christians also attend Church on Christmas Day.\nHistory.\nDescription in the Gospels.\nChristmas celebrates the birth of Jesus. There are four different Gospels in the Bible which talk about Jesus\u2019 birth. The Gospel of Luke gives details about Jesus\u2019 birth. The Gospel of Matthew tells another part of the story. The Gospel of John says that Jesus came from God to bring his \u201cWord\u201d (his message) to all people. Christians believe these Gospels are based on fact.\nBackground.\nThe Gospels say that many years before Jesus\u2019 birth, prophets had told a promise to the Jewish people that God would send them a Messiah, or holy teacher. Christians believe that the promised Messiah was Jesus. His mother was a young woman called Mary, who was engaged, but not yet married to a carpenter called Joseph. Joseph found out that Mary was pregnant and was upset. He was wondering what he should do, when an angel came from God to tell him that the baby was the Holy One. The angel said that he must \u2018\u2019name the baby\u2019\u2019. This was a sign that he would take care of it like his own child.\nAt this time, the Middle East was ruled by the Romans. An order came that all the people had to travel back to their home town, to put their names on the taxation lists. Joseph took his new wife to Bethlehem. There was nowhere for them to stay, except a stable where the animals slept. This is where the baby was born. Joseph called him Jesus, as the angel had said.\nNativity.\nThe baby Jesus had two lots of visitors. On the night he was born, angels told some shepherds in the fields that they would find a newborn king lying in an animals\u2019 feed trough (or \u2018\u2019manger\u2019\u2019). Jesus\u2019 other visitors were some wise men who saw a new star in the sky and followed it, until they found the house where the family was now living and gave the young child expensive gifts of gold, incense and a precious herb called myrrh. (The wise men are often traditionally called the Three Kings, because there were three very expensive presents but the Bible does not say how many wise men there were.)\nAll these parts of the Christmas story are remembered and celebrated in different ways at Christmas: in pictures, songs, plays, stories and in models that are called \u201ccribs\u201d, \u201ccreches\u201d or \u201cpresepe\u201d.\nDate.\nMost Christian countries of the world use a calendar called the Gregorian Calendar, but some churches use a calendar called the Julian Calendar. Most Christians, such as those of the Catholic and Protestant Churches, celebrate the birth of Jesus on 25 December, although holidays begin on 24 December also known as Christmas Eve.\nThe Eastern Orthodox Church still uses the Julian Calendar in some regions such as Russia. In such regions, Christmas is celebrated on 25 December in the Julian Calendar, but because of the difference between the calendars it is 7 January in the modern Gregorian Calendar. In 2023 Ukraine celebrated Christmas on 25 December for the first time since 1917.\nSome Christians, like Jehovah's Witnesses, do not celebrate Christmas because there is no instruction from Jesus in the Bible which tells Christians to celebrate his birth. Mormons celebrate Christmas on 25 December but they believe that Christ\u2019s actual birth took place on 6 April.\nSome believe that Jesus was probably not born on 25 December. Some historians believe this date was used by the Catholic Church to replace the pagan rites that took place at that time of the year.\nAdvent.\nThe Season of Advent, which begins on Sunday about four weeks before Christmas Day, is celebrated by the Catholic and Anglican Churches, as well as others. It is a time for people to prepare themselves for two different things: for the coming of the baby Jesus and Christmas, and for the second coming of Jesus, when he shall rule over all the Earth in peace. Not all Christian people remember Advent. Some people use it as a time of fasting, study, meditation and prayer. Special Advent calendars are made for children, with pictures or treats for each day of Advent.\nGenerally, Advent is a time when many people are very busy in preparation for Christmas Day, cleaning and decorating, buying food and presents, writing cards and letters, and cooking the Christmas feast.\nCelebrations.\nClassical antiquity.\nBefore the 4th century AD, Christians could only worship and celebrate in secret. The feast of Christmas probably began while Constantine was the Emperor of Rome, because it was he who made Christianity a legal religion and built some of Rome\u2019s oldest churches. Some old stone coffins or \u2018\u2019sarcophagi\u2019\u2019 from this time are carved with pictures of Mary and baby Jesus and the Wise Men.\nMiddle Ages.\nThrough the Middle Ages Christmas was celebrated with feasting, singing and plays. The plays were held in churches, and also in castles and in market places, where a big hay wagon was sometimes used as a stage.\nBecause Advent was a time of prayer and preparation, most parties were held after Christmas, rather than before it. The main pre-Christmas celebration was the Feast of St. Nicholas on 6 December. In some countries, particularly the Netherlands, the tradition grew for children to receive presents on this day, rather than Christmas Day. The name of Saint Nicholas is now remembered in many countries as Santa Claus.\nAnother festivity that takes place is the Feast of Saint Lucy (St. Lucia Day) on 13 December which is particularly celebrated in Scandinavia, where girls take part in candlelit processions, and the daughters of the house must rise early to bring coffee or chocolate to the family.\nFor many centuries, the celebration of Christmas often began with a church service or mass, which lasted from late at night to after midnight on Christmas morning. Christmas Day was a time of feasting. On the following day, the Feast of Saint Stephen people from rich households would carry boxes of food out to the street for the poor and hungry. Many people would go back to work but employers would give gifts of money to their workers. \nThe Holy Days continued with the feast of Saint John and Holy Innocents' Day. The feasting and parties ended on the Feast of the Epiphany, the day of the Three Wise Men, often called the \u201cThree Kings\u201d. The season is nowadays remembered by the song \u201cThe Twelve Days of Christmas\u201d. William Shakespeare wrote a play to be performed as part of the celebration, called \u201cTwelfth Night\u201c.\nMany Christians celebrate Christmas by attending church, and with prayers and singing. And each year there are Bible readings from the Gospels that tell the story of the birth of Jesus.\nChurch traditions.\nThe celebration of Christmas is a very important time for churches. Almost every church has special services or celebrations. Here are some of the ways that churches celebrate Christmas.\nCrib.\nIt is the custom in many churches to set up a Crib (or \u2018\u2019Creche\u2019\u2019) scene of the \u2018\u2019Nativity\u2019\u2019 or birth of Jesus. The first scene of this type was set up by St. Francis of Assisi in the 13th century. They have been very popular in Italy ever since then, and the custom has spread to other countries.\nNativity scenes can be large with life-sized statues, or they can be tiny enough to fit in a matchbox. They are made of many different things including carved and painted wood, brightly coloured ceramics (pottery), painted paper glued to boards, and mixtures of material with clay, wood, cloth, straw and metal used for different parts.\nThe Advent wreath is a circle of leaves, usually pine boughs, ivy and holly, with 4 (or sometimes 5) candles in it which is hung up in a church. The candles are lit on each Sunday in Advent, and the central candle is lit on Christmas morning. Churches are often decked with green branches and leaves, and many churches also have a Christmas tree.\nCarols by candlelight.\nA popular tradition in many churches is the Carol Service which is often lit only by candles. The carol service generally has lots of singing and Bible readings. There is a tradition in England which began in the Temple Church in London and has now spread to many other places for a service of Nine Lessons and Carols. The lessons are Bible readings. Some carols are sung by a choir and others by the choir and people (the congregation). Every year one of these services is recorded in a large English Church, often King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and is broadcast on radio and television to be enjoyed by people who love good music and carol singing, but particularly for people who cannot go to a Christmas service.\nChristmas traditions.\nFor many, Christmas has become a time when having parties, sending messages to family and friends and giving presents has become more important than the celebration of Jesus\u2019 birth. Manufacturers and stores have responded to the feasting and present-giving with lots of advertising, decorations and displays. In the US, the Christmas displays are put up right after Thanksgiving, late in November. In some countries such as Australia, stores put up decorations at the beginning of November. Given that Jesus himself called people making money in the Jewish Temple \u2018robbers\u2019 (Matthew 21:13) many Christians are uneasy about profit instead of prophets at Christmas.\nPeople celebrate Christmas in many places around the world. Some people celebrate Christmas as a religious holiday. In some places, Christmas is a time of celebration for Christians and non-Christians alike. Christmas traditions are different in different countries. However, they almost always include a feast; giving gifts or cards; and enjoying church or public festivities, like singing Christmas carols and songs. Christmas is not limited to Christianity. The idea of Santa Claus is based on Saint Nicholas, a 4th-century Christian saint of Greek origin.\nIn the Northern Hemisphere, Christmastide happens during the winter. Before Christmas was ever celebrated, ancient peoples celebrated winter festivals. Some traditions from these ancient festivals became Christmas traditions. For example, some Christmas traditions come from the pagan holiday of Yule. Today, Christmas traditions often focus on gift-giving. About a month before Christmas Day, retail stores start selling gifts, food, greeting cards, Christmas trees, Sugar cookies, Candy canes, and decorations. \nTown councils celebrate by decorating streets and squares, and providing Christmas entertainment for shoppers. In countries of the Southern Hemisphere, where Christmas falls in Summer, there is a tradition of open-air Carol Services, often organised by the town council, which are attended by thousands of people.\nPublic and commercial celebrations.\nMany cities and towns celebrate Christmas by putting up decorations. These may be banners and bunting which are strung from buildings or lampposts. They may be Christmas lights which can also decorate buildings and street trees. Many large cities put up a huge Christmas tree in a public place, such as those in Trafalgar Square in London, Times Square in New York and Martin Place in Sydney. This is often combined with an appeal to the people of the city to give money or gifts to help the poor and needy.\nIn many cities, the usual shopping hours are made longer before Christmas so that workers have more time to buy Christmas food and presents. Shop windows are often decorated with Christmas scenes, with large department stores often having animated scenes to entertain children. Shopping malls and big stores often have a Santa Claus, who sits on a throne, while children tell him what they want for Christmas, and have their photos taken.\nMany towns hold Christmas parades, street entertainment and concerts. Some towns have a tradition of carols with a choir and entertainers in the town hall, while in Australia and New Zealand, these concerts of Christmas entertainment and carols are usually held outdoors, in parks or even on beaches, with families bringing picnics. The arrival of Santa Claus at the end of the evening is accompanied by a firework display.\nA traditional part of Christmas is the theatre entertainment. This includes the performance of classical music such as Handel\u2019s Messiah as well as orchestral concerts and band recitals. Pantomimes are often played at Christmas and favourites include \u201cPeter Pan and Wendy\u201c and \u201cCinderella\u201c. Many children\u2019s movies are released during the Christmas season.\nBecause many people feel very lonely, hungry and sad at Christmas, many cities, churches, charities and service organisations try to help the poor and lonely by providing Christmas food and gifts for poor families, and Christmas parties for people who are hungry or who are lonely and without any friends or family.\nFamily celebrations.\nFamily celebrations are often very different from each other, depending on where a family comes from, and the customs that have grown in particular families.\nFamily get-togethers.\nMost families think of Christmas as a time to get together with other members of the family. People often travel from far away to be with other family members at Christmas. Those people who cannot travel often make long-distance phone calls on Christmas Day. Many people also see Christmas as a time to reach out to others that they know might be lonely, and invite them to dinner on Christmas Day. Christmas is seen as a time for people of all ages to have fun together, for cousins to get to know each other, for grandparents to see their grandchildren and for the family to admire the babies that have been born during the year. Big family parties are usually a time of joy, but some families often talk about their disagreements and have big fights at Christmas time.\nFamily traditions are very different. Some families might all go off to church together, to a Carol Service, a Midnight Mass, or a Christmas Morning service. Some families are pulled out of bed very early by children who want to open their presents. In other families, presents are given on St. Nicholas Day, on Christmas Eve or not until after church on Christmas morning. The Christmas feast might start on Christmas Eve, with a special breakfast on Christmas morning, or at midday on Christmas Day.\nSome families have a tradition of carol singing, and might go around the streets, to hospitals and other such places singing with members of their church. Other families like to watch certain television programs together, which might include carol services and the Queen\u2019s Message. Some families use Christmas as a time to play music and sing together, or to read a favourite book such as \u201cA Christmas Carol\u201d by Charles Dickens. In countries in the Southern Hemisphere, a visit to the beach or a swim in a pool is often part of the Christmas Day tradition.\nChristmas dinner.\nChristmas Dinner, usually eaten in the middle of the day, is an important part of the family celebration. The food differs from country to country and also from family to family. In the Northern Hemisphere, roasted meat and vegetables are generally the main courses of the meal. Usually one of several types of meat are served, which may include turkey, Chicken, ham, roast beef, or lamb. There are often several courses, with special treats that are usually only eaten at Christmas.\nIn English-speaking countries, the traditional dessert is Christmas plum pudding. Nowadays these puddings are often bought from bakers, but many people make their own to a family recipe. The tradition came from the Middle Ages when the pudding was used to preserve some of the fruit from autumn until the mid-winter. A traditional pudding is baked six weeks before Christmas and is left tied up in a cloth or basin with a cloth covering, in a cool place. Stirring the pudding is sometimes a family tradition, with everyone making a wish as they stir. Traditionally a silver coin would be stirred into the pudding, to bring luck to the person who found it. Nowadays most coins cannot be used because they are not made of silver so taste horrible and may be poisonous. Some families use old coins or silver charms. On Christmas Day the pudding must be boiled in a pot for several hours. When it is served, the cloth is cut off, brandy is poured onto the pudding, and it is set on fire before it is carried to the table. Christmas crackers are used to decorate and are often opened prior to serving the dish or starter course. It is usually served with hard sauce.\nMany families have a Christmas cake or a special bread instead of a pudding (or as well as a pudding). These are very different depending on the country, but often have marzipan which is made from almonds and is traditional in many countries at Christmas. In France \u2018\u2019Buche de No\u00e4l\u2019\u2019 or gingerbread men and women are decorated and hung on the Christmas tree. In Scotland a pastry biscuit called shortbread is made and has become a popular tradition in many countries. A German tradition is \u2018\u2019pfeffernuss\u2019\u2019, spiced cookies rolled in powdered sugar. Other Christmas food includes fruit cakes, sultanas, ginger, Greek baklava, almonds, chocolates, caramel toffee, candy canes and cookies.\nMany families also prepare mulled wine which is warmed with cinnamon and nutmeg or egg nogs, a sweet drink made of milk, sugar, eggs, nutmeg and sometimes alcohol.\nIn the Southern Hemisphere, the traditional roast dinner is often replaced with cold cuts of meat, and served with salads. The first course might be prawn cocktail or a cold soup like borsch. The plum pudding might be served with ice cream. White wine and beer are both served cold (beer is kept in a refrigerator). Christmas dinner may be served on the veranda, or sometimes as a picnic.\nTree and decorations.\nIn most homes when Christmas is celebrated, people set up a Christmas tree in the house. This old Yuletide custom began in Germany as the \u201cTannenbaum\u201d (German for \u2018\u2019Fir Tree\u2019\u2019). These are traditionally evergreens, the best type being the Fir Tree which does not shed its needles or lose its fragrance. The tree may be a cut tree that is bought from a plantation or taken from the forest. Artificial trees are sometimes preferred to real trees. The Christmas tree is decorated with lights, shiny coloured balls, sparkly tinsel and other ornaments. A wreath of leaves or pine is often put on the front door of a house as a sign of welcome. Other plants that have special significance at Christmas are holly which is used as decoration and mistletoe which is hung in the centre of a room. The tradition is that people who meet under the mistletoe must kiss.\nMany people decorate their homes at Christmas time. These decorations and the Christmas tree are generally inside, but may be put where they can also be seen through a window by people passing by. In the mid 20th century there grew up a custom for decorating the outside of houses as well. These decorations may be just a few lights around the porch, or hundreds of lights and colourful Christmas figures decorating the whole house and garden. Some neighbourhoods hold competitions for the best-decorated house, and driving around the streets to look at them has become another family tradition.\nCards and presents.\nThe giving of gifts at Christmas comes from several different ideas. One is that God gave his son, Jesus, to the world at Christmas. There is also the story of the Wise Men who came to the baby Jesus with three gifts, gold, frankincense and myrrh. For many centuries it has been the custom for people to give small gifts at Christmas, and also to give generously to the poor and needy to help them through the winter. Another tradition has become linked to this one, and the result is the tradition of Santa Claus, or Father Christmas as he is sometimes called, and who is nowadays thought by many children to be the bringer of presents and happiness.\nIn the 4th century, in a Greek village that is now part of Turkey, there was a good man who would secretly given presents to the poor to help them. He became a bishop and is called Saint Nicholas. Over the centuries, he became a very popular saint and lots of churches were named after him. He was very popular in places where there were lots of sailors. One of those places was the Netherlands. In the Netherlands and many other European countries, presents are given on the feast of Saint Nicholas, 6 December. Traditionally, the presents are not big, and are sometimes hidden, or have a funny joke or poem that must be read. In many towns of Europe a man dressed in bishop\u2019s robes comes on a horse or in a boat, acting as St. Nicholas. His name was often shortened to Sante Claus, or Santa Claus in English.\nIn English speaking countries, where presents are usually given on Christmas Day, not 6 December, Santa Claus, (or Father Christmas) is usually thought of as coming on Christmas Night, when his magic sleigh is pulled across the sky by reindeer, and he comes into houses through the chimney. While in Europe, children put out their shoes for St. Nicholas, the English tradition is to hang up stockings (or long socks) in front of the fireplace. Santa Claus would traditionally fill the socks or shoes with nuts, raisins, chocolates and an orange. Nowadays children usually get much more expensive presents, and hang up pillow cases or have the presents in a big pile under the Christmas tree.\nAnother Christmas tradition is the sending of cards to friends and relatives. These contain warm greetings and may also have a letter telling all the things that have happened to the person or family during the year.\nPop culture.\nIn December, many Christmas movies are shown on television. Some of the most popular Christmas films are: \"Home Alone, The Grinch, Scrooge, The Polar Express, A Christmas Carol, Elf and The Nightmare Before Christmas.\"\nIn addition to movies, many Christmas songs are played on radios throughout Winter. Some of the most popular songs are: \"All I Want for Christmas Is You, Last Christmas,Santa Baby and Feliz Navidad, and White Christmas.\""}
+{"id": "3318", "revid": "17988", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3318", "title": "Adjective", "text": "An adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun. Nouns are words that name a place, a person, a thing, or an idea. An adjective is a word that gives more information about the noun that goes with it. It is a part of speech. \nOften, the adjective is before the noun it describes. Sometimes an adjective is not followed by a noun:\nAn adjective is a word that gives instant information about a noun to make a clear picture of the noun in the mind of the reader and create a feeling to the writer.\nComparative and superlative.\nSometimes there are different forms of the same adjective. If one joke makes a person laugh more than another joke, then that joke is funnier. This is called the comparative form. The day that is colder than any other is the coldest day. This is the superlative form of \"cold\". Some adjectives need additional words when we want to compare them. For instance, one car may be cheaper than another, but the second car may be more reliable (we use \"more reliable\", instead of \"reliabler\"). Reliable means worthy of trust.\nThe rule is:\nFor short adjectives ending in a consonant like \"cold,\" \"black,\" or \"fast,\" one adds the suffix er to make a comparison of greater magnitude. Example: \"The North Pole is colder than Florida.\" The greatest possible comparison is made by adding the suffix est. Example: \"The North Pole is the coldest place on the Earth.\" For long adjectives like intelligent, conscientious, comprehensive, one uses the word more to make a comparison of greater magnitude. Example: \"Children are more intelligent than adults.\" \nA superlative makes the greatest possible comparison. One uses the word most. Example: \"She is the most conscientious person I have ever known.\"\nNouns as noun modifiers.\nIn the English language, it is possible for a noun to modify (describe) another noun. Example: take the noun \"angel\" and the noun \"face.\" Put them together and the result is \"angel face.\" The first noun is acting as an adjective, because it is giving us information about the second noun.\nAdjectives and adverbs.\nAdjectives are words we use to describe the noun. Simple words like \"warm\" and \"fat\" are adjectives commonly used in writing. One can make adverbs from some adjectives by adding the suffix ly. Example: take the adjective \"beautiful,\" the adverb is beautifully. One can do it the other way around: take an adverb like \"presumably,\" the adjective is \"presumable\". \"Presumable innocence\" means the accused is assumed to be innocent until proven guilty.\nThe adjective \"guilty\" becomes the adverb \"guiltily\" and vice versa (the opposite), the adverb \"guiltily\" becomes the adjective \"guilty.\"\n100 Adjectives used in Basic English.\ntable \u2022 acid \u2022 angry \u2022 \u2022 beautiful \u2022 black \u2022 boiling \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 brown \u2022 \u2022 chemical \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 complex \u2022 \u2022 cut \u2022 deep \u2022 dependent \u2022 \u2022 elastic \u2022 electric \u2022 equal \u2022 fat \u2022 fertile \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 general \u2022 good \u2022 \u2022 gray \u2022 \u2022 happy \u2022 \u2022 healthy \u2022 high \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 like \u2022 living \u2022 long \u2022 male \u2022 married \u2022 material \u2022 medical \u2022 military \u2022 natural \u2022 necessary \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 past \u2022 \u2022 political \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 red \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 second \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 straight \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 sweet \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 true \u2022 violent \u2022 warm \u2022 wet \u2022 wide \u2022 wise \u2022 yellow \u2022 "}
+{"id": "3319", "revid": "1035196", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3319", "title": "Paper", "text": "Paper is a thin material of (mostly) wood fibres pressed together. People write on paper with a pencil or pen, and books are made of paper. Paper can absorb liquids such as water, so people can clean things with paper. There are many types of paper.\nThe pulp and paper industry comprises companies that use wood as raw material and produce pulp, paper, board and other cellulose-based products.\nPaper making.\nModern paper is normally made from wood pulp. Wood is ground up and mixed with water and other chemicals to make a thin liquid called \"paper pulp\". Paper pulp can be bleached to make paper more white, and dyes can be added to make colored paper. This pulp is pressed into sheets of paper. Printing is often done on paper before the paper is cut into sheets. Newsprint paper (newspaper) comes in a huge roll, and goes through the printing process as one continuous sheet. It is cut by a machine-driven guillotine blade later. Folding comes last, then packing for distribution. \nSometimes paper is made heavier and more glossy (shiny) by adding clay, and by 'milling' it. Milling is done by squeezing the paper through a series of rollers. Sometimes paper is made from used or waste paper: this is recycling.\nNot all paper is made from wood. Other kinds of fiber can be used. People still make paper from cotton, linen and hemp for special purposes.\nHistory of paper.\nWriting started long before the invention of paper. People wrote on many kinds of material. They wrote on cloth, on stone walls and on wood. In Mesopotamia the Sumerians wrote on clay tablets, many of which have survived today. In Europe, people wrote on vellum.\nFirst paper.\nMany centuries ago\u00a0\u2013\u00a0as early as the 3rd millennium BC (that's over 2000 BC)\u00a0\u2013\u00a0people in Egypt made a kind of paper from the papyrus plant. This is where the word 'paper' comes from. The people of Greece and Rome learned to do this too. The Romans wrote on parchment (made from animal skin), on waxed tablets and on wood (see Vindolanda).\nIn China 105 AD, the eunuch Cai Lun told his Emperor he had made paper. They had previously used bamboo and silk. The material used in this ancient paper included cotton rags, hemp, various plant fibres and old fish nets. The oldest existing paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a watchtower in the Great Wall of China. It dates to about 150 AD.p5 Even earlier paper (but with no writing on it) has been claimed: \"The oldest surviving piece of paper in the world is made of hemp fibers, discovered in 1957 in a tomb near Xian, China, and dates from between the years 140 and 87 BC\". Paper-making was regarded by the Chinese as so valuable that they kept it secret as long as they could.\nSpread of paper.\nPeople in Japan learned how to make paper with fibres of the mulberry tree, around 610 AD. This is called Japanese paper or \"Washi\". The Chinese invention spread to India, and then to the Middle East, and then to Italy.\nAn opportunity occurred after The Battle of Talas in 751. Then an Arab army captured soldiers of the Chinese. There were some paper makers among the captured soldiers. From them, paper-making spread throughout the Middle East. In 757, a paper mill was built at Samarkand. People learned to use linen as paper raw material and to use starch made from flour as an additive.\nThe Italians used hemp and linen rags. In 1276 the first Italian paper mill was built at Fabriano and, until the 14 century, Italy was a paper supplier in Europe. In 1282 the first watermark was introduced in Bologna.\nMachine-made paper.\nPaper was hard to make. It was cheaper than the old writing materials, but still expensive. A mechanical paper maker was conceived in France 1798, but invented in England. At least one paper mill was using them by 1812. Now the process was cheaper but the raw material was still expensive.\nIn 1840 Friedrich Gottlob Keller Invented a machine that could make pulp for paper out of wood fibres (instead of the expensive rag paper). Paper became cheap enough for everyone to buy. Around the same time, other inventions were made, like the pencil, the fountain pen, and a printing press that used steam power. With this new information technology, people wrote more letters, made more books and newspapers, and kept more records of what they did.\nToday, some of the largest paper-producing countries are China, USA, Canada, Finland, Sweden and Russia. Paper is produced in large factories called \"paper mills\". They produce hundreds of thousands of tons of paper each year.\nUses of paper.\nPaper is used for writing and printing. Books, magazines and newspapers are printed on paper.\nPaper is often used for money. Paper used for money is made in special ways. It does not use wood fiber. It is mostly cotton with additives to make it hard for people to print their own money. A piece of paper money is called a banknote, a bill or a note.\nPaper can be used for cleaning. Special forms of paper are used, such as paper towels, facial tissues or toilet paper.\nPretty paper can be used as decoration. It can be pasted onto the walls of a room; this is called wallpaper. Paper can be used to wrap gifts. This is called wrapping paper or gift wrap.\nSome kinds of paper are strong and can be used in boxes and other packaging material. Sometimes several layers of paper are held together with glue, to make cardboard."}
+{"id": "3321", "revid": "581219", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3321", "title": "Materials", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3322", "revid": "968255", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3322", "title": "Physical power", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3323", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3323", "title": "Power", "text": "Power has different meanings depending on the context:"}
+{"id": "3325", "revid": "10352364", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3325", "title": "States of matter", "text": "There are four common states of matter (or \"phases\") in the universe: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.\nThe state of matter affects a substance's properties. Examples of those properties include density, viscosity (how well it flows), malleability (how easy it is to bend), and conductivity. Changes between states of matter are often reversible.\nCommon states of matter.\nSolids.\nIn a \"solid\", the positions of atoms are fixed relative to each other over a long time. That is due to the cohesion or \"friction\" between molecules. This cohesion is provided by metallic, covalent or ionic bonds. Only solids can be pushed on by a force without changing shape, which means that they can be resistant to deformation. Solids also tend to be strong enough to hold their own shape in a container. Solids are generally denser than liquids. Solid becoming a gas is called sublimation.\nLiquids.\nIn a \"liquid\", molecules are attracted to each other strongly enough to keep them in contact, but not strongly enough to hold a particular structure. The molecules can continually move with respect to each other. This means that liquids can flow smoothly, but not as smoothly as gases. Liquids will tend to take the shape of a container that they are in. Liquids are generally less dense than solids, but denser than gas.\nGases.\nIn a \"gas\", the chemical bonds are not strong enough to hold atoms or molecules together, and from this a gas is a collection of independent, unbonded molecules which interact mainly by collision. Gases tend to take the shape of their container, and are less dense than both solids and liquids. Gases have weaker forces of attraction than solids and liquids. Gas becoming a solid directly is called deposition.\nGases can sometimes turn directly into solids without passing through a fluid stage. That is called desublimation. You see it in the hoary frost which forms on window-panes in cold climates. It is the reverse of sublimation.\nPlasmas.\n\"Plasmas\" are gases that have so much energy that electrons of an atom cannot stay in orbit around one atomic nucleus. The atomic ions and free electrons mix around like a hot soup.\nBecause the positive and negative charged particles are not stuck together, plasma is a good conductor of electricity. For example, air is not good at conducting electricity. However, in a bolt of lightning, the atoms in air get so much energy that they no longer can hold on to their electrons, and become a plasma for a brief time. Then an electric current is able to flow through the plasma, making the lightning.\nPlasma is the most common state of matter in the universe. Both stars and the interstellar medium are mostly made of plasma.\nPhase changes.\nPhases of matter can be changed by a number of things. The most common ones are temperature and pressure. Substances usually become a gas at warm temperatures and/or low pressures, become a solid at cool temperatures, and become a\nplasma at extremely hot temperatures. Substances often become liquid in between solid and gas, but when the pressure is very low (such as the vacuum of outer space) many substances skip the liquid phase, going directly from solid to gas or vice versa. Scientists have created graphs called phase change diagrams to show the relationship between pressure, temperature, and phase of many substances.\nWhen a solid becomes a liquid, it is called melting. When a liquid becomes a solid, it is called freezing. When a solid becomes a gas, it is called sublimation. When a gas becomes a solid, it is called desublimation. When a liquid becomes a gas, it is called evaporation. When a gas becomes a liquid, it is called condensation.\nThe freezing point and the melting point are said to be the same, because any increase in temperature from that point will cause the substance to melt, while any drop in temperature will cause it to freeze. Likewise, the vaporization and condensation points (or the sublimation and desublimation points) always match. In most substances, as the pressure increases, the vaporization/condensation point also increases, or vice versa. For example, the boiling point of water decreases as you go up a mountain, because the air pressure is lower. The relationship for freezing and melting can go in different directions depending on the substance.\nOther states.\nMany other states of matter can exist under special conditions, including strange matter, supersolids, and possibly string-net liquids. Scientist work on experiments at very high or very low temperatures to learn more about phases of matter.\nCondensates.\nBose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates are phases of matter that apply to particles called bosons and fermions, respectively. (More than one boson can exist in the same state at the same time. Only one fermion can exist in the same state at the same time). Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates occur at incredibly low temperatures. All of the particles in these condensates begin to act like one big quantum state, so they have almost no friction or electrical resistance.\nDegenerate matter.\nWhen the core of a star runs out of light elements (like hydrogen or helium) to sustain fusion, the core will collapse into a very dense state called \"degenerate matter\". Everything is packed very tightly and can barely move. If the star isn't too heavy, it becomes a white dwarf. In a heavier star, the pressure is so intense that even the protons and electrons are crushed, and it becomes a neutron star.\nQuark-gluon plasmas.\nThe protons and neutrons that make up atoms are made of even smaller things called quarks (which are \"glued\" together by things called \"gluons\"). At incredibly high temperatures over 2 trillion Kelvin, quarks and gluons turn into another state of matter. Humans can make a little bit of quark-gluon plasma in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, but it doesn't last long before cooling down.\nSupercritical fluids.\nWhen a substance has enough temperature and pressure at the same time, called the critical point, you can't tell the difference between very dense gas and very energetic liquid. This is a supercritical fluid, and it behaves like both liquid and gas.\nSuperfluids.\nSuperfluids, on the other hand, only happen at very low temperatures, and only for a few special substances like liquid helium. Superfluids can do things that regular liquids cannot, like flowing up the side of a bowl and getting out."}
+{"id": "3326", "revid": "1444177", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3326", "title": "Perimeter", "text": "In geometry, perimeter is the distance around a flat object. For example, all four sides of a square rhombus have the same length, so a rhombus with side length 2 inches would have a perimeter of 8 inches (2+2+2+2=8).\nFor a polygon, the perimeter is simply the sum of the length of all of its sides. For a rectangle, the perimeter is twice the sum of its length and width (formula_1). Perimeter can also be calculated for other planar figures, such as circle, sector and ellipse.\nReal-life objects have perimeters as well. A football field, including the end zones, is 360 feet long and 160 feet wide. This means that the perimeter of the field is 360+160+360+160=1040 feet.\nThe perimeter of a circle is usually called the circumference. It may be calculated by multiplying the diameter times \"Pi\". Pi is a constant which is approximately equal to 3.14159; however, the places to the right of the decimal are endless. The number of places used depends on the accuracy required for the result."}
+{"id": "3328", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3328", "title": "Nation", "text": "A nation is a group of people who share the same culture, history, language or ethnicity. The word can also be used for the population of a country.\nThe word \"nation\" comes from a Latin language word meaning \"birth\" or \"place of birth.\" The adjective is national.\nSome nations are people with a particular belief, such as the Vatican City, or ethnic group, such as Armenia. Others share an idea, such as Democracy in the United States or Communism in China. \nSome nations are controlled by a small minority who have all the power, such as Saudi Arabia, who hold the nation together with the use of this power.\nSome of these may also be combined. The highest lawful authority of most nations is a constitution, which is a document which states clearly what kinds of power the rulers have and how new laws must be made. Many others are ruled by a single person who holds an \"office\" (position), such as a King or Pope, or from a long legal tradition without an official Constitution, such as the United Kingdom.\nEtymology and terminology.\nThe English word nation comes from Middle English \"nacioun\" (around 1300), meaning \"a group of people with the same ancestors and language.\" It came from Old French \"nacion\" (12th century), which meant \"birth, family, relatives, or homeland,\" and from Latin \"natio\" (from the verb \"nasci\" meaning \"to be born\"). In Latin, \"natio\" meant \"birth,\" \"origin,\" or \"a group of people from the same background,\" such as a tribe or race. It literally meant \"that which has been born.\" The word comes from \"natus\" (past participle of \"nasci\") and is related to the Proto-Indo-European root *\"gene\"\u2013, which means \"to give birth\" or \"to create a family or tribe.\"\nIn Latin, \"natio\" referred to children born from the same parents or a human group with the same origin. Cicero used \"natio\" to mean \"a people.\"\nNations in history.\nMost scholars agree that nations are a modern idea that developed mainly after the 18th century. However, some historians argue that forms of nations existed earlier, in the medieval period or even antiquity.\nHistorian Adrian Hastings claimed that nations and nationalism mostly grew from Christian traditions. He saw the Jewish people as the first true nation because they kept their identity for centuries despite losing political power, which later inspired modern Zionism and the state of Israel. Similarly, Anthony D. Smith described the Jews during the late Second Temple period as an early example close to a nation.\nSusan Reynolds argued that many medieval European kingdoms, like England, had national features but only included wealthy, literate people in political life. Hastings added that English kings, especially Alfred the Great, used religious texts and the English language to unite people against Norse invaders. Nationalism in England grew stronger after the Bible was fully translated into English in the late 1300s. Critics like John Breuilly and Patrick J. Geary warn that using the same names over time doesn\u2019t guarantee the idea stayed the same.\nFlorin Curta pointed to the medieval Bulgarian nation as another example. Founded in the 7th century, it became a center of Slavic culture with the creation of the Cyrillic alphabet and Orthodox Christianity, helping form a shared identity among Bulgarians and Slavs. This identity helped them survive as a distinct people for centuries.\nAnthony Kaldellis suggested the Byzantine Empire was a medieval nation-state. Historian Azar Gat also argued that China, Korea, and Japan were nations by the European Middle Ages.\nEarly modern nations.\nIn his article \"The Mosaic Moment\", sociologist Philip S. Gorski argues that the first modern nation-state was the Dutch Republic, which he says was formed through a modern form of nationalism based on biblical nationalism. Diana Muir Appelbaum later expanded this idea, applying it to several new Protestant nation-states formed in the sixteenth century. Anthony D. Smith made a similar argument in his books \"Chosen Peoples\" and \"Myths and Memories of the Nation\".\nIn \"Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity\", Liah Greenfeld argued that nationalism began in England by 1600, making England \u201cthe first nation in the world\u201d.\nSmith also noted that building a national identity is both cultural and political. He argued that it can reshape political regimes and change borders.\nSocial Science.\nThere are three main views on the origins of nations:\nThis view sees nations as social creations. Benedict Anderson called them \"imagined communities\"\u2014people feel connected even if they never meet. Shared stories and values help create this unity, even if it\u2019s partly \u201cinvented\u201d.\nEarlier scholars like Ernest Renan said a nation is \"a daily referendum\"\u2014it exists through shared will. Carl Darling Buck described nationality as a feeling of unity based on different factors like politics or culture.\nLater, two types of nations were described:\nDebate about a practical figure for nations.\nThere is ongoing debate about whether nations will continue to be the main way we organize the world or if alternatives are emerging.\nThe clash of civilizations theory, by Samuel P. Huntington, argues that future conflicts will be based on cultural and religious identities, not ideologies. He presented this idea in a 1992 lecture, expanded it in a 1993 article in \"Foreign Affairs\", and later in his 1996 book \"The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order\". He argued against Francis Fukuyama\u2019s idea that liberal democracy marked the \u201cend of history\u201d.\nAccording to Huntington, while ideological conflicts have faded, cultural ones remain strong.\nPostnationalism is the idea that nations and national identities are becoming less important. This can be seen in the growth of globalization, multinational corporations, supranational bodies like the United Nations and European Union, and the influence of the Internet. Still, national identity and citizenship often remain important.\nScholar Jan Zielonka argues that the future may resemble a kind of \"neo-medievalism\"\u2014with overlapping powers, mixed identities, and unclear borders\u2014unlike the traditional idea of states as having clear borders and strong centralized power."}
+{"id": "3331", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3331", "title": "Matrix", "text": "Matrix can mean:"}
+{"id": "3332", "revid": "543583", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3332", "title": "Metal", "text": "Some chemical elements are called metals. Most elements in the periodic table are metals. These elements usually have the following traits:\nMost metals are solid at room temperature, but this does not have to be the case. Mercury is liquid. Alloys are mixtures, where at least one part of the mixture is a metal. Examples of metals are aluminium, copper, iron, tin, gold, lead, silver, titanium, uranium, and zinc. Well-known alloys include bronze and steel.\nThe study of metals is called metallurgy.\nThe ways that metals are alike (properties of metals).\nMost metals are hard, shiny, they feel heavy and they melt only when they are heated at very high temperatures. Lumps of metal will make a bell-like sound when they are hit with something heavy (they are sonorous).\nHeat and electricity can easily pass through a metal (it is conductive). A lump of metal can be forged into a thin sheet (it is malleable) or can be pulled into thin wires (it is ductile). Metal is hard to pull apart (it has a high tensile strength) or smash (it has a high compressive strength). If you push on a long, thin piece of metal, it will bend, not break (it is elastic). Except for cesium, copper, and gold, metals have a neutral, silvery color.\nNot all metals have these properties. Mercury, for instance, is liquid at room temperature, lead is very soft, and heat and electricity do not pass through iron as well as they do through copper.\nUse of metals.\nMetals are very useful to people. They are used to make tools because they can be strong and easy to shape. Iron and steel have been used to make bridges, buildings, or ships.\nSome metals are used to make items like coins because they are hard and will not wear away quickly. For example, copper (which is shiny and red in color), aluminium (which is shiny and white), gold (which is yellow and shiny), and silver and nickel (also white and shiny).\nSome metals, like steel, can be made sharp and stay sharp, so they can be used to make knives, axes or razors.\nRare metals with high value, like gold, silver and platinum are often used to make jewellery. Metals are also used to make fasteners and screws. Pots used for cooking can be made from copper, aluminium, steel or iron. Lead is very heavy and dense and can be used as ballast in boats to stop them from turning over, or to protect people from ionizing radiation.\nAlloys of metals.\nMany things that are made of metals may, in fact, be made of mixtures of at least one metal with either other metals, or with non-metals. These mixtures are called alloys. Some common alloys are:\nPeople first began making things from metal over 9000 years ago, when they discovered how to get copper from its ore. They then learned how to make a harder alloy, bronze, by adding tin to the copper. About 3000 years ago, they discovered iron. By adding small amounts of carbon to iron, they found that they could make a particularly useful alloy \u2013 steel.\nMetals in chemistry.\nIn chemistry, metal is a word for a group of chemical elements that have certain properties. It is easy for the atoms of a metal to lose an electron and become positive ions, or cations. In this way, metals are not like the other two kinds of elements - the nonmetals and the metalloids. Most elements on the periodic table are metals.\nOn the periodic table, we can draw a zigzag line from the element boron (symbol B) to the element polonium (symbol Po). The elements that this line passes through are the metalloids. The elements that are above and to the right of this line are the nonmetals. The rest of the elements are the metals.\nMost of the properties of metals are due to the fact that the atoms in the metal do not hold onto their electrons very tightly. Each atom is separated from the others by a thin layer of valence electrons.\nHowever, some metals are different. An example is the metal sodium. It is soft, melts at a low temperature, and is so light, it floats on water. People should not try this though, because another property of sodium is that it explodes when it touches water.\nMost metals are chemically stable, and do not react easily, but some do. The reactive ones are the alkali metals like sodium (symbol Na) and the alkaline earth metals like calcium (symbol Ca). When metals do react, they often react with oxygen. The oxides of metals are basic. The oxides of nonmetals are acidic.\nCompounds, which have metal atoms combined with other atoms to make molecules, are probably the most common substances on Earth. For example, common salt is a compound of sodium.\nMetals in history.\nThe use of metals is said to be one of the things that makes people different from animals. Before they used metals, people made tools from stones, wood, and animal bones. This is now called the Stone Age.\nNo-one knows when the first metal was found and used. It was probably what is called native copper, which is sometimes found in large lumps on the ground. People learned to make this into copper tools and other things, although, for a metal, it is quite soft. They learned smelting to get copper from common ores. When copper was melted over fire, people learned how to make an alloy called bronze, which is much harder and stronger than copper. People made knives and weapons from bronze. This time in human history, after about 3300\u00a0BC is often called the Bronze Age, that is, the time of bronze tools and weapons.\nAround the year 1200\u00a0BC some people learned to make iron tools and weapons. These were even harder and stronger than bronze and this was an advantage in war. The time of iron tools and weapons is now called the Iron Age\nMetals have been very important in human history and civilization. Iron and steel were important in the making of machines. Gold and silver were used as money in order to allow people to trade, that is, exchange goods and services over long distances.\nMetals in astronomy.\nIn astronomy, a metal is any element other than hydrogen or helium. This is because these two elements (and sometimes lithium) are the only ones that form outside stars. In the sky, a spectrometer can see the signs of metals and show the astronomer the metals in a star.\nBiological role in humans.\nIn humans, some metals are essential nutrients like iron, cobalt, and zinc. Some metals can be harmless such as ruthenium, silver, and indium. Some metals can be toxic in large amounts. Other metals such as cadmium, mercury, and lead, are very poisonous. Sources of metal poisoning include mining, tailings, industrial wastes, agricultural runoff, occupational exposure, paints and treated timber."}
+{"id": "3333", "revid": "1246765", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3333", "title": "German", "text": "German can mean different things.\nWhen talking about a person, it can mean someone who lives in Germany, or someone who thinks of himself or herself as 'German'."}
+{"id": "3334", "revid": "1541887", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3334", "title": "Indonesia", "text": "Indonesia, () officially the Republic of Indonesia; ) is a nation in Southeast Asia and Oceania. As the biggest archipelago country in the world, Indonesia has 17,504 islands. The most important islands of Indonesia are Java, Bali, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Sumatra. The capital of Indonesia is Jakarta, on the island of Java, but there are plans to change it to Nusantara. The current president is Prabowo Subianto. Modern Indonesia began on the 17th of August 1945. At 10 o'clock on that Friday morning, Soekarno and Hatta read Indonesia's Declaration of Independence. Indonesia's Independence Day is a national holiday.\nIndonesia is the fourth most populated country in the world with 238,452,952 people (2004 est.). Half of the population lives in Java. There are 111 people per km. The land area is , or slightly smaller than Mexico. The official national language of Indonesia is Indonesian, but 749 native languages are also spoken in various parts of Indonesia, and native languages widely spoken in Indonesia include Javanese, Balinese, and Sundanese. Indonesia's neighbors are Australia to the south, Singapore to the northwest, and Philippines to the northeast. Other nearby countries are Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and East Timor which share land borders with Indonesia. \nIndonesia has the most active volcanoes of any country in the world. It is also close to fault lines so there are many earthquakes and tsunamis.\nMost people in Indonesia follow Islam, but Indonesia is not an Islamic country by law. Indonesia has the largest Muslim population on earth. Other religions Indonesians follow include Christianity (Protestanism and Catholicism), Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism.\nHistory.\nPre World War II.\nIndonesia has a written history as far back as the 7th century and a much longer oral history. Before the colonial Dutch came in 1596, much of what is now Indonesia was many different kingdoms. Often they were fighting each other. \nIndonesia was colonized by Somaliathe Netherlands in the 17th century and renamed the Dutch East Indies. During this time, the Dutch captured thousands of Malagasy people from Madagascar and forced them to work on pepper plantations in their colonies as slaves. The Dutch treated the islands like their property until World War II. \nDuring World War II, the Japanese drove out the Dutch and took control of Indonesia. After Japan surrendered in the war, Indonesia claimed its independence on the 17th of August 1945. The proclamation was read by Sukarno and Hatta in Jakarta. Sukarno later became Indonesia's first President and Mohammad Hatta became Indonesia\u2019s first vice President.\nBritish troops came into Indonesia to restore peace and to rescue Europeans who had been prisoners of the Japanese. The British troops also had the job of shipping home 300,000 Japanese troops. The Indonesian Republicans fought the British troops, because it was expected that the British would give Indonesia back to the Dutch. The Indonesian Republicans killed many of the Japanese prisoners, before they could be sent home. They also began killing people from minority groups who might be against the new Republic. Many Europeans and Indonesian Europeans people were killed. Many Chinese business people and other minority groups were killed or made homeless. In Java there were many thousands of homeless people.\nIn 1946, the Dutch came back. When the British left in 1946, there were 55,000 Dutch soldiers in Indonesia. The Dutch action was called \"Operatie Product\" or \"Politionele Acties\". The Indonesian Republicans fought the Dutch until 1949. But the Indonesian Republicans were badly organised and often fought among themselves. As the Dutch forced the Republican soldiers out of different areas, they moved in more troops until there were 100,000 Dutch troops. The Dutch refused to obey the United Nations who said they should stop the fighting in Indonesia. The United States of America organised for meetings between Dutch and Indonesian leaders. The Dutch finally agreed to recognise Indonesia's independence in November 1949.\nBecause of the fighting and the bad organisation, it took a long time for the country to become peaceful, and for the economy to get better. Many Indonesian soldiers had died, between 45,000 and 100,000. Also, a very large number of civilians, Indonesians, Europeans and Chinese, had died; perhaps as many as 100,000.\nSukarno was an early leader of Indonesia. Suharto followed his rule.\nProvinces.\nIndonesia has 38 provinces, and nine of them have special status. Each province has its own legislature and governor. The provinces are divided into regencies (\"kabupaten\") and cities (\"kota\"). These are further divided into districts (\"kecamatan\"), and again into village groupings (either \"desa\" or \"kelurahan\"). \nIndonesian provinces and their capitals\u00a0\u2013 listed by region\nSumatra\nJava\nLesser Sunda Islands\nKalimantan\nSulawesi\nMaluku Islands\nWestern New Guinea\nPeople and culture.\nThere are people of many different cultural groups living in Indonesia, has more than 700 ethnic groups. It is affected by Indians, Chinese people, Arabs, Malays and Europeans. There are many dances in Indonesia too, like the Piring and Payung dances of West Sumatra, the Gandrung dance of Java and the Saman dance of Aceh. The Javan hawk-eagle is the national bird. Indonesia is a popular destination to travel to experience the new culture and beautiful land scape."}
+{"id": "3335", "revid": "581219", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3335", "title": "Properties", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3336", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3336", "title": "Property", "text": "Property is something that is owned by someone. If someone buys a car, the car becomes their property. People who deal with buying or selling real estate will often talk about \"properties\", meaning houses, apartments, offices, etc. Any works that are copyrighted are also another example of a property."}
+{"id": "3337", "revid": "105299", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3337", "title": "Crusade", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3340", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3340", "title": "Renegades", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3343", "revid": "1222750", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3343", "title": "Cefn Druids A.F.C.", "text": "Cefn Druids Football Club (they used to be called NEWI Cefn Druids and Flexsys Cefn Druids) are a Welsh football (soccer) team.\nThey last played in the Cymru North, and used to play in the Cymru Premier."}
+{"id": "3344", "revid": "1222750", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3344", "title": "Aberystwyth Town F.C.", "text": "Aberystwyth Town Football Club are a Welsh football (soccer) team.\nThe club was started in 1884. They play at the Park Avenue stadium in Aberystwyth. They play in the Cymru Premier. They came third in the Welsh league in 1992 but have only had success at a regional level."}
+{"id": "3346", "revid": "487619", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3346", "title": "German language", "text": "German (German: \"Deutsch\") is a West Germanic language. It is spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg; natively by around 100 million people. It is the most spoken first language within European Union. There are some people who speak German in Belgium, the Netherlands, France and Northern Italy. There are people who speak German in many countries, including the United States and Canada, where many people emigrated from Germany. It is also spoken in Eastern Europe, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia. \nGerman is a part of the West Germanic language family and is much like English and Dutch. Much of the vocabulary in German is related to English, but the grammar is more complicated.\nGerman has a system of cases, and when helping verbs are used, the main part of the verb must be moved to the end of the sentence. For example, \"Someone has stolen my car\" is \"Jemand hat mein Auto gestohlen\" (\"Someone has my car stolen\"), and \"Someone called me last night\" is \"Jemand hat mich letzte Nacht angerufen\" (\"Someone has me last night called\").\nIn writing, every noun must start with a capital letter. German is the only language that still has that rule, but Danish and English did so a long time ago.\nStandard German is an official language in Switzerland, but the Swiss dialect of German is difficult to understand for native speakers from Germany and even for Swiss who are not native to speaking German. One reason that the dialects are still so different today is that even if Switzerland adopted Standard German, mostly as a written standard, German Swiss in World War II wanted to separate themselves from the Nazis by choosing to speak dialect over the Standard German.\nSwiss German also has some differences in spelling, for example, the letter \"\u00df\", which is used only in German, is replaced by \"ss\".\nGerman numbers.\nGerman numbers are similar to their English counterparts. Like most languages, the German number system is based mainly on the first 10 numbers. They occur over and over throughout all the higher numbers. However, there is one big difference. Numbers like 21, 45 and 98 have the single digit first, with \"und\" connecting it to the tens as individual words, for example, \"einundzwanzig, f\u00fcnfundvierzig und achtundneunzig.\" \nReferences.\nNotes"}
+{"id": "3347", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3347", "title": "Flexsys Cefn Druids F.C.", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3349", "revid": "10185312", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3349", "title": "Mississippi River", "text": "The Mississippi River is a river in the United States. It is the 11th longest river in the world. Its largest city is Memphis, Tennessee. \nThe name \"Mississippi\" comes from a Native American name that means \"big river\". The source of the Mississippi is Lake Itasca in Minnesota, near the border with Canada. The Mississippi flows south through the middle of the United States. It flows through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi. The mouth of the Mississippi is in the state of Louisiana, south of the city of New Orleans. The Mississippi flows into the Gulf of Mexico. \nAt the end of the Mississippi there is a zone in the Gulf of Mexico where very few animals can survive comfortably because of the fertilizer and other chemicals that run off of farms into the river and its tributaries. The rivers then carry them into the gulf.\nTransportation.\nThe Mississippi has been very important for transportation in the history of the United States. In the 1800s, many steamboats traveled on the Mississippi River. St. Louis, Missouri, Memphis, Tennessee, and New Orleans were important port cities.\nTributaries.\nThe Mississippi has many large tributaries, or rivers that flow into it. The watershed of the Mississippi covers much of the United States. This means that the Mississippi and its tributaries drain much of the United States.\nSome important tributaries of the Mississippi are (listed from the source to the mouth of the river):\nThe Mississippi River in books.\nA big part of the book \"Huckleberry Finn\" by Mark Twain is set on the Mississippi River. Twain also wrote a book called \"Life on the Mississippi\", which had some stories about how he used to work on a steamboat."}
+{"id": "3350", "revid": "1338660", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3350", "title": "Tributary", "text": "A tributary of a river is another river that flows into it. If one river flows into a second river, then the first river is a tributary of the second river. A tributary is a body of water that flows into another body of water.\nThe opposite of a tributary is a distributary. A distributary is a river that branches off from the main flow of water, for example in a river delta."}
+{"id": "3351", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3351", "title": "Missouri River", "text": "The Missouri River is a river in the western United States. It is a tributary of the Mississippi River. It is longer than the Mississippi River. It is, in fact, the longest river in North America.\nGeography.\nFor most of its course, the Missouri flows across the Great Plains, one of the driest parts of North America.\nThe source of the Missouri River is in the Rocky Mountains, in the state of Montana. The Missouri flows eastward, across Montana, south of the border with Canada. It enters the state of North Dakota and then it turns south. It flows through South Dakota. Then it flows past Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, and Kansas.\nNear the city of Kansas City, Missouri, the Missouri turns eastward into the state of Missouri. It flows eastward across the state of Missouri. It joins the Mississippi just north of the city of Saint Louis, Missouri.\nThe Missouri has many important tributaries, including the Yellowstone River, the Platte River, and the Kansas River.\nHistory.\nThe Missouri was very important for the Native Americans who lived on the Great Plains. It was also very important in the history of the United States. The Missouri was used as the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804-1806. In the 19th century, the Missouri was very important in the North American fur trade and for transportation of army troops and supplies as well as general transportation and trade as the West was settled.\nNicknames.\nThe nickname of the Missouri is \"Big Muddy\", because it has a lot of silt."}
+{"id": "3352", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3352", "title": "Meaning of life", "text": "Many religions, viewpoints, and creative artists have tried to find the meaning of life, but have no sensible answer. Some people say that we will never know what the meaning of life is. Many religions claim to offer some answers. There are also sets of ideas called philosophies which try to answer this question. There are also artists who paint or create sculptures to try expressing life. There are musicians who write music and writers who write stories that try to explain life. \nMany have different opinions on what the meaning is. Some say life is a war zone where we are the soldiers fighting in that war for survival. Some think it is all about the relationships that we make in our life. Some people say that life is full of violence and hatred but some say that life is full of hope and happiness. Still, other people say that the meaning of life is to achieve the goals you set in life. According to Douglas Adams, the answer to the question is 42. The biological answer is to have children, which is to pass on your genes. Others say the meaning of life is simply to live your life to the fullest.\nSome say, however, the meaning of life is simply to give life a meaning. However, life can also be an illusion, or maybe a mere mirror of a different universe. Maybe we really don't have any control over our or the universe's actions, since we are all just imitating a different universe. We can never really know. Philosophies such as nihilism and absurdism deny that life has any meaning.\nOr maybe the true meaning of life is to live it completely how you want to, then find out the meaning of it at the end. The meaning could be unique to all of us.\nOthers, like Solomon, argue that 'life is useless'. (Ecclesiastes 1:2) "}
+{"id": "3354", "revid": "68157", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3354", "title": "Drainage basin", "text": "Drainage basin is a geographic term about rivers. It is also called catchment, catchment area, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin, and water basin.\nIt is an area of land. All water that falls on that land flows into one river. It can flow directly into the river or go through tributaries (smaller rivers that flow into the bigger river) first. \nOne river can drain a large area. For example, more than half of the United States is drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries. The Amazon basin is similarly large.\nRiver basins are an open system with inputs and, outputs. Water comes in as precipitation and goes out as discharge.\nWatershed.\nThis term \"watershed\" can have two main meanings:\nThere are also a number of figurative meanings as a metaphor."}
+{"id": "3355", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3355", "title": "Great Plains", "text": "The Great Plains is a large space of level land or prairie in the middle and western parts of North America. It is a steppe or grassland.\nThe western boundary is the Rocky Mountains. In the east, the Great Plains grassland becomes the tallgrass of the Mississippi River basin. The prairie is (in whole or part) in eleven U.S. states, and in the southern parts of three Canadian provinces.\nIn the Great Plains, summers are hot and humid, but winters are cold. Bison used to number millions, and were the main food for people there. Now the area is mainly sown with cereal crops which feed cattle and people."}
+{"id": "3356", "revid": "314538", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3356", "title": "Mythology", "text": "A myth is a story about the remote past which is considered true within the society in which it is told. Creation myths take place long ago, during the first existing period of time: the primordial age. \n\"Legend\" refers to the collected myths of a group of peopletheir body of stories which they tell to explain nature, history, and customs. It can also refer to the study of such myths.\nMyths are often associated with religion or spirituality and can be very important to those who believe in them. \nCharacteristics.\nMythological characters are normally non-human; they can be gods, demigods, and other supernatural figures. Some myths are used to explain how a particular reality came into existence, how a society works, and why it is structured the way it is.\nMyths are different from folktales and legends. The definitions of these are not agreed upon, but myths are generally understood to be true, about the remote past, and containing non-human characters. In contrast, legends usually feature human characters and folktales are understood as fiction.\nThe word myth is often used to mean \"false\". For this reason, some religious people object to their beliefs being called myths and some scholars choose to avoid it in favour of other terms. Other scholars choose to call all religious stories myths in order to avoid treating one religion as more important or true than another.\nContent of myths.\nAll cultures have developed their own mythology over time. Mythology includes the legends of their history, their religions, their heroes, and their stories of how the world was created. These stories have a great symbolic power, and this may be a major reason why they survive as long as they do, sometimes for thousands of years.\nThe main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods, or supernatural humans, while legends generally feature humans as their main characters. Many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the \"Iliad\", \"Odyssey\", and \"Aeneid\". \nMyths are often endorsed by rulers and priests, and they can be closely linked to religion or spirituality. In fact, many societies group their myths, legends, and history together, considering myths to be true accounts of their remote past.\nOften, myths explain how a society's customs, institutions and taboos were established and sanctified. Folktales are different: the people who tell them know they're fiction. As stories spread to other cultures or as faiths change, however, myths can come to be considered folktales. Sometimes myths and legends get merged. Their divine characters get recast as humans or as demihumans (such as giants, elves, and faeries).\nCreation myths.\n\"See the main article: Creation myth\"\nCreation myths take place in some early primordial age when the world had not reached its present form. \nCreation myths describe the \"official\" belief as to how world was created. These myths differ greatly between societies, as any collection of myths clearly shows. Over the last three centuries, the power of myths over the minds of people has been challenged by the growth of science.\nHistorians' views on myths.\nMany historians think myths are about actual events that have become connected with strong symbolic meaning. \nOne way of thinking about this process is to imagine 'myths' as lying at the far end of an imaginary line. At one end of the line is 'dispassionate [unemotional] account', and 'legendary occurrence' or 'mythical status' is near the other end. \nAs an event progresses toward the 'mythical' end of this line or continuum, the way people think, feel and talk about the event changes. It may gain greater historical significance while the 'facts' become less important. By the time one arrives at the mythical end of the line, the story has \"taken on a life of its own\" and the facts of the original event have become almost unimportant."}
+{"id": "3357", "revid": "190121", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3357", "title": "Minnesota River", "text": "The Minnesota River is a river in the United States. It is in the northern United States, in the state of Minnesota. It is a tributary of the Mississippi River. It is about 534 km long.\nThe source of the river is a lake in western Minnesota. The lake is called Big Stone Lake. The lake is on the border between the state of Minnesota and the state of South Dakota. From its source, the Minnesota flows southeast. At Mankato, it turns northeast. It joins the Mississippi just south of the cities of Saint Paul and Minneapolis.\nThe Minnesota River was formed after the last ice age in North America."}
+{"id": "3358", "revid": "10294900", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3358", "title": "List of mythologies", "text": "Mythology is the collection of myths for a culture. A myth is a story or series of stories used to explain the world around you and describe what is happening, such as why weather happens. Myths usually have heroes, gods, and creatures that are bigger or more fantastic than real life, or sometimes just normal people doing amazing things. Some myths try to explain the natural world. One example is the Greek myth of Arachne. She believed that she could weave far better than anyone else, including the goddess Athena. So, Athena challenged Arachne to a weaving contest. Arachne lost, then was turned into a spider. This myth explains why spiders weave webs."}
+{"id": "3359", "revid": "293183", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3359", "title": "Wisconsin River", "text": "The Wisconsin River is a river in the United States. It is a tributary of the Mississippi River. It is located in the state of Wisconsin. It is approximately 692 km long.\nThe source of the Wisconsin is in the forests of northern Wisconsin. The source is a small lake on the border between Wisconsin and Michigan. The river flows south across Wisconsin. It flows through a plain made by a glacier during the last ice age. It passes the cities of Wausau and Stevens Point.\nIn southern Wisconsin, the river meets a moraine. The moraine was made during the last ice age. The river enters a beautiful gorge, called the Wisconsin Dells. North of the city of Madison, the river turns to the west. It flows west through the hills of southwest Wisconsin. It joins the Mississippi 15 km south of the city of Prairie du Chien.\nThe river is an important source of hydroelectric power."}
+{"id": "3361", "revid": "640760", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3361", "title": "Alaska", "text": "Alaska (), officially the State of Alaska, is a state in the United States. It is in the northwest corner of North America near Asia (Russia), making it the nearest U.S. state and overall country's jurisdiction to Asian continent. \nAlaska, together with Hawaii, does not touch the mainland U.S. consisting of its 48 other states. It has borders with the Canadian territory of Yukon to the east and the Canadian province of British Columbia to the southeast, the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the Bering Sea, and the Bering Strait.\nThe United States bought Alaska from Chukotka Autonomous Okrug on March 30, 1867. This was called the Alaska Purchase. This prevented Russia from having land on continental North America. Alaska cost $7.2 million. Today, that would be $120 million. The price was about $0.02 per acre ($4.74/km2). \nAlaska is the biggest state in the United States. It is the third least populated state. It has the lowest population density of all the states. About half of the population of Alaska lives in the Anchorage metropolitan area. As of the 2020 census, 731,158 people live in Alaska.\nAlaska became an organized (or incorporated) territory on May 11, 1912. It became the 49th state on January 3, 1959.\nThe name \"Alaska\" comes from the Aleut word \"alaxsaq\". This means \"the mainland\" or \"the object towards which the action of the sea is directed.\" The land is also called Alyeska, which is another Aleut word that means \"the great land.\" The Russian name was .\nAlaska mainly exports seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab. The oil and gas industry is very important in the Alaskan economy. More than 80% of the state's revenues is from petroleum extraction.\n\"Seward's Folly\".\nWilliam H. Seward, the 24th United States Secretary of State, negotiated the Alaska Purchase with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million. It was called Seward's Folly at the time.\nRussia's ruler then was Tsar Alexander II, the Emperor of the Russian Empire, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland. He also planned the sale.\nThe purchase was made on March 30, 1867. Six months later the commissioners arrived in Sitka and the formal transfer was arranged; the formal flag-raising took place at Fort Sitka on October 18, 1867. In the ceremony 250 uniformed U.S. soldiers marched to the governor's house at \"Castle Hill\", where the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised. This event is celebrated as Alaska Day, a legal holiday on October 18.\nGeography.\nThe capital city is Juneau, but the biggest city is Anchorage. Alaska is the biggest state in the United States, but it has one of the smallest populations. It is also the least densely populated: more than half of the population live in the Anchorage Metropolitan Area. Alaska has almost 20% of all the land in the U.S., but only about 0.2% of the people. It is not connected to any other states by American land, but it is connected to the territories of Yukon and British Columbia in Canada.\nAlaska has many glaciers, some of which can be seen from passing cruise ships. Some are coastal, and others are not by the ocean. It is a popular tourist destination, as there is a very rich culture along with beautiful scenery. There are wild animals in Alaska. Some of them are the brown bear, the moose, and the wolf.\nThere are some important industries in Alaska, like oil, fishing, mining, transportation, tourism, and forestry. Oil is the biggest industry in Alaska. Most of the oil is very far north in the Alaskan arctic. A very long pipeline starts at the northern coast of Alaska and runs to the southern coast. It is over long. There were many gold rushes in Alaska. The Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (ANC) is ranked as the world's fourth busiest cargo airport.\nTongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States, is in Southeast Alaska. The state capital Juneau, and the former capital Sitka, are in Southeast Alaska.\nAleutian Islands.\nMany active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians in Alaska. They are a chain of 14 large volcanic islands and 55 smaller islands. Most of the Aleutian Islands belong to the U.S. state of Alaska, but some belong to Russia.\nOne of the world's largest tides occur in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage, where the differences in the tides can be more than 35 feet (10.7 m).\nIt is widely believed that the region served as the entry point for the initial settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge."}
+{"id": "3364", "revid": "3164", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3364", "title": "Sculpting", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3365", "revid": "515", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3365", "title": "American English spelling", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3366", "revid": "515", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3366", "title": "British English spelling", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3374", "revid": "1026604", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3374", "title": "BBC", "text": "The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is the public broadcaster of the United Kingdom. Its headquarters (main offices) are at Broadcasting House in London. Originally created in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it became the British Broadcasting Corporation on New Year's Day 1927. The oldest and largest local and global broadcaster by stature and by number of employees, the BBC employs over 21,000 staff in total, of whom approximately 17,900 are in public-sector broadcasting.\nThe BBC was created under a royal charter, and does its work under an agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. Its work is funded principally by an annual television licence fee which is charged to all British households, companies, and organisations using any type of equipment to receive or record live television broadcasts or to use the BBC's streaming service, iPlayer. The fee is set by the UK Government, agreed by Parliament, and is used to fund the BBC's radio, TV, and online services covering the nations and regions of the UK. Since 1 April 2014, it has also funded the BBC World Service (launched in 1932 as the BBC Empire Service), which broadcasts in 28 languages and provides comprehensive TV, radio, and online services in Arabic and Persian.\nSome of the BBC's revenue comes from its commercial subsidiary BBC Studios (formerly BBC Worldwide), which sells BBC programmes and services internationally and also distributes the BBC's international 24-hour English-language news services BBC World News, and from BBC.com, provided by BBC Global News Ltd. In 2009, the company was awarded the Queen's Award for Enterprise in recognition of its international achievements in business.\nSince it was created in 1922, the BBC has played a prominent role in British life and culture. It is colloquially known as the Beeb or Auntie.\nHistory.\nThe British Broadcasting Company Ltd was formed on 18 October 1922 as a business. In 1927 it was changed into the British Broadcasting Corporation under a royal charter, which allows it to broadcast radio. It started television broadcasting in November 1936. This stopped during the Second World War when there was only radio. During the war, Winston Churchill delivered 33 major wartime speeches on BBC radio. \nThe BBC World Service broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages to many countries. It is banned in Russia and China. It was started in 1932 when it was aimed at English speakers across the British Empire. Until 2014 it was paid for by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.\nIn 2006, the British Government looked at the charter to see if it needed changing.\nAnother agreement, which goes with the Charter, recognises that the BBC should be independent from any other organisation. It also says what the BBC should do for the people in Britain (the public).\nFinance.\nEvery household in the UK that watches or records \"live\" programmes (as they\u2019re being broadcast), or watches BBC iPlayer, must, by law, pay for a TV Licence. As the BBC gets its money from TV licences, it does not take money from companies or shareholders, so it does not have to do what they want. Also, it is not allowed to broadcast commercials in the middle of a programme, although it can show commercials in between programmes.\nThe BBC makes extra money in several ways. One way is by selling its programmes to other broadcasting companies. Another way is by selling audio tapes and CDs of its best radio programmes, and videos and DVDs of its best television programmes. Still another way is by selling books based on programmes, and magazines about science and natural history.\nIn April 2023, Richard Sharp resigned as chairman after a report found he did not disclose potential perceived conflicts of interest in his role in the facilitation of a loan to Prime Minister Boris Johnson. Dame Elan Closs Stephens was appointed as acting chairwoman on 27 June 2023, and she would lead the BBC board for a year or until a new permanent chair has been appointed. Samir Shah was subsequently appointed with effect from 4 March 2024. In October 2024 it was announced that the BBC along with Sky Sports signed a deal to broadcast the 2025\u201326 season of the Women's Super League campaign.\n\"Radio Times\".\nIn 1923, BBC Magazines started publishing a magazine which printed listings of the week's BBC radio and television programmes in the United Kingdom. The magazine was called the \"Radio Times\". In 1991, the magazine began to print listings of programmes broadcast by other providers in the United Kingdom. Today the magazine is still printed and provides online listings too. It also prints stories about programmes, the people who make them, and the people who appear in them. The \"Radio Times\" is one of the best selling magazines in the United Kingdom. In August 2011, the BBC agreed to sell the magazine to Exponent, if Britain's Office of Fair Trading approves.\nBBC Report.\nThe BBC has to publish a report every year, which tells people what it has done and how much money it has made and spent.\nIf someone has a complaint about something broadcast by the BBC, they can complain to the BBC, the BBC Trust, or directly to Ofcom, the government's regulator of broadcasting.\nLocations.\nThe headquarters of the BBC is Broadcasting House in Portland Place, London. The BBC also has other offices such as the BBC Television Centre in White City, London, BBC Radio Berkshire, as well in other cities like Cardiff, Belfast, Glasgow, Birmingham, Manchester, Bristol, Southampton and Newcastle upon Tyne. Rather than hire local reporters everywhere, the BBC's journalists work in many countries across the world. This means BBC workers are sometimes in danger, especially in war zones. Most recently Alan Johnston was kidnapped and held hostage for many months in Gaza before being safely released.\nBBC iPlayer.\nBetween October 2005 and 28 February 2006, the BBC offered a service called the BBC iPlayer on their website - bbc.co.uk. It allowed people to catch up on the last seven days of TV and radio on the BBC. Users could either watch (stream) it or download the content on their computers. The downloading options are for Microsoft Windows computers and Apple devices. The iPlayer service was released to the public on 25 December 2007. The slogan for BBC iPlayer is 'Making the Unmissable, Unmissable.' "}
+{"id": "3375", "revid": "983938", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3375", "title": "Illinois River", "text": "The Illinois River is a river in the United States. It is in the state of Illinois. It is an important tributary of the Mississippi River. The length of the river is about 439 km.\nGeography.\nThe source of the river is in northeastern Illinois, near the city of Joliet. It flows west across Illinois, then southwest. It passes the city of Peoria, the largest city on the river.\nIt flows into southwestern Illinois. It joins the Mississippi River 40 km north of Saint Louis, Missouri. \nThere is separate Illinois river that runs through the northernmost edge of Oklahoma.\nThe river was used for transportation by the Native Americans. It was also used by early French trappers. It was an important route between the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes.\nIn the 19th century a canal was built that connected the river to Lake Michigan. Large ships now use this canal to go from the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River. The canal goes through the city of Chicago. It is one of the reasons that Chicago became a big city."}
+{"id": "3398", "revid": "1260226", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3398", "title": "Milk", "text": "Milk is a white liquid made by mammals, like cows, dogs, and humans. It is made in the mammary glands (breasts, udders, or teats) of female mammals. Newborn babies must be given milk before they can eat solid food. Milk has many nutrients to help babies grow and be healthy. It is also a rich source of calcium which is good for their bones and teeth.\nStoring milk.\nIf milk is not kept cold in a refrigerator, it will become sour after some time. When milk is warmed, it turns sour. Fermentation makes this happen. Lactic acid bacteria change the milk sugar into lactic acid. Fermentation is used when making dairy products. \nMilk is often pasteurised before humans drink it. It is made into dairy products like cream, butter, yogurt, ice cream, or cheese. Pasteurised cows' milk will turn sour if it is not kept in a refrigerator. Milk should be stored between 1\u00b0 and 4\u00b0 Celsius. If milk is treated with very high temperatures, it will last longer before spoiling. This means it does not have to be put in the refrigerator until it is opened.\nGoat milk.\nGoat's milk is the milk from a goat. It can be drunk, both by humans or baby goats, or cheese can be made from it. This cheese is called goat's milk cheese.\nCoconut milk.\nCoconut milk is not real milk because it comes from a plant instead of an animal. However, it looks similar to real milk because it is white. It also does not have as many nutrients as real milk. It is made by removing the white \"meat\" from a coconut, pressing or squeezing the \"meat\", then adding water. It is sometimes used in cooking, for example, in Thai curry.\nCoconut cream is a thicker version of coconut milk which contains added sugar.\nAlmond milk.\nAlmond milk is produced by grinding almonds and processing that liquid for drinking.\nCow milk.\nCow milk is the milk from a cow. Whole cow\u2019s milk contains about 87% water. The remaining 13% contains protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.\nNutrients.\nMilk forms an important part of a person's daily balanced diet. It contains a lot of calcium that helps bones and teeth to grow stronger. Also, milk provides the body with high quality proteins, and helps in meeting the body's requirement for vitamins. One glass of milk gives about 44% to the recommended daily vitamins intake. Some kind of milks, though, do not have good calcium. These kind of milk products include cream, cottage cheese, ricotta cheese, and cream cheese.\nLactose.\nMilk contains a chemical called lactose. Babies make an enzyme called lactase inside their bodies. Adults make less lactase. If they do not have enough, they may not be able to digest lactose anymore. This problem is called lactose intolerance and it affects many adults. There are many medicines that help adults digest lactose. Many lactose-intolerant people drink soy milk instead of animal milk, because it does not contain lactose. Soy milk tastes similar to animal milk, but it is chemically very different and is made from soybeans.\nAbility to drink milk.\nMost mammals shut off the ability to digest milk early in life. Then they turn to a diet without milk. Humans were like that originally. We don't know all the details, but it seems what happened was this. They learnt that at least some milk from cattle was good for humans. They bred the cattle until the cattle produced milk regularly, not just for their young. \nThe few people who could digest milk gradually increased in number. They had the advantage of a ready supply of food (milk).\nAt that point, it was an advantage for humans to have a regular supply of milk, which they could now digest. So began a process which eventually swept up all humans except a very few. We now think it is natural to drink milk throughout life (\"lactose tolerance\"), but we are one of the few species which does so. In some human populations, though, lactase persistence has quite recently evolved."}
+{"id": "3399", "revid": "10316384", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3399", "title": "Weather", "text": "Weather is the day-to-day or hour-to-hour change in the atmosphere. Weather includes wind, lightning, storms, hurricanes, tornadoes, rain, hail, snow, and lots more. Energy from the Sun affects the weather too. \nClimate tells us what kinds of weather usually happen in an area at different times of the year. \nChanges in weather can affect the mood and life of many living things. People wear different clothes and do different things in different weather conditions. They also choose different food in different seasons. \nWeather stations around the world measure different parts of weather. Ways to measure weather are wind speed, wind direction, temperature and humidity. People try to use these measurements to make weather forecasts for the future. These people are scientists that are called \"meteorologists\". They use computers to build large mathematical models to follow weather trends.\nSevere weather.\nSevere weather can hurt people and their property. It can also just be a bother. Some examples of severe weather are:\nCauses of weather.\nWeather happens because different parts of the Earth get different amounts of heat from the Sun. This makes different climates. The tropics get the most heat because the Sun shines straight down on them, while the poles get the least heat because the Sun shines on them from a low angle. Warmer air is lighter than cooler air and rises higher in the sky by convection.\nThe air always has some water mixed with it. This is called humidity. When it cools, the water can change from a gas to a liquid through condensation. Then the water can fall from the sky as rain or snow. After the air rises, it gets colder and goes back towards the ground. Because the air lost its water before, it is dry when it comes back to the ground. When two air masses of different temperatures meet, this is called a warm front or cold front. The ways that the air moves around the Earth are called atmospheric circulation."}
+{"id": "3402", "revid": "11594", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3402", "title": "Opera (browser)", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3403", "revid": "1666762", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3403", "title": "British Columbia", "text": "British Columbia (BC) is a province in Canada. It was originally two separate colonies of Great Britain, the colony of Vancouver Island, and the colony of British Columbia. British Columbia joined the Canadian Confederation in 1871. The capital of British Columbia is Victoria, but the city with the most people is Vancouver and the city with the largest area is Abbotsford. British Columbia borders the Canadian province of Alberta to the east, the Canadian territories of Yukon and the Northwest Territories to the north and northeast, the U.S. states of Washington, Idaho, and Montana to the south, and Alaska to the northwest.\nHistory.\nEarly History.\nBefore European contact, British Columbia was home to large numbers of indigenous people. These people, for the large part, still live in the province. Because BC has a large amount of resources, the native people who dwelled here lived comfortably enough. The large number of resources, in particular, led to the creation of very complex hierarchical societies in British Columbia, long before the government of the Europeans.\nOregon Dispute.\nThe Oregon dispute was an important factor in determining the physical shape of British Columbia, and as the political impetus for British investment in protecting her lands in British Columbia. During the middle of the 19th century, the Democratic Party of the United States, appealing to the public attraction to the Manifest Destiny (a philosophy preaching American Supremacy and expansionism), declared that the United States had a claim over the entirety of Columbia District/Oregon Territory. This attitude was reflected even further, as 54*-40' or fight, referring to the end of Columbia District, and the start of Russian Territory of Alaska. This alarming attitude, caused many in London to fear that yet another war, in less than a century, was brewing. Ultimately, however, it was resolved, at the 49th parallel. British Columbia lost Fort Vancouver (now Vancouver, Washington), and lots of the gulf islands. To this day, the Oregon Treaty is criticized by historians, as being too lenient for the Americans.\nHudson's Bay Corporation.\nWhile British Columbia was \"technically\" a British colony, it was the private corporation, the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) that really ran the place. The first Governor of Vancouver Island (then a separate colony), actually resigned over the fact that the Queen, had no say, above the interests of the Colony. After him, the next governor of the Island, was also, coincidentally, the head of the HBC's operations in British Columbia and Vancouver Island.\nGold Rush.\nThe first major gold rush in British Columbia started in 1858, after gold was discovered, on the upper reaches of the Fraser River. The sudden onslaught of uncouth Americans led to the declaration that British Columbia shall be a crown colony, instead of the unincorporated region it was, after the Oregon spat. James Douglas was appointed the governor of the newly formed colony, as well as the Colony of Vancouver Island, and for military convenience, the Capital of British Columbia was declared Queensboro, then renamed New Westminster. As massive numbers of Americans came, fears that the Americans would try to bluster themselves another chunk of territory became more and more concrete. Thus, a contingent of Royal Engineers and Marines were deployed to New Westminster. To this day, the neighbourhood of Sapperton, is known, for its history as a site of the barracks for the Engineers, nicknamed the Sappers. The infrastructure ordered by James Douglas, to support the vast amount of capital flowing from the gold industry, caused high debt for British Columbia. By 1864, British Columbia was \u00a3200,000 in debt, plus an additional \u00a318,000, from various spats with natives, and constant policing required to maintain law and order. Its vast amount of gold was useless, while BC was in debt. British Columbia amalgamated with Vancouver Island, forming one super-colony. Vancouver Island would undertake the debt, and British Columbia's capital would be in Victoria.\nConfederation With Canada.\nBritish Columbia at the middle of the 19th century, had 3 options: Remain a colony of Britain, annex itself to the United States, or join the Dominion of Canada. The option of remaining a colony was undesirable, for Britain had long adopted a \"little Briton\" policy, under which the key to economic efficiency, and reduction of bloat, was to cut off connections to its various colonies. The option of joining with Canada was also viewed as impractical, and unlikely to occur; the closest Canadian neighbor lay more than a thousand kilometers away, to the east. For most British Colombians, annexation to the United States seemed most logical. Ultimately, however, British Columbia did confederate. The advocacy of the Confederation League, resulted in British Colombian's demanding that BC join Canada. On July 20, 1871, British Columbia joined Canada. In return, BC was absolved of its debt, which became Canada's responsibility, and Canada promised to build a railway to BC within 10 years.\nIndustry.\nBritish Columbia's industry is primarily, and has always been, resource centered. For large parts of its history, including the entire time it was a colony, BC was dominated by the 4: Forestry, Mining, Logging, and Agriculture, which have shaped British Columbia's culture, and society.\nForestry in British Columbia.\nBritish Columbia's forestry industry has always been booming. BC had a bonanza of massive trees, thanks to its location in the Pacific Rainforest region. This provided ample opportunity for entrepreneurs to build businesses. Massive sawmills sprung up, all over British Columbia, especially in what is now Vancouver and surrounding regions. However, this required massive amounts of human capital - which was surprisingly in short supply. To overcome this, massive numbers of immigrants were invited to Vancouver, and places like so. This changed BC's demographic makeup so much, that to try to stop it, the government passed several acts, to try and limit the number of immigrants. However, the change was already underway - BC subsequently became one of the most diverse places in North America, with people calling it home, from places like Asia, Europe, and even the Pacific Islands.\nMining in British Columbia.\nBritish Columbia's large mineral resources also led to a large mining industry. For the most of the 19th century, and well into the 20th century, mining was highly profitable. For the immigrants, once again, this was another opportunity to exploit. Large numbers of immigrants, skilled from their experience mining at home, filled up the labour demands, and quickly, new towns were formed. The city of Nanaimo, for instance, was founded thanks to a large amount of coal found in its harbour. Coal especially, was the fuel of the industry, as coal was required for everything it the time, from ships, to trains, to the heater in everyone's homes.\nFishing in British Columbia.\nSince BC's location is on the coast, fishing has been very prevalent in British Columbia. Before agriculture had developed very far in BC, and well before farming fish was even a viable option, fishing was the only reliable way to get food. The native people of BC already had a very active fishing industry, with large hauls of salmon, and other creatures sustaining them. When civilization came, the fishing industry took off, as everybody needed to eat, and there was not enough agricultural goods to go around. In fishing, once again, it was the immigrants that pulled it off. Mostly Japanese workers, and their families, came. Using their rich heritage of industrialized fishing, they were able to out compete every other fisherman, that by the turn of the century, the dockyards, canneries, and fishing fleets were filled to the brim with the Japanese. Only the forced Japanese internment in WW2 put a halt to the monopoly the Japanese had on fishing in British Columbia. Today, fishing is still a powerful force, although fettered by ordinances to prevent overfishing.\nAgriculture in British Columbia.\nThe agriculture industry in BC is, and always has been humble. However, as they say, good things come in small packages, and the agricultural goods of BC, are about as good as they come. Due to the fact that BC has only about 2% arable land, the remainder being too dry, or too cold, or too remote, or a plethora of other reasons, BC has never been able to sustain a primary food agricultural industry. Even today, BC cannot grow enough food to feed its entire population, and imports foods instead, from the eastern provinces, such as Alberta, and Saskatchewan. However, where BC does grow food, the food is scrumptious, and award-winning. The Okanagan valley, is known for its award-winning fruits, and wine-related products. However, that is not where all the food is produced. In the Fraser valley delta, large amounts of other food crops are grown, such as wheat, and berries.\nHousing in British Columbia.\nThe value of real estate in British Columbia has increased a lot in recent years. Property assessed values have increased by $1-trillion since 2007. In 2018 the value was $1.861 trillion. In 2007 it was only $808 billion.\nHealth care.\nThe provincial health insurance plan in British Columbia is called Medical Services Plan (MSP). In order to join MSP a person:\nPolitics.\nBritish Columbia's premier is John Horgan, leader of the provincial New Democratic Party, a social democratic party. The NDP governs British Columbia through a deal with the provincial Green Party, led by Andrew Weaver. The BC Liberal Party is the main opponent to the NDP, and is led by Andrew Wilkinson. Other parties are active in British Columbia, such as the Conservative Party, led by Scott Anderson, although only the NDP, BC Liberal Party, and Green Party currently have seats.\nFlags.\nThe flag of British Columbia was adopted in 1960. It is based on the provincial arms and the union jack."}
+{"id": "3406", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3406", "title": "Email", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3407", "revid": "10451927", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3407", "title": "20th century", "text": "The 20th century began on January 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000.\nThe 20th century saw two world wars and a Cold War, the rise and fall of the Soviet Union, the coming of the telephone, sound recording, movies and television, airplanes, atomic weapons, genetics and DNA, computers and electronics in general. Science and industrialization spread; medicine became more scientific. World population growth was greater during this century than any previous one.\nYears.\nNote: movie years before or after the twentieth century are in \"italics\"."}
+{"id": "3422", "revid": "1147453", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3422", "title": "Brussels", "text": "Brussels (, , ) is the capital city of Belgium and the European Union. \nIn 2007, 145,917 people lived there. But the area around it, known as the Brussels-Capital Region, had 1,031,215 people (which makes it the largest city area in Belgium).\nThe people of Brussels speak mainly French and Flemish (a type of Dutch). There are lots of other languages spoken as well, because the European Union offices are there and because many thousands of immigrants from all over the world live there.\nThe city is at 50\u00b0 50 North, 04\u00b0 21 East. It has an oceanic climate (\"Cfb\" in the K\u00f6ppen climate classification). \nThirty-one people were killed in a terrorist attack on 22 March 2016.\nInfluence.\nMany popular European comics came from Brussels, such as Tintin, The Smurfs, Snorks, and Lucky Luke. \nIt is also well known for a style of building known as \"Art Nouveau\".\nThe vegetables Brussels sprouts are named after the city, and Brussels is also famous for its waffles and its chocolates.\nA lot of tourists visit Brussels for the statue \"Manneken Pis\"."}
+{"id": "3423", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3423", "title": "Thuringia", "text": "Thuringia (German: \"Th\u00fcringen\") is a Bundesland of Germany. It lies in central Germany and has an area of . This means Thuringia is the sixth smallest state in Germany by area. It has 2.1 million inhabitants, so it is the fifth smallest state in Germany by population. The capital is Erfurt.\nGeography.\nThuringia borders on the German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony, Bavaria and Hesse.\nThe most conspicuous geographical feature of Thuringia is the Thuringia Forest (Th\u00fcringer Wald). In the northwest Thuringia includes a small part of the Harz mountains. The Saale river runs through Jena.\nThe biggest mountain in Thuringia is with 982m the Gro\u00dfer Beerberg in the\nThuringia Forest."}
+{"id": "3424", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3424", "title": "Saxony", "text": "Saxony ( ; ), officially the Free State of Saxony (German: , Upper Sorbian: ), is one of 16 states of Germany. It is in the southeast of the country, north of Czech Republic. To the east of Saxony is Poland. The biggest city is Leipzig. The capital is called Dresden. It was founded in 1990.\nGeography.\nSaxony is the border of Germany to the two countries Poland and Czech Republic. In the north of Saxony is Brandenburg, another German state. Saxony's west border is to Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia and Bavaria. A big part of the border to the Czech Republic are the Ore Mountains in the south of Saxony.\nDistricts.\nSaxony is divided into 3 administrative districts (Chemnitz, Dresden and Leipzig). These are subdivided into 10 districts:\nUrban districts.\nSaxony has three urban districts which do not belong to the rural districts.\nHistory.\nThe first Free State of Saxony was founded in 1918, after the first World War. After the second World War, in 1945, the \"country of Saxony\" was founded. Later the Country was divided into 3 administrative divisions of the German Democratic Republic, and thus robbed of its sovereignty.\nIn 1990 the Free State of Saxony was officially re-founded as a part of Germany.\nPopulation development.\nThe number of people in Saxony since 1905:"}
+{"id": "3425", "revid": "3", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3425", "title": "National Anthem", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3427", "revid": "1618275", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3427", "title": "Internet Explorer", "text": "Internet Explorer (IE); formerly known as Microsoft Internet Explorer and Windows Internet Explorer, was a series of graphical web browsers made by Microsoft. It was part of the Microsoft Windows operating system, starting in 1995. It was first released as part of the add-on package Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 that year. Later versions were free downloads, or in service packs, and included in releases of Windows 95 and later versions of Windows.\nIE was the most popular web browser in 1999, with up to 95% usage share during 2002/2003 with IE5 and IE6. Since its peak of popularity, its usage share has decreased to 55% due to rival web browsers and is slowly trending downward. Microsoft spent over $100 million per year on IE in the late 1990s, with over 1000 people working on it by 1999.\nThe latest release is Internet Explorer 11. Internet Explorer was originally planned to be removed from Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 in Europe. Still, Microsoft later dropped the plans and instead included a browser ballot screen with the products, allowing users to select a different web browser if they wish.\nVersions of Internet Explorer for other operating systems have also been produced, including an embedded OEM version called Internet Explorer for Windows CE (IE CE), available for WinCE based platforms and currently based on IE6; Internet Explorer for Pocket PC, was rebranded Internet Explorer Mobile, which is made for Windows Mobile and Windows CE. It remains in development alongside the more advanced desktop versions, and the discontinued Internet Explorer for Mac and Internet Explorer for UNIX (Solaris and HP-UX).\nWindows 10 comes with a new web browser called Microsoft Edge. Internet Explorer 11 was still included but was meant for sites not working properly with the new rendering engine in Microsoft Edge. When Windows 11 and Windows Server 2022 were released in 2021, Internet Explorer 11 was removed in both versions of Microsoft Windows and replaced by Microsoft Edge. The last version of Internet Explorer, Internet Explorer 11, reached the end of service on June 15, 2022, and was removed from Windows 10. On Windows 10 IoT/LTSB/LTSC (Windows 10 Long-Term Servicing Channel), on Windows 8.1, Windows 8, Windows Server 2012 and Windows Server 2012 R2, Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2 and earlier it will continue past that point. Microsoft is replacing Internet Explorer with Internet Explorer mode on Microsoft Edge, a newer web browser by Microsoft released on April 29, 2015.\nHistory.\nThe Internet Explorer project was started in the summer of 1994 by Thomas Reardon, using source code from Spyglass, Inc. Mosaic, an early commercial web browser with formal ties to the pioneering NCSA Mosaic browser. In late 1994, Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic for a quarterly fee plus a percentage of Microsoft's non-Windows revenues for the software. Although bearing a name similar to NCSA Mosaic, the Spyglass Mosaic had used the NCSA Mosaic source code sparingly.\nInternet Explorer 1.\nInternet Explorer 1 started on August 16, 1995. It was a reworked version of Spyglass Mosaic, which Microsoft had licensed, like many other companies starting browser development, from Spyglass Inc. It came with Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 and the OEM release of Windows 95. It was installed as part of the \"Internet Jumpstart Kit\" in Plus! The Internet Explorer team began with about six people in early development. Internet Explorer 1.5 was released several months later for Windows NT and added support for basic table rendering. However, by including it for free on their OS, they did not have to pay royalties to Spyglass Inc., which resulted in a lawsuit and a multi-million USD settlement.\nInternet Explorer 2.\nInternet Explorer 2 was released for Windows 95, Windows NT 3.5, and NT 4.0 on August 24, 1996 (following a 2.0 beta in November 1995). It featured support for SSL, cookies, VRML, RSA, and Internet newsgroups. Version 2 was also the first release for Windows 3.1 and Macintosh System 7.0.1 (PPC or 68k), although the Mac version was not released until January 1996 for PPC, and April for 68k. Version 2.1 for the Mac came out in August 1996, although by this time, Windows was getting 3.0. Version 2 was included in Windows 95 OSR 1 and Microsoft's \"Internet Starter Kit for Windows 95\" in early 1996. It launched with twelve languages including English but this expanded to 24, 20, and 9 for Win 95, Win 3.1, and Mac respectively by April 1996. The 2.0i version supported double-byte character-set.\nInternet Explorer 3.\nInternet Explorer 3 was released on August 13, 1996, and became much more popular than its predecessors. Internet Explorer 3 was the first major browser with CSS support, although this support was only partial. It also introduced support for ActiveX controls, Java applets, inline multimedia, and the PICS system for content metadata. Version 3 also came bundled with Internet Mail and News, NetMeeting, and an early version of the Windows Address Book, and was itself included with Windows 95 OSR 2. Version 3 proved to be the first more popular version of Internet Explorer, bringing increased scrutiny. In the months following its release, a number of security and privacy vulnerabilities were found by researchers and hackers. This version of Internet Explorer was the first to have the 'blue e' logo. The Internet Explorer team consisted of roughly 100 people during the development of three months. The first major IE security hole, the Princeton Word Macro Virus Loophole, was discovered on August 22, 1996 in IE3. Backwards compatibility was handled by allowing users who upgraded to IE3 to still use the last IE, because the installation converted the previous version to a separate directory.\nInternet Explorer 4.\nInternet Explorer 4, released in September 1997, deepened the level of integration between the web browser and the underlying operating system. Installing version 4 on a Windows 95 or Windows NT 4 machine and choosing \"Windows Desktop Update\" would result in the traditional Windows Explorer also being replaced by a version more akin to a web-browser interface, as well as the Windows desktop itself being web-enabled via Active Desktop. The integration with Windows, however, was subject to numerous packaging criticisms (see United States v. Microsoft). This option was no longer available with the installers for later versions of Internet Explorer but was not removed from the system if already installed. Internet Explorer 4 introduced support for Group Policy, allowing companies to configure and lock down many aspects of the browser's configuration and support for offline browsing. Internet Mail and News was replaced with Outlook Express, and Microsoft Chat and an improved NetMeeting were also included. This version also was included with Windows 98. Internet Explorer 4.5 offered new features such as easier 128-bit encryption. It also offered a dramatic stability improvement over prior versions, particularly the 68k version, which was especially prone to freezing.\nInternet Explorer 5.\nInternet Explorer 5 was launched on March 18, 1999, later included with Windows 98\u00a0Second Edition and came with Office 2000. The creation of Internet Explorer 5 was another significant release that supported bi-directional text, ruby characters, XML, XSLT, and the ability to save web pages in MHTML format. IE5 was bundled with Outlook Express 5. Also, with the release of Internet Explorer 5.0, Microsoft released the first version of XMLHttpRequest, giving birth to Ajax (even though the term \"Ajax\" was not coined until years later). It was the last with a 16-bit version. Internet Explorer 5.01, a bug fix version, was released in December 1999. Windows 2000 includes this version. Internet Explorer 5.5 followed in July 2000, improving its print preview capabilities, CSS and HTML standards support, and developer APIs; this version was bundled with Windows Me. However, version 5 was the last version for Mac and UNIX. Version 5.5 was the last to have \"Compatibility Mode\", which allowed Internet Explorer 4 to be run side by side with the 5.x. The IE team consisted of over 1,000 people by 1999, with funding on the order of 100 million USD per year.\nInternet Explorer 6.\nInternet Explorer 6 was released on August 27, 2001, a few months before Windows XP. This version included DHTML enhancements, content-restricted inline frames, and partial support of CSS level 1, DOM level 1, and SMIL 2.0. The MSXML engine was also updated to version 3.0. Other new features included a new version of the Internet Explorer Administration Kit (IEAK), Media bar, Windows Messenger integration, fault collection, automatic image resizing, P3P, and a new look-and-feel that was in line with the \"Luna\" visual style of Windows XP, when used in Windows XP. Internet Explorer 6.0 SP1 offered several security enhancements, coinciding with the Windows XP SP1 patch release. In 2002, the Gopher protocol was disabled and support for it was dropped in Internet Explorer 7. Internet Explorer 6.0 SV1 came out August 6, 2004 for Windows XP SP2 and offered various security enhancements and new color buttons on the user interface. IE6 updated the original 'blue e' logo to a lighter blue and more 3D look. Microsoft now considers IE6 an obsolete product and recommends that users upgrade to IE8. Many corporate IT users did not upgrade despite this.\nInternet Explorer 7.\nInternet Explorer 7 was released on October 18, 2006. It includes bug fixes, enhancements to its support for web standards, tabbed browsing with tab preview and management, a multiple-engine search box, a web feeds reader, Internationalized Domain Name support (IDN), Extended Validation Certificate support, and anti-phishing filter. With IE7, Internet Explorer has been decoupled from the Windows Shell - unlike previous versions, the Internet Explorer ActiveX control is not hosted in the Windows Explorer process but runs in a separate one. It is included with Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 and is available for Windows XP Service Pack 2 and later and Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 and later. The original release of Internet Explorer 7 required the computer to pass a Windows Genuine Advantage validation check before installing, but on October 5, 2007, Microsoft removed this requirement. By mid-2008, Internet Explorer 7 market share exceeded that of Internet Explorer 6 in several regions. Unlike other versions of Internet Explorer, this version of Internet Explorer would be supported until October 10, 2023, marking the end of Internet Explorer after 28 years, 1 month and 14 days.\nInternet Explorer 8.\nInternet Explorer 8 was released on March 19, 2009. It has been in development since August 2007. On March 5, 2008, the first public beta (Beta 1) was released to the general public. On August 27, 2008, the second public beta (Beta 2) was released. It was supported in Windows XP SP2 and SP3, Windows Server 2003 SP2, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows Server 2008 on both 32-bit as well as 64-bit architectures. Internet Explorer 8 (IE8) RC1 was released on January 26, 2009. Internet Explorer 8 \"Final\" was released on March 19, 2009. Security, ease of use, and improvements in RSS, CSS, and Ajax support were Microsoft's priorities for IE8. It included much stricter compliance with web standards, including a planned full Cascading Style Sheets 2.1 compliance for the release version. All these changes allow Internet Explorer 8 to pass the Acid2 test. However, to prevent compatibility issues, IE8 also includes the IE7 rendering behavior. Sites that expect IE7 quirks can disable IE8's breaking changes by including a meta element in the HEAD section of the HTML document. IE8 also includes numerous improvements to JavaScript support as well as performance improvements, although it still does not pass the Acid3 test, with version 8.0 scoring 20/100. It includes support for \"Accelerators\" - which allow supported web applications to be invoked without explicitly navigating to them - and \"WebSlices\" - which allows portions of page to be subscribed to and monitored from a redesigned \"Favorites Bar\". Other features include \"InPrivate\" privacy features and SmartScreen phishing filter.\nInternet Explorer 9.\nInternet Explorer 9 was released on March 14, 2011. It will have complete or nearly complete support for all CSS 3 selectors, border-radius CSS 3 property, faster JavaScript, embedded ICC v2 or v4 color profiles, and hardware accelerated rendering using Direct2D and DirectWrite. Microsoft has confirmed that Web Open Font Format (WOFF) will also be supported. WOFF is \"a strong favorite\" for standardization by the Web Fonts Working Group of W3C. IE9 is supposed to fix many issues with Internet Explorer, including support of the CSS3 standard border-radius property, which means that people using IE9 will be able to see rounded corners, the same way people using Firefox can.\nMicrosoft continued to downplay the importance of passing the Acid3 test, but speculation that IE9 would support the SVG W3C recommendation was ignited when Microsoft announced they had joined the SVG Working Group. At MIX 10, the first IE9 Platform Preview was released, which featured support for CSS3 and SVG, a new JScript engine called Chakra, and a score of 55/100 on the Acid3 test. On August 4, 2010, the fourth IE9 Platform Preview was released, which featured a score of 95/100 on the Acid3 test and a faster JScript engine. Support for the HTML5 video and audio tags was also promised. According to the Internet Explorer 9 Test Drive page, the system requirements for IE9 are Windows Vista SP2 (with Platform Upgrade and IE8) or Windows 7. On August 12, 2010, Microsoft announced that the IE9 Public Beta would launch on September 15, 2010 at a special event in San Francisco linked to the idea of 'beauty of the web.' It was also confirmed that the browser would only function with Windows Vista and Windows 7. On September 15, 2010, Microsoft launched the IE9 Public Beta.\nInternet Explorer 10.\nInternet Explorer 10 does not work with Windows Vista, but only for Windows 7 and a future release of the Windows operating system. Internet Explorer 10 was released together with Windows 8 in 2012. Users of Windows 7 could download this version from February 2013.\nInternet Explorer 11.\nInternet Explorer 11 was released in October 2013. It was the final version of Internet Explorer. Instead of launching the next version of Internet Explorer, as Internet Explorer 12, Microsoft released the new web browser, Microsoft Edge, on April 29, 2015. Starting in Windows 10, Windows Server 2016 and Windows Server 2019, Internet Explorer 11 is available, but it's not installed by default, as a built-in web browser in these operating systems is Microsoft Edge. However, Internet Explorer 11 is built-in into Windows 10 IoT Enterprise LTSC/LTSB, which is a series a Windows 10 editions, first released in 2016 and the latest edition of Windows 10 LTSC was released in 2021. On June 15, 2022, Internet Explorer was removed from the contain versions of Windows 10, Windows Server 2016, and Windows Server 2019. However, the only editions of Windows 10 which will continue to get Internet Explorer 11 are Windows 10 IoT Enterprise LTSC. With the release of Windows 11 and Windows Server 2022, Internet Explorer 11 isn't compatible with these operating systems.\nComponents.\nInternet Explorer was designed to view a broad range of web pages and to provide certain features within the operating system, including Microsoft Update. During the browser wars, Internet Explorer superseded Netscape only when it caught up technologically.\nInternet Explorer, using the Trident layout engine:\nInternet Explorer uses DOCTYPE sniffing to choose between standards mode and a \"quirks mode\" in which it deliberately mimicks nonstandard behaviors of old versions of MSIE for HTML and CSS rendering on screen (Internet Explorer always uses standards mode for printing). It also provides its dialect of ECMAScript called JScript.\nInternet Explorer was subjected to criticism by W3C over its limited support for SVG promoted by W3C.\nInternet Explorer introduced an array of proprietary extensions to many standards, including HTML, CSS, and the DOM. This has resulted in a number of broken web pages in standards-compliant browsers and introduced the need for a \"quirks mode\" to allow for rendering improper elements meant for Internet Explorer in these other browsers.\nInternet Explorer introduced several extensions to JScript, which have been adopted by other browsers. These include the innerHTML property, which returns the HTML string within an element; the XMLHttpRequest object, which allows the sending of HTTP request and receiving of HTTP response; and the designMode attribute of the contentDocument object, which enables rich text editing of HTML documents. Some of these functionalities were not possible until the introduction of the W3C DOM methods. Its Ruby character extension to HTML is also accepted as a module in W3C XHTML 1.1, though it is not found in all versions of W3C HTML.\nMicrosoft submitted several other features of IE for consideration by the W3C for standardization. These include the 'behavior' CSS property, which connects the HTML elements with JScript behaviors (known as HTML Components, HTC); HTML+TIME profile, which adds timing and media synchronization support to HTML documents (similar to the W3C XHTML+SMIL); and the VML vector graphics file format. However, all were rejected, at least in their original forms. VML was, however, subsequently combined with PGML (proposed by Adobe and Sun), resulting in the W3C-approved SVG format, currently one of the few vector image formats being used on the web, and which IE was virtually unique in not supporting.\nOther non-standard behaviors include support for vertical text, but in a syntax different from W3C CSS3 candidate recommendation; Support for a variety of image effects and page transitions, which are not found in W3C CSS; Support for obfuscated script code, in particular codice_2. Support for embedding EOT fonts in web pages.\nThe favicon (short for \"favorites icon\") introduced by Internet Explorer is now also supported and extended in other browsers. It allows web pages to specify a 16-by-16-pixel image for use in bookmarks. In IE, support was, and still is, provided only for the native Windows ICO format; in other browsers, it has now been extended to other types of images such as PNG and GIF.\nInternet Explorer uses the accessibility framework provided in Windows. It is also a user interface for FTP, with operations similar to those of Windows Explorer. Pop-up blocking and tabbed browsing were added in Internet Explorer 6 and Internet Explorer 7, respectively. Tabbed browsing can also be added to older versions by installing MSN Search Toolbar or Yahoo Toolbar.\nInternet Explorer caches visited content in the Temporary Internet Files folder to allow quicker access (or offline access) to previously visited pages. The content is indexed in a database file known as Index.dat. Multiple Index.dat files exist which index different content - visited content, web feeds, visited URLs, cookies, etc. Before IE7, clearing the cache used to clear the index but the files themselves were not reliably removed, posing a potential security and privacy risk. In IE7 and later, when the cache is cleared, the cache files are more reliably removed, and the index.dat file is overwritten with null bytes.\nInternet Explorer is fully configurable using Group Policy. Administrators of Windows Server domain can apply and enforce a variety of settings that affect the user interface (such as disabling menu items and individual configuration options) and underlying security features such as file downloading, zone configuration, per-site settings, ActiveX control behavior, and others. Policy settings can be configured for each user and each machine. Internet Explorer also supports Integrated Windows Authentication.\nArchitecture.\nInternet Explorer uses a componentized architecture built on the Component Object Model (COM) technology. It consists of several major components, each of which is contained in a separate Dynamic-link library (DLL) and exposes a set of COM programming interfaces hosted by the Internet Explorer main executable codice_3:\nInternet Explorer does not include any native scripting functionality. Rather, MSHTML.dll exposes an API that permits a programmer to develop a scripting environment to be plugged in and to access the DOM tree. Internet Explorer 8 includes the bindings for the Active Scripting engine, which is a part of Microsoft Windows and allows any language implemented as an Active Scripting module to be used for client-side scripting. By default, only the JScript and VBScript modules are provided; third-party implementations like ScreamingMonkey (for ECMAScript 4 support) can also be used. Microsoft also makes available the Microsoft Silverlight runtime that allows CLI languages, including DLR-based dynamic languages like IronPython and IronRuby, to be used for client-side scripting.\nInternet Explorer 8 introduced some major architectural changes, called \"Loosely Coupled IE\" (LCIE). LCIE separates the main window (frame process) from the processes hosting the web applications in different tabs (tab processes). A frame process can create multiple tab processes, each of which can be of a different integrity level; each tab process can host multiple websites. The processes use asynchronous Inter-Process Communication to synchronize themselves. Generally, there will be a single-frame process for all websites. In Windows Vista with Protected Mode turned on opening privileged content (such as local HTML pages) will create a new tab process as Protected Mode will not constrain it.\nExtensibility.\nInternet Explorer exposes a set of Component Object Model (COM) interfaces that allow other components to extend the functionality of the browser. Extensibility is divided into Browser extensibility and Content extensibility. The browser extensibility interfaces can be used to plug in components to add context menu entries, toolbars, menu items or Browser Helper Objects (BHO). BHOs are used to extend the browser's feature set, whereas the other extensibility options are used to expose the feature in the UI. Different content-type handlers use content extensibility interfaces to add support for non-native content formats. BHOs not only have unrestricted access to the Internet Explorer DOM and event model, but they also can access the filesystem, registry, and other OS components. Content extensibility can be either in terms of \"Active Documents\" (\"Doc Objects\") (e.g., SVG or MathML) or \"ActiveX controls\". ActiveX controls are used for content handlers that render content embedded within an HTML page (e.g., Adobe Flash or Microsoft Silverlight). Doc objects are used when the content type will not be embedded in HTML (e.g., Microsoft Word, PDF or XPS). The Trident rendering engine is itself exposed as a Doc object, so HTML in itself is treated as an Active Document.\nInternet Explorer add-on components run with the same privileges as the browser itself, unlike client-side scripts with limited privileges. Add-ons can be installed either locally or directly by a website. Since the add-ons have more privileged access to the system, malicious add-ons can and have been used to compromise the system's security. Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 2 onwards provide various safeguards against this, including an Add-on Manager for controlling ActiveX controls and Browser Helper Objects and a \"No Add-Ons\" mode of operation as well as greater restrictions on sites installing add-ons.\nOther applications can host Internet Explorer via a set of COM interfaces. This can be used to embed the browser functionality inside the application. Also, the hosting application can choose to host only the MSHTML.dll rendering engine rather than the entire browser.\nSecurity.\nInternet Explorer uses a zone-based security framework that groups sites based on certain conditions, including whether they are Internet\u2014or intranet-based and a user-editable whitelist. Security restrictions are applied per zone; all the sites in a zone are subject to the restrictions.\nInternet Explorer 6 SP2 onwards uses the \"Attachment Execution Service\" of Microsoft Windows to mark executable files downloaded from the Internet as potentially unsafe. Accessing files marked as such will prompt the user to make an explicit trust decision to execute the file. This helps in preventing accidental installation of malware. Internet Explorer 7 introduced the phishing filter that restricts access to phishing sites unless the user overrides the decision. Version 8 also blocks access to sites known to host malware. Downloads are also checked to see if they are known to be malware-infected.\nIn Windows Vista, Internet Explorer by default runs in what is called \"Protected Mode\", where the privileges of the browser itself are severely restricted - it cannot make any system-wide changes. One can optionally turn this mode off, but this is not recommended. This also effectively restricts the privileges of any add-ons. As a result, even if the browser or any add-on is compromised, the damage the security breach can cause is limited.\nBrowser patches and updates are periodically released and made available through the Windows Update service and Automatic Updates. Although security patches continue to be released for a range of platforms, most feature additions and infrastructure improvements are only made available on operating systems in Microsoft's mainstream support phase.\nOn December 16, 2008, Trend Micro recommended users switch to rival browsers until an emergency IE patch was released to fix a potential security risk which \"could allow outside users to take control of a person's computer and steal their passwords\". Microsoft representatives countered this recommendation, claiming that \"0.02% of internet sites\" were affected by the flaw. On December 17, 2008, a fix to the security problem above became available with the release of the Security Update for Internet Explorer KB960714, available from Microsoft Windows Update's webpage. Microsoft said that this update fixes the security risk found by Trend Micro the previous day.\nSecurity vulnerabilities.\nInternet Explorer has been subjected to many security vulnerabilities and concerns: Much of the spyware, adware, and computer viruses across the Internet are made possible by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of Internet Explorer, sometimes requiring nothing more than viewing of a malicious web page to install themselves. This is known as a \"drive-by install\". There are also attempts to trick the user into installing malicious software by misrepresenting the software's true purpose in the description section of an ActiveX security alert.\nSeveral security flaws affecting IE originated not in the browser itself but in the ActiveX-based add-ons it uses. Because the add-ons have the same privilege as IE, the flaws can be as critical as browser flaws. This has led to the ActiveX-based architecture being criticized for being fault-prone. By 2005, some experts maintained that the dangers of ActiveX had been overstated, and safeguards were in place. In 2006, new techniques using automated testing found more than a hundred vulnerabilities in standard Microsoft ActiveX components. Security features introduced in Internet Explorer 7 mitigated some of these vulnerabilities.\nInternet Explorer in 2008 had several published security vulnerabilities. According to research done by security research firm Secunia, Microsoft did not respond as quickly as its competitors in fixing security holes and making patches available. The firm also reported 366 vulnerabilities in ActiveX controls, an increase from the prior year. Secunia reported that IE6 had 24 known unpatched vulnerabilities, IE7 had 11, and IE8 had 4. The most severe unpatched Secunia advisories affecting Microsoft Internet Explorer, 6.x, 7.x, and 8.x, with all vendor patches applied, are rated Extremely critical. The oldest known unpatched vulnerabilities for IE6, IE7, and IE8 are dated November 7, 2003, June 6, 2006, and February 26, 2007, respectively.\nSecurity research firm SecurityFocus reported that IE6 had 396 known unpatched vulnerabilities, IE7 had 22, and IE8 had 25. The oldest known unpatched vulnerabilities for IE6, IE7, and IE8 are dated November 20, 2000, May 17, 2007, and April 11, 2009, respectively.\nIn an advisory on January 14, 2010, Microsoft said that attackers targeting Google and other U.S. companies used software that exploits a security hole already patched in Internet Explorer. The vulnerability affected Internet Explorer 6, IE7, and IE8 on Windows 7, Vista, Windows XP, Server 2003, and Server 2008 R2, as well as IE 6 Service Pack 1 on Windows 2000 Service Pack 4.\nThe German government warned users against using Internet Explorer and recommended switching to an alternative web browser, due to the major security hole described above that was exploited in Internet Explorer. The Australian and French Government issued a similar warning a few days later. The first browser they recommended was Mozilla Firefox, followed by Google Chrome.\nMarket adoption and usage share.\nThe adoption rate of Internet Explorer is closely related to that of Microsoft Windows, as it is the default web browser that comes with Windows. Since integrating Internet Explorer 2.0 with Windows 95 OSR 1 in 1996, especially after version 4.0's release, the adoption was greatly accelerated: from below 20% in 1996 to about 40% in 1998 and over 80% in 2000.\nA CNN article noted at the release of Internet Explorer 4: \"Microsoft's Internet Explorer has made inroads and various estimates put its share of the browser market 30 to 35% from about 10% a year ago.\" By 2002, Internet Explorer had almost completely superseded its main rival Netscape and dominated the market with up to 95% market share. After having fought and won the browser wars of the late 1990s, Internet Explorer gained almost total dominance of the browser market. Having attained a peak of about 95% during 2002 and 2003, its market share has since declined at a slow but steady pace. This is mainly due to the adoption of Mozilla Firefox, which statistics indicate is currently the most significant competition. Nevertheless, Internet Explorer remains the dominant web browser, with a global usage share of around 60% (though measurements vary). Usage is higher in Asia and lower in Europe.\nFirefox 1.0 surpassed Internet Explorer 5 in early 2005, with Firefox 1.0 at roughly 8% market share. An article noted at the release of Internet Explorer 7 in October 2006 that \"IE6 had the lion's share of the browser market with 77.22%. Internet Explorer 7 had climbed to 3.18%, while Firefox 2.0 was at 0.69%.\"\nInternet Explorer 7 was released at the same time as Firefox 2.0, and overtook Firefox 1.x by November 2006, at roughly 9% market share. Firefox 2.0 had overtaken 1.x by January 2007, but IE7 did not surpass IE6 until December 2007. By January 2008, their respective version market share stood at 43% IE7, 32% IE6, 16% FF2, 4% Safari 3 and both FF1.x and IE5 versions at less than half a percent.\nMarket share history overview by year and version.\nApproximate usage over time based on various usage share counters averaged for the year overall, or for the fourth quarter, or for the last month in the year depending on availability of reference. IE was at its peak in 2003 with 94% of the worldwide internet browsers, but started falling in 2004 and since has hit a 2000s decade low in 2011 with only 49.7% of worldwide internet users.\nOS compatibility.\nOver time, IE versions have had widely varying OS compatibility, ranging from being available for many platforms and several versions of Windows to only a few versions. Many versions of IE had some support for an older OS but stopped getting updates. The increased growth of the Internet in the 1990s and 2000s means that current browsers with small market shares have more total users than the entire market early on. 90% market share in 1997 would be roughly 60 million users, but by the start of 2007 90% market share would be over 900 million users. The result is that later IE6 had many more users than all the early versions put together.\nThe release of IE7 at the end of 2006 resulted in a collapse of IE6 market share; by February 2007, market version share statistics showed IE6 at about 50% and IE7 at 29%. Regardless of the actual market share, the most compatible version (across operating systems) of IE was 5.x, which had Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X, Unix, and most Windows versions available and supported for a short period in the late 1990s (although 4.x had a more unified codebase across versions). By 2007, IE had much narrower OS support, with the latest versions supporting only Windows XP Service Pack 2 and above. Internet Explorer 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, and 7.0 (Experimental) have also been unofficially ported to the Linux operating system from the project IEs4Linux.\n& The Final version of Windows XP Service Pack 3 does not include IE7.\n$ No native support, but possible with a third-party Standalone installer of IE6 Alpha.\nSee also Internet Explorer Mobile. Non-desktop versions of IE have also supported Windows CE.\n\u0141 Internet Explorer 2.0 and 2.0.1 requires System 7.0.1 or higher. Internet Explorer 2.1 requires System 7.1 or higher.\n\u20ac Included Internet Explorer 3.01 in Mac OS 8.1; Internet Explorer 4.01 in Mac OS 8.5 and 8.5.1; Internet Explorer 4.5 from Mac OS 8.6 to 9.0.4; Internet Explorer 5 from Mac OS 9.1 to 9.2.2.\n\u00a5 Internet Explorer 5 Macintosh Edition requires Mac OS 7.6 or higher. Internet Explorer version 5.1, 5.1.4, 5.1.5, 5.1.6, and 5.1.7 require Mac OS 8.0 or higher.\n16 16-bit version\n\"Standalone\" Internet Explorer.\nEarly versions of Internet Explorer such as 5 had a compatibility mode to run Internet Explorer 4. However, this feature was dropped (Internet Explorer for Mac users could still use 4.5 after installing IE 5). While Microsoft claims it is impossible to keep multiple versions of Internet Explorer on the same machine, some hackers have successfully separated several versions of Internet Explorer, making them standalone applications. These are called \"standalone\" IEs, including versions 3 through 7.\nMicrosoft has discontinued standalone installers for Internet Explorer to the general public. However, there are unofficial procedures for downloading the complete install package. Internet Explorer standalone uses a feature introduced in Windows 2000 called DLL redirection to force it to load older DLLs than the ones installed on the system.\nIt is also possible to install Internet Explorer via Wine.\nAfter Internet Explorer 7 is installed, an Internet Explorer 6 executable is still available in C: WINDOWS\\ie7, hidden by default. Launching this executable provides the user with the older IE6 interface; however, web pages are rendered using the IE7 engine. The IE6 engine can be re-enabled by placing a file named \"iexplore.exe.local\" into the IE7 folder.\nAs an alternative to using IE standalone, Microsoft now makes available Microsoft Virtual PC images containing pre-activated copies of Windows XP with either IE 6 or IE 7 installed. Microsoft recommends this approach for web developers seeking to test their pages in the different versions of IE as the standalone versions are unsupported and may not work the same way as a properly installed copy of IE.\nRemoval.\nWhile a major upgrade of Internet Explorer can be uninstalled traditionally if the user has saved the original application files for installation, uninstalling the version of the browser that has shipped with an operating system remains controversial. The idea of removing a stock install of Internet Explorer from a Windows system was proposed during the United States v. Microsoft court case. One of Microsoft's arguments during the trial was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability.\nRemoving Internet Explorer does have several consequences. Applications that depend on libraries installed by IE will fail to function or have unexpected behaviors. The Windows help and support system will also not function due to the heavy reliance on HTML help files and components of IE. In versions of Windows before Vista, it is also not possible to run Microsoft's Windows Update or Microsoft Update with any other browser due to the service's implementation of an ActiveX control, which no other browser supports. In Windows Vista, Windows Update is implemented as a Control Panel applet.\nWith Windows 7, Microsoft added the ability to safely remove Internet Explorer 8 from Windows. Microsoft does not allow the dependencies to be removed through this process. Still, the Internet Explorer executable (iexplore.exe) is removed without harming any other Windows components."}
+{"id": "3432", "revid": "1388029", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3432", "title": "Ulster", "text": "Ulster is one of the four historical provinces which make up the island of Ireland. The others are Leinster, Munster and Connacht. \nThere are nine counties in Ulster. Three of them are in the Republic of Ireland:\nThe other six counties make up all of Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom:\nDue to the fact that most of Ulster is in Northern Ireland, the name \"Ulster\" is also sometimes used to mean \"Northern Ireland\", even though Northern Ireland is only part of Ulster. This is called \"totum pro parte\" in Latin which means \"the whole for a part\"."}
+{"id": "3433", "revid": "31155", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3433", "title": "List of mathematicians", "text": "This is a list of famous mathematicians."}
+{"id": "3434", "revid": "4837285", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3434", "title": "Mancala", "text": "Mancala is a group of games played in Africa, the Middle East, and central Asia. People play the games by moving seeds on a board with pits carved in it."}
+{"id": "3436", "revid": "1338660", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3436", "title": "Coden, Alabama", "text": "Coden is a small fishing village near Bayou la Batre, Alabama, USA. It is about 20 miles southwest of Mobile, near the Alabama/Mississippi border. The name of the town comes from \"Coq d'Inde\", which is French for \"Turkey\".\nAround 1900, the area was known as a resort, which is a place people go to on their vacations. The Rolston Hotel brought visitors from all over the region. When it was destroyed by a hurricane, the community fell on hard times. The Rolston Hotel property now belongs to the City Of Bayou La Batre and is a park that is attracting people from other areas who want cool ocean breezes and peace that originally brought visitors. It is nice because it has the gentle sound of the water of Portersville Bay, fishing, and relaxation. Fresh seafood can be found on Shell Belt Road from fishing boats returning to Bayou Coden. Coden is on the southern shore of the mainland, across the Mississippi Sound from Dauphin Island and is one stop along Alabama's Coastal Birding Trail."}
+{"id": "3437", "revid": "1689808", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3437", "title": "Platypus", "text": "The duck-billed platypus (\"Ornithorhynchus anatinus\") is a small mammal. It is one of only two monotremes that survive today. It lives in eastern Australia, including Tasmania. The plural of platypus is just 'platypus'.\nThe platypus lives in rivers and river banks. It is one of only two families of mammals which lay eggs. The other is the Echidna, which has four species. The platypus was first described in detail in the early 19th century, but it took a while before biologists in England believed what they were not reading. \nThese mammals are called monotremes because they have a common rear opening, the cloaca. Through this opening faeces and urine are voided (put out), and sexual activity takes place. This is a primitive (basal) feature of tetrapods, which monotremes, birds and reptiles have today. The later (derived) mammals have the system where the rear has two openings.\nWhat sort of animal is it?\nThe platypus looks similar to a beaver with a brown, furry body and wide, flat tail. Unlike a beaver, it has no feet (no toes), which are good for swimming. When the platypus moves on land, it walks on its knuckles so the webs on its feet will not get in the way. Its nose is large and rubbery. The platypus is sometimes called \"duck billed platypus\" because of this nose. It is similar to a duck's bill (mouth). Platypus can be big or small. The larger platypus live in Tasmania while the smaller ones live in Queensland. Adults can be less than or up to . Its body can be from to long. Its tail can be from to long. Males are about one-third (1/3) larger than females. \nThe male platypus has a sharp spine on his two back ankles called \"spurs\" which contain a venom. It will not kill humans, but the poison has been known to kill small animals, such as dogs, and cause pain lasting as long as four months. The amount of poison increases during the breeding season.\nWhat they eat.\nThe platypus sleeps during the day, and moves mostly at night. It is a very good swimmer and spends much of its time in the water. The toes on its feet are joined. When it swims, it pushes itself along by moving the front two feet. The tail and back feet help it to turn left or right, but does not make it faster.\nThe platypus eats other animals. It eats worms, insect larvae, shrimps and yabbies, which are a kind of freshwater crayfish. It digs these animals out of the bottom of the river with its beak, or catches them while swimming. Its nose can sense many things that other noses cannot. The platypus can sense electricity from other animals. It keeps its eyes shut when swimming, using only its other senses, such as hearing, touch and changes in the electrical field. The platypus can also hunt without using its eyes. These are adaptations to life in rivers where the water is opaque with sediment. \nReproduction.\nWhen on land, the platypus lives in burrows on the river banks. These holes are between and long. It makes these holes in the river bank a little above the water. It likes them hidden under roots. When a female platypus is pregnant, the female makes much larger holes, up to long. She blocks the tunnel with earth at several places. At the end of the tunnel, she builds a nest out of reeds for her eggs. \nThe platypus lays eggs in its nest. When the babies come out of the eggs after about ten days, they hold on to the mother. The mother makes milk for the new babies. The platypus does not have nipples, but milk comes through small openings in the skin. The young platypus drinks the milk from the mother's skin while she lies on her back. At six weeks the babies have fur and are able to leave the burrow for short trips. After four months they no longer need their mother's milk.\nThe long period as dependent young, the provision of milk, and the way the young learn through play, are all advanced features. The monotremes share them with all other mammals. The monotremes are a mixture of primitive and advanced traits, a situation known as mosaic evolution.\nWhere they live.\nThe platypus lives in small streams and rivers over a large area of eastern Australia. The map above shows this with dark purple. It has been seen in alpine lakes in Tasmania in the south, and north in Queensland as far as the Cape York Peninsula in tropical rain forest rivers. \nIn the past, platypus lived in South Australia but they no longer do so. There are platypus on Kangaroo Island, but these were brought there in an attempt to save animals people thought might become extinct. There are very few if any platypus left in most the Murray-Darling Basin. The water there is no good because people used it to grow plants, and cleared the trees from the land. It is strange that the platypus does not live in some healthy rivers. It does live in some less healthy coastal rivers, for example the Maribyrnong River in Victoria. \nPlatypus are difficult to see in the wild. They dislike areas with people, spend most of their time underground or under water, and sleep during the day. At Eungella National Park in Queensland, there are spots on the river with viewing areas where wild platypus can usually be seen each evening.\nThe past and the future.\nIts evolution.\nModern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree. A later branching led to the marsupial and placental groups. Molecular clock and fossil dating suggest platypuses split from echidnas around 19\u201348million years ago.\nThis species.\nThe first platypus specimen arrived in England in 1799 in the form of a skin of a dead platypus, so biologists could study it. They did not really understand what they were seeing. Some thought it was a fake.\n\"National Geographic\" magazine had a story on the platypus in 1939. Many people had never heard of the platypus. The story told how hard it was to raise the babies in zoos. Even today, humans have raised only few. David Fleay at the Healesville Sanctuary in Victoria had the first successful zoo-raised platypus in 1946. He nearly did it again in 1972 at the David Fleay Wildlife Park at Burleigh Heads, Queensland, but it died at 50 days. Healesville raised another in 1998 and again in 2000. Taronga Zoo in Sydney bred twins in 2003, and had another birth in 2006.\nThe platypus will probably not die out completely in the near future. Ecologists say that it is \u201csecure but faces future threat\u201d (safe now but not in the future) or common but vulnerable (there are a lot now but they are not safe). They say this because people can make the water unsafe for the platypus."}
+{"id": "3440", "revid": "1674576", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3440", "title": "Kenya", "text": "Kenya is a country in East Africa, about halfway down the continent, near the Horn of Africa. It is about the size of France, and almost as large as the U.S. state of Texas. Its capital city is Nairobi, which is the 14th largest city in Africa (after Accra, Ghana). \nKenya is bordered by the Indian Ocean and the Jubaland part of Somalia to its east. To the north, it borders Ethiopia; to the northwest, it borders South Sudan; to the south, Tanzania; and to the west, Uganda and Lake Victoria. \nSeaside cities include Mombasa and Malindi (on the Indian Ocean), Nyeri, Nanyuki, Naivasha, and Thika (in the Kenyan Highlands), and Kisumu (on Lake Victoria).\nThe first humans may have lived near Kenya's lakes along the Great Rift Valley, which cuts Kenya from north to south.\nPeople.\nKenya is home to many different indigenous peoples with their own cultures, languages, and histories. \nLike in the Congo, Kenyans are divided into many tribes that often fight. However, Kenya's government is trying to get the people to cooperate and has encouraged them to run businesses and factories together.\nLanguages.\nEnglish and Swahili are Kenya's official languages. However, there are at least 44 living languages in Kenya, plus one extinct language that is not spoken any more. \nBecause of colonialism, Kenyan students are required to learn English, and it is used in schools and universities.\nGeography & climate.\nKenya's coast is tropical and gets very hot. Inland, it is drier and cooler where the mountains rise up. The highest mountain in the country is Mt. Kenya, which is tall. Mount Kilimanjaro crosses over the south border, with Tanzania, but its highest part is in Tanzania.\nLand and animals.\nKenya is a country of grassland. Three-fourths of the country is covered with plains. They are low in altitude along the coast, but get higher further inland, making a large plateau. The area east of Lake Turkana is the only true desert, but the rest can be very desert-like.\nKenya's soil is generally not rich, but it is productive land, especially in the highlands. This is a very dry grassland with poor soil. \nKenya has very few mineral resources, but the most common is soda ash. \nSavannas.\nSavannas usually get between 4 and 16\u00a0inches (100 to 400\u00a0mm) of rain in a year. They are called savannas because of the type of plants that live there and how they get their rain. \nSavannas have a wet season and a dry season. It can rain hard for long periods of time during the wet season, then not rain at all in the dry season.\nSavannas that have more rain often have many trees spaced out across their plains. To help them live through the long dry seasons without rain, these trees have deep roots, or they store water like desert plants do. Even drier savannas will have only grass, and that too only in a few clumps. The dry land is very bad for crops, but it is a wonderful place for all kinds of wild animals to gather and range. \nAnimals.\nKenya has many special wildlife parks, where animals are kept and protected from poachers. People visit from all over the world to go on photo safaris in the parks. \nAnimals like the rhinoceros, giraffe, wildebeest, elephant, cheetah, antelope, and lion all live on the savanna grasslands. The area's wild herbivores move as they eat, and they never stay in one spot because there is not enough grass for all of them. \nMany people raise cattle on the savanna. These animals are kept in one place and often eat up all the grass there.\nHistory.\nThe first humans may have lived near lakes along the Great Rift Valley in what is now Kenya.\nColonization.\nKenya was colonized by the British Empire, who began taking land from indigenous peoples to build ranches. They also discriminated against Kenyans in their own land. \nKenyans who opposed British colonization formed a group called the Kenya Land and Freedom Army, or Mau Mau. The group fought a war against Britain for independence. The British committed war crimes to stop the Mau Mau, but on December 12, 1963 they agreed to give Kenya independence.\nIndependence.\nFor many years after independence, a single party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), ruled the country. General elections were held every 5 years. However, only members of the ruling party, KANU, were allowed to be candidates for political office. The party used the police to harass and torture socialists and communists in Kenya, and worked closely with Britain and the United States to keep them out of politics.\nToday.\nWilliam Ruto is currently the president of Kenya, with Rigathi Gachagua as his Deputy. The two leaders have had political conflicts after Kenyatta agreed to a peace treaty often called a 'handshake' with Kenya's opposition leader, Raila Odinga. This occurred after the 2017 General Elections on whom should succeed Kenya's presidency in 2022. The president supported Odinga.\nEducation.\nPrimary school & high school.\nAll Kenyans of school-going age are required to attend primary school. However, school fees and required uniforms often keep students away from school. \nThe Kenyan school system consists of 8 years of primary school (Standard 1 through 8), 4 years of high school (Form 1 through 4) and 4 years of university. However, in 2018 there were plans to change the system to 2 years of pre-school, 6 years of primary school, 3 years of junior high school, 3 years in senior high school, and 3 years in university (2-6-6-3). \nExams & university.\nAt the end of primary school, all students sit for a standardized exam called Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE). Students' grades on this exam determine which high school they will attend. In Form 4 (the last year in high school), students sit for another exam called the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). The highest-achieving students are granted admission into the 5 national universities (Nairobi, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenyatta University, Egerton University and Moi University). Tertiary colleges, like Globovillee college, also feed the diploma graduates to universities.\nGovernment.\nSince Kenya became independent in 1963, it usually had a one-party government. In 1991, a section of the constitution was discarded, which automatically made it a multi-party state. \nKenya is a member of the British Commonwealth. It is a developing country and is rapidly becoming modernized.\nCounties.\nIn 2012, Kenya was divided into 47 counties. Each county is led by a governor. These counties are further subdivided into 350 constituencies. Each of these is represented in the National Assembly by Members of Parliament.\nIn the past, Kenya was divided into provinces instead of counties."}
+{"id": "3441", "revid": "585618", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3441", "title": "Swahili language", "text": "The Swahili language is a language widely spoken in East Africa. In the language, its name is \"\". It is a Bantu language.\nSwahili is spoken in a wide area from southern Somalia to northern Mozambique and in all of Kenya, Tanzania and Burundi. Congo has five million first-language speakers and fifty million second-language speakers. Swahili has become a language with which people communicate within East Africa and the surrounding areas.\nSwahili was first spoken by the Swahili people, who live on the coast of East Africa and on the islands near the coast, including Zanzibar, which is now a part of Tanzania.\nSwahili is an official language in Tanzania and Kenya. It has been influenced by many other languages like Arabic."}
+{"id": "3445", "revid": "805501", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3445", "title": "Long jump", "text": "The long jump is a sport in track and field athletics, where athletes compete by comparing lengths of their jumps where athletes try to jump as far as they can. For this, the athlete runs down the runway to the jumping pit which is made of soft sand. If a person falls backwards when jumping, this can decrease the length of their jump.\nRules.\nLong jump is a sport in which, the athlete who jumps the longest by legal means, wins. The athlete begins running from his or her starting position and after attaining sufficient velocity, jumps, landing in a sand pit, which is fitted with distance markers. There is a foul line, in the run-up area, that the athlete has to be aware of; jumping from beyond this line results in a \u2018foul jump\u2019. Jumpers try to get as close to the foul line as legally possible before initiating their jump."}
+{"id": "3447", "revid": "458748", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3447", "title": "Elizabeth II", "text": "Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 \u2013 8 September 2022) was Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms from 1952 until her death in 2022. She was also Head of the Commonwealth. \nElizabeth became queen when her father, King George VI, died on 6 February 1952. At the time of her death, she had ruled longer than any other king or queen in the history of the United Kingdom. She had also ruled longer than any other living king or queen in the world, since the death of Thailand's Bhumibol Adulyadej on 13 October 2016. She was the second-longest reigning monarch in history.\nIn 1947, Elizabeth married Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who died in 2021. Elizabeth and Philip had four children, eight grandchildren and 12 great-grandchildren. She died on 8 September 2022 at the age of 96, and was succeeded by her eldest son, Charles III.\nWhile she was Queen, Elizabeth was very popular with the British people. Though other members of her family, and other events, led to some bad days. Elizabeth said her \"annus horribilis\" (meaning \"horrible year\" in Latin) was 1992, because of adultery in her family, a fire at Windsor Castle and other events.\nEarly life.\nElizabeth was born in her grandparents' home at 17 Bruton street, Mayfair, London on 21 April 1926. Her father was Prince Albert, Duke of York, who later became George VI. Her mother was Elizabeth, Duchess of York.\nElizabeth was the granddaughter of King George V and Queen Mary. She was named after her mother. Her nickname was \"Lilibet\".\nElizabeth had one sister, Princess Margaret. Margaret was born in 1930. The two young princesses were taught at home. They had a governess named Marion Crawford.\nElizabeth was third in the line of succession to the British Throne. The first in line was her uncle, the Prince of Wales. The second in line was her father, the Duke of York.\nElizabeth's grandfather, King George V, died in 1936. Her uncle became King Edward VIII. He was king only for a short time. He abdicated.\nHis brother, Elizabeth's father the Duke of York, became King George VI.\nElizabeth was 13 years old when World War II started. London was bombed. Elizabeth and Margaret were moved to Windsor Castle. This was for their safety. People thought that they should be sent to Canada. Their mother did not approve this idea.\nElizabeth joined the British army in 1945. She trained to drive trucks. She trained as a mechanic. In 1947, she made her first official trip outside Britain. She went with her parents to South Africa. She made a speech on her 22nd birthday. She said her whole life would be devoted to the service of British Commonwealth and Empire.\nSuccession.\nIn 1951, the King's health was poor. He could not go to many public events. Princess Elizabeth started to make official visits for him. The King died on 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was crowned Queen on 2 June 1953. The ceremony was held in Westminster Abbey. She wore a dress that was decorated with the national flowers of the countries of the Commonwealth. Many people bought TV sets to watch the event.\nReign.\nIn 1952, the Queen and Prince Philip moved into Buckingham Palace in central London. This is the main official home of the monarch. Her coronation took place in 1953.\nHer early years as Queen were spent traveling to many places. In 1953, the Queen and Prince Philip began an around the world tour in the Royal Yacht, \"Britannia\". Their tour went for six months. She was the first reigning monarch to visit Australia, New Zealand and Fiji.\nIn October 1957, she made an official visit to the United States. She spoke to the United Nations General Assembly. She toured Canada. She became the first monarch to open the nation's Parliament. The Queen liked going to Canada. She called Canada her \"home away from home\".\nIn February 1961, she visited India, Iran, Pakistan and Nepal for the first time. Since then, the Queen made visits to most Commonwealth countries. She had also been to most European countries and many countries outside Europe.\nIn 1966, the Aberfan disaster, which was a collapse of a colliery spoil tip onto the village of Aberfan in Glamorgan, Wales. It killed 144 people, most of whom were children. She decided not to visit the village in the aftermath because she thought her presence would take attention away from finding survivors. It was argued that her visit would calm the chaos. Elizabeth visited 8 days later. It is said that not going to Aberfan straight away is her biggest regret.\nIn 1991, she became the first British monarch to speak to a joint session of the United States Congress. She goes to the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings. She is the most widely travelled head of state in history.\nSome people in Australia wanted a republic, with an elected or appointed president as Head of State instead of the Queen. In 1999, the people of Australia were asked in a referendum whether they wanted a republic. The decision of the people was to remain a monarchy. The Queen visited Australia the following year and said that she would continue to serve Australians as she had done for 48 years.\nIn 1997, Prince Charles' ex-wife Lady Diana Spencer died in a car crash. The royal family went through a period of criticism from the media and public because the divorce had been very controversial. \nIn the late 1990s, there were \"referendums\" in which the people of Scotland and Wales were asked if they wanted parliaments that were separate from the parliament of the United Kingdom. This was called a \"devolution policy\". As a result, the new Scottish Parliament and the National Assembly of Wales, were set up. The Queen opened the first sessions of these two bodies. \nIn May 2007, the Queen and Prince Philip made a state visit to the United States, in honour of the 400th anniversary of the Jamestown settlement.\nOn September 6 2022, two days before her death, the Queen met the new Prime Minister Liz Truss and gave her permission to start her government. This was the Queen's last official act before her death.\nChanges to the Commonwealth.\nWhen Elizabeth became Queen on 6 February 1952, she was officially Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka). These were the Commonwealth countries. She was also Queen of the Union of South Africa (which became a republic in 1961).\nThere were many more countries that she also ruled, because they belonged to the British Empire. One by one, many of the countries became independent, and as they gained independence she remained Queen of many of them. Altogether, she was sovereign of 32 nations.\nSome of the countries she was once Queen of are now republics and have a president as \"Head of State\". Some of them kept the Queen as \"Head of State\". Queen Elizabeth II was the only monarch of more than one independent nation. The old British Empire became the Commonwealth of Nations.\nIt includes both monarchies and republics. It is now called \"The Commonwealth\". The Queen is the Head of the Commonwealth. She worked hard to keep peace and good communication between all the nations that are members. At the time of her death, Queen Elizabeth II was head of state of fifteen countries including the UK. \nRelations with governments and other countries.\nElizabeth II was friends with many world leaders. Her first Prime Minister of Australia, Sir Robert Menzies called her \"My Dear\" and recited a poem that said \"I will love her till I die\". She has friendships with Mary Robinson, President of Ireland (1990\u20131997) and George W. Bush, who was the first American President in more than 80 years to stay at Buckingham Palace. Nelson Mandela, in a BBC documentary, called her \"my friend, Elizabeth\".\nEver since she became queen, Elizabeth spent about three hours every day \"doing the boxes\". The \"boxes\" are two large red boxes that were brought to her from the Parliament every day. They are full of state papers sent to her from her various departments, embassies, and government offices. One of the most famous photos taken of Elizabeth as a teenager shows her with her father, the King, learning about \"the boxes\". Because she had been doing this since 1952, she knew a great deal about the government of the UK.\nDeath and funeral.\nOn 8 September 2022, Buckingham Palace said that the Queen was under medical supervision at Balmoral after doctors said that they were concerned by her health. The statement read, \"Following further evaluation this morning, the Queen's doctors are concerned for Her Majesty's health and have recommended she remain under medical supervision. The Queen remains comfortable and at Balmoral.\" The Queen's four children, along with Prince William, Prince Harry, and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, travelled to be with her. Her death was announced in the evening of the same day.\nHer state funeral was on 19 September.\nHer daughter Princess Anne registered the death certificate of Elizabeth II. It said she died at 8 September 2022 at 15:10 BST at Balmoral Castle. It also said she died of old age including osteoporosis\nIt was well known that Elizabeth never planned to abdicate, though she took on fewer public engagements as she grew older and Prince Charles took on more of her duties. On September 8, 2022, Queen Elizabeth died at Balmoral Castle. Prince Charles succeeded her as the monarch.\nPersonal life.\nPrincess Elizabeth married Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on 20 November 1947. The wedding was held in Westminster Abbey. The couple lived mostly at Clarence House in London.\nThe couple had four children. Charles was born on 14 November 1948. Their second child, Anne, was born on 15 August 1950. Their son Andrew was born on 19 February 1960. Their son Edward was born on 10 March 1964. The princes and princess sometimes use the name Mountbatten-Windsor. This is their official last name when they need one (royal families rarely use them).\nPrince Philip died on 9 April 2021 at Windsor Castle, aged 99. In February 2022, Elizabeth II tested positive for COVID-19 after having cold-like symptoms.\nFaith and duty.\nElizabeth II, as the Monarch of the United Kingdom, was the \"Supreme Governor\" of the Church of England and sworn protector of the Church of Scotland. She was very interested in the Church of England, but the Archbishop of Canterbury runs the church. She rarely attended the yearly meeting of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.\nThe Queen was deeply religious. In her Christmas Day television broadcast in 2000, she said:\nThe Queen regularly went to church wherever she was: at St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle, St. Mary Magdalene Church at Sandringham House, Crathie Kirk at Balmoral Castle, and Canongate Kirk in Edinburgh, when she stayed there in Holyroodhouse, her official home in Scotland.\nThe Queen often met with leaders from other religions as well. In 1980, she became the first British Monarch to visit the Vatican, where she was welcomed by Pope John Paul II. She made another visit 20 years later on 17 October 2000. Queen Elizabeth II is Patron of \"The Council of Christians and Jews\" in the UK.\nThe Queen showed a very strong sense of duty, ever since she was a girl. Her father, King George VI, was not meant to be king. Her uncle became king when her grandfather died. But he fell in love with an American woman who was divorced, and that wasn't allowed. So he had to give up being king very shortly after ascending. George VI didn't want to be king, because he was quite nervous and had a stammer. However, Elizabeth's grandfather said that he didn't think her uncle was very good as a king, and wanted George to reign, then Elizabeth. From the moment she realised that one day she would be Queen, she became very interested in her duties and did all she could to help her father. Her promise to serve her people all her life had always been very important to her. Some people thought that, when she was old, perhaps she would retire (\"abdicate\") and let her son Prince Charles take over. People who knew her well, including Prince Charles, said that this would never happen.\nWhen the Queen was in London, she met her Prime Minister once a week, to talk about events. She also had meetings with the First Minister of Scotland and other Ministers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the Prime Ministers and Ministers of other countries, when she was in their country, or when they visited London.\nCourage.\nThe Queen has often shown courage, ever since she joined the military at 18. During a trip to Ghana in 1961, she was warned that it was dangerous to be near the President Kwame Nkrumah because people wanted to kill him. But she refused to stay away. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Harold Macmillan, wrote that the Queen got very impatient with people if they tried to treat her like \"a film star\".\nIn 1964, when the Queen was invited to Quebec, there were fears for her safety because there was opposition to her visit. There were suggestions that the tour should be cancelled. But the Queen's secretary said that the Queen would not want to be stopped from going to Quebec because of any danger. During the Trooping the Colour in 1981, she was shot at, but she carried on. The Queen was praised for her courage and for her ability to keep her horse calm. It was later discovered that the shots were blanks. In 1982, a man called Michael Fagan broke into Buckingham Palace in the morning, and found the Queen's bedroom. He woke her up, and sat on her bed, until the guards came to take him away.\nFamily relations.\nThroughout her long reign, Queen Elizabeth II was supported in her duties by her husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Prince Philip promised to help the Queen on the day of her Coronation. The Queen was also helped by her mother Queen Elizabeth, known as \"The Queen Mother\", who lived to be 101 years old, and stayed very active in her old-age. The Queen was the patron of many organisations and charities. She had many invitations and official duties. Many of the duties were shared by other members of the Royal Family, who also became become patrons of many organisations.\nThe Queen was sad about the broken marriages and divorces of three of her children, Prince Charles, Princess Anne and Andrew Mountbatten Windsor. Prince Charles's marriage to Lady Diana Spencer was thought to be a fairytale wedding because Diana was young and beautiful, and they seemed very happy. But soon the marriage became troubled, and after their divorce, she was killed in a car accident in 1997. On 9 April 2005, Prince Charles married Camilla Parker-Bowles, whom he had loved for many years. In 2002, within seven weeks of each other, the Queen's mother and sister, Princess Margaret, both died on 30 March and 9 February respectively.\nToward the end of her life, she left more duties to the younger members of the Royal Family, particularly to Prince Charles, who became King when she died.\nWealth.\nThe Queen's wealth was private. It was difficult to estimate how much she was worth. She owned Sandringham House, Balmoral Castle, and other large properties. She did not own Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, or the royal collection of art. These are worth millions of pounds. In 2021, \"Forbes\" magazine estimated her personal fortune at about US$500 million (\u00a3300 million).\nJubilees.\nSilver Jubilee.\nIn 1977, the Queen celebrated her Silver Jubilee. This jubilee marked the anniversary of her coming to the throne. There was a royal procession in the golden State Coach. A service of thanksgiving was held at St. Paul's Cathedral. Millions of people watched on television. There were parties across the UK. Five commemorative stamps were printed in honour of the event. The Jubilee line of the London Underground opened in 1979, named after the anniversary.\nGolden Jubilee.\nIn 2002, Elizabeth II celebrated Golden Jubilee. This jubilee marked the 50th anniversary of her coming to the throne. She toured the Commonwealth countries. There was a pop concert in the gardens of Buckingham Palace. A service of thanksgiving was held at St. Paul's Cathedral.\nDiamond wedding anniversary.\nThe Queen and Prince Philip celebrated their sixtieth (diamond) wedding anniversary on 19 November 2007, with a special service at Westminster Abbey. The night before, Prince Charles gave a private dinner party at Clarence House for 20 members of the Royal Family.\nOn the following day, 20 November, the Queen and Prince Philip went on a visit to Malta, where they had stayed from 1949 to 1951 after getting married. A Royal Navy ship, which was nearby, got its sailors to line up on deck to form a big number '60' for the couple.\nDiamond Jubilee.\nIn 2012, the Queen's 60 years as monarch were marked by Diamond Jubilee celebrations, including a grand pageant of boats on the Thames and a service of thanksgiving at St Paul's Cathedral.\nSapphire Jubilee and Platinum Wedding Anniversary.\nIn 2017, the Sapphire Jubilee marked the Queen's 65 years as monarch. She was the first British monarch to have a Sapphire Jubilee. Instead of large celebrations, as usual, the Queen spent the day in \"quiet reflection\" because the day was also the anniversary of her father's death. Commemorative stamps and coins were made in honour of the Jubilee, and a portrait of the Queen wearing sapphire jewellery was reissued.\nAlso in 2017, the Queen and Prince Philip celebrated their seventieth (Platinum) wedding anniversary. They held a private celebration at Windsor Castle. Westminster Abbey, where they were married, held a three-hour bell ceremony.\nPlatinum Jubilee.\nThe Queen's Platinum Jubilee was held in February 2022, meaning she has been Queen for 70 years. She would have surpassed Louis XIV of France as the longest-reigning monarch of a sovereign state in world history if she remained Queen until 27 May 2024.\nPublic opinion.\nQueen Elizabeth II was very popular in the United Kingdom, her Commonwealth Realms and even in foreign countries. This was partly because of the many small gestures that the Queen did that made people like her, such as her voluntarily paying taxes even though she didn't legally have to. The Queen was often seen as a voice of reason during troubling times for the country. \nDuring major controversies such as the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, the Andrew Mountbatten Windsor and Jeffrey Epstein scandal and also the departure of Harry and Meghan from the royal family, the Queen and the rest of the royal family came under a lot of criticism. However, the Queen still remained a very popular figure. \nIn 2020, Elizabeth's grandson Prince Harry and his wife Meghan Markle decided to leave the royal family. In several interviews, the couple talked about how being involved with the royal family took a toll on their mental health. This prompted a lot of criticism from media and the public towards the royal family. \nIn early 2021, Prince Philip died. Due to COVID-19 restrictions, the Queen had to sit alone at his funeral, leading to a lot of sympathy from the public. \nThe Queen had been credited with keeping the monarchy popular in the UK and the other Commonwealth realms.\nTitles and styles.\nWhen someone is talking about the Queen, she is called \"The Queen\" or \"Her Majesty\". When someone was talking to her, she was called \"Your Majesty\". After the first time, the person talking to the Queen could say \"Ma'am\". It is pronounced \"Marm\". These are the titles that she had:\nThe Queen had several coats of arms. In the UK, they are known as the \"Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom\". Every British monarch has used these arms since the reign of Queen Victoria. The coats of arms used in Scotland and Canada are different to the arms used in England and Wales.\nBy the end of her reign, Elizabeth II was:"}
+{"id": "3448", "revid": "1530097", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3448", "title": "Question", "text": "A question is what someone asks, usually when there is something that he or she does not know. In writing, a question mark (\"?\") comes at the end of a question. However, just because a question is asked does not mean there is an answer.\nTypes of question.\nSometimes a question has a simple answer like \"Yes\" or \"No\".\nSometimes a question has a more complicated answer like \"Maybe\", or \"I don't know\". There are so many types of questions and so many ways of answering questions.\nExamples of these questions.\nPeople may give a short answer. People may give a long answer. It depends on the question.\nTypes.\nDifferent kinds of why questions need different kinds of answers. A question like \"Why did you do that?\" clearly asks for an explanation. What that explanation might be depends on context. This kind of explanation is not right or wrong: it all depends on circumstance. The question and answer may also have to do with \"who\", \"what\", \"when\" and \"where\".\nThere are types or forms of explanations, including:\nMany kinds of explanations are made up of more than one type.\nAn explanation can be valid or invalid or a combination of both. Some explanations may appear reasonable, but they turn out to be misleading or wrong."}
+{"id": "3449", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3449", "title": "Boss", "text": "A boss is a person who is in charge of workers in a company or organization. Bosses can have many different job titles. Simple examples include manager, supervisor and director.\nBoss may also mean:"}
+{"id": "3450", "revid": "1618275", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3450", "title": "Gun", "text": "A gun (also called a firearm) is a weapon used to shoot one or more metal projectiles called bullets. Guns made of wood or bamboo are thought to have been made in China around 1000 AD. In the next few centuries they spread to other parts of Asia and to Europe where they were made of metal. Guns largely replaced catapults and bows and arrows when they became strong enough to reach out over longer distances to reliably hit a target. They are of many different sizes. Some are small enough to hold in one hand. Others are large enough to sink a warship.\nIn military usage, the word \"firearm\" is used for the type of weapons that soldiers carry. Most of them are either pistols or rifles. These small arms can be carried and used by one person. They have the same basic parts: a trigger, a barrel, and a handgrip or stock. The shooter's finger pulls the trigger to fire the weapon which releases a bullet. The barrel guides the bullet which then flies to the target. The shooter's hand holds the handgrip. \nGuns can be very effective weapons. Their bullets fly faster than an arrow or spear. Their high kinetic energy makes them more lethal. They also shoot from far distances. Bullets are usually non-explosive pieces of metal.\nCartridges.\nA modern bullet is the front part of a \"round\" or cartridge. A cartridge consists of a \"bullet\", propellant and a primer. These are packaged in a metallic, paper, or plastic case which is sized exactly for the chamber of the firearm being used. When the rear of the case (containing the primer) is struck, an explosion in the back of the cartridge ignites the propellant. The controlled explosion forces the bullet out of the barrel. Cartridges have different ways of being loaded into different kinds of weapons. Cartridges can be loaded directly into a firearm into the chamber. Or, more commonly, into a clip, a magazine or other bullet container which is loaded into the firearm. Handguns known as revolvers have a cylinder with holes that the bullets are loaded into. Modern guns called pistols are handguns loaded with a magazine.\nMilitary use.\nGuns have been used by armies since about the 14th century. Long barreled small arms called muskets, that could be carried and used by one person, were in use by 1350. They became an important weapon in European armies about the 1600s. \nModern militaries use the word \"gun\" for larger artillery guns that need several people, and that fire big ammunition. For example, weapons on warships and tanks are called \"guns\". They may be in a \"turret\" (a rotating base). Big guns usually fire artillery shells, which explode upon impact. \nIn almost every country firearms are the main weapons used by armies. In modern armies, every soldier has at least one firearm as standard equipment. Soldiers are trained to use firearms, and to keep them clean and ready for use.\nSporting use.\nShooting is a competitive sport involving tests of accuracy and speed. They use various types of guns such as pistols, revolvers, rifles, shotguns and airguns. Shooting sports are categorized by the type of firearm, targets, and distances at which the targets are shot. Target Shooting is an Olympic sport. \nSince the first humans, hunting became a way of life. It was and still is in some places, the key to survival. Mankind is distinguished from other animals by the use of tools. At least 2 million years ago man learned to hunt animals for meat. They learned to create and use spears and axes. Bows and arrows were used at least 71,000 years ago. Modern hunting still uses more primitive tools. But many subsistence hunters have adapted to use modern firearms. In modern countries hunting is still allowed but is considered a sport. Hunting can be used to control the populations of many animal species. As with many aspects of gun ownership and use, modern hunting remains controversial. Handguns are not generally used for hunting.\nLegal use.\nGuns can be used to kill other people. For that reason many countries only allow soldiers, policemen, and certain social classes to have them. In some countries, a person must have a special permit (or license) if they want to own a gun. Depending on the gun, people need to be a certain age and may need to meet other criteria to get such a permit. \nAn example of this is that in the United States federal law allows buying rifles and/or shotguns at age 18\u2014if purchased from a licensed firearms dealer. But a person must be age 21 or older to purchase a handgun\u2014from a licensed firearms dealer. However, if purchased from an unlicensed person, with few exceptions, a handgun may not be sold to anyone under age 18. There is no age restriction on who may buy a rifle or shotgun from an unlicensed person. In the United States and other countries, people can buy guns for self-defense, hunting, and shooting sports like target shooting. \nIn some countries, such as Australia, people who live on farms are allowed to keep guns, but it is not easy for a person living in the city to get a gun without good reason. In the United Kingdom, access by the general public to firearms is tightly controlled by law. However, this is less restrictive in Northern Ireland. After the Dunblane school massacre in 1996 followed by the Hungerford massacre in 1987, Britain passed the Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988. It required registration for shotguns and banned semi-automatic and pump-action weapons. A further ban on all handguns in mainland Britain came a year and a half later."}
+{"id": "3451", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3451", "title": "New York", "text": "New York might mean:"}
+{"id": "3452", "revid": "595018", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3452", "title": "World Trade Centre", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3453", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3453", "title": "Hobby", "text": "A hobby is a leisure activity that people do for fun or recreation. People do it because they like it.\nArts and crafts.\nSome people do arts and crafts. They make clothing or decorations with their hands. Some popular arts and crafts that involve textiles or fabrics include crocheting, sewing (making clothing), embroidery, knitting, and quilting.\nSome people like to do hobbies that involve making images on paper, such as scrapbooking, painting, and drawing. Some people like to make three-dimensional decorations using clay or wood, in the hobbies of pottery, sculpture, wood carving, and woodworking.\nSome other arts include movie-making, photography, and musical hobbies such as singing, playing musical instruments, and writing songs.\nGames and puzzles.\nSome people enjoy hobbies such as playing games or solving puzzles. Games include board games such as chess, card games, and newer games such as wargaming and role-playing games. Popular puzzles include jigsaw puzzles and crossword puzzles.\nReading and learning.\nSome people enjoy spending their time reading books, magazines, and newspapers, or writing stories or in a diary. Other people enjoy learning foreign languages by taking classes, or doing research, such as genealogy.\nIn the 2000s, many people have Internet-based hobbies, such as editing Wikipedia, writing their own blogs, or having online discussions in Newsgroups or online forums.\nSome people enjoy computer activities, such as computer programming, learning about open source software, or playing computer games. Some people enjoy learning about electronics such as doing amateur radio broadcasts or building robots.\nMany students enjoy reading and learning as a hobby. But even outside of school, these hobbies are popular because they are cheap and help keep the mind sharp. \nHobbies in the home.\nSome people enjoy working on their home and learning how to repair their home by themselves, without hiring repair people or plumbers. Some people enjoy learning how to repair motor vehicles, such as antique cars. Some people even build and repair sailboats in their backyard.\nMany people have hobbies that they do in the kitchen, such as cooking for their guests and family, and making their own beer. Many people also have hobbies in their home that involve animals, such as keeping a pet animal, such as a dog, a cat, or tropical fish. Some people even learn about dog breeding.\nCollecting.\nCollecting is a popular hobby in North America and in Europe. People enjoy finding interesting examples of different items and learning about them. Some of the well-known types of collecting include stamp collecting, coin collecting such as baseball cards. People also collect toys, books, comic books, and old records. Some people collect antiques and artwork, but these hobbies are more rare, because antiques and artwork are usually expensive.\nA type of hobby that is related to collecting is model building. People who do model-building as a hobby collect small models which they build, paint, and then display. Some common types of model-building hobbies include model airplanes, model rockets, model ships, model cars, and model railways.\nOutdoor activities and sports.\nOutdoor hobbies include bird feeding, birdwatching, canoeing, gardening, hiking, walking, cycling, and sports such as baseball, bowling, cycling, fishing, hunting, and sailing.\nOther hobbies.\nMany people spend a lot of time in leisure activities that are not necessarily called hobbies. "}
+{"id": "3454", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3454", "title": "World Trade Center (1973\u20132001)", "text": "The original World Trade Center (WTC) was a complex of buildings in Lower Manhattan, New York, New York, United States. It was destroyed in the September 11, 2001 attacks; a new complex is mostly complete and is built on the site of the old one.\nThe biggest buildings in the original World Trade Center were the Twin Towers. The North Tower was the tallest building in the world when it was built. Taller ones were built later. The Twin Towers had 110 stories, and, at the time of its destruction, were the two tallest in New York. They and 7 World Trade Center were destroyed in the September 11, 2001 attacks and other buildings were damaged beyond repair.\nThe original World Trade Center was designed by Minoru Yamasaki in the early 1961s using a tube-frame structural design for the twin 110-story towers. In gaining approval for the project, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed to take over the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad which became the Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH).\nGroundbreaking for the World Trade Center took place on August 5, 1966. The North Tower, officially World Trade Center 1 was completed in December 1970 and the South Tower, officially World Trade Center 2 was finished in July 1971. Construction of the World Trade Center involved excavating a large amount of material that was then used in making Battery Park City on the west side of Lower Manhattan.\nAttacks on the World Trade Center.\n1975 arson attack.\nOn February 12, 1975, an arsonist named Oswald Adorno set fire to the 11th floor of the North Tower. The fire spread via the flammable insulation on a telephone cable to all floors between the 9th and 14th floors. Firefighters put the fire out within three hours. Nobody was killed directly by the fire, but one person suffered a heart attack. 64 people were injured by smoke inhalation. The fire destroyed the 11th floor and severely damaged several other floors, but did not cause any structural damage to the tower.\nFebruary 26, 1993, bombing.\nThe first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12:17 PM. A truck filled with 680\u00a0kg of explosives, planted by Ramzi Yousef, exploded in the underground garage of the 1 WTC. The bombing created a 30\u00a0m (100\u00a0ft) hole through five sublevels. Six people were killed and 1,042 others were injured during escape attempts. Many people inside the tower were forced to walk down darkened stairwells with no emergency lighting, some taking two hours or more to reach safety. As a memorial to the victims of the bombing of the tower, a reflecting pool was installed with the names of those who were killed. The memorial was destroyed in the September 11, 2001 Attacks, with only a small piece surviving, which is now on display in the 9/11 Museum.\nSeptember 11 attacks.\nOn September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and crashed it into the 1 WTC, striking between the 93rd and 99th floors, killing 1,344 people. Seventeen minutes later, a second group crashed the hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the WTC, striking between the 77th and 85th floors, fewer than 700 were killed. At 5:20\u00a0p.m., 7 World Trade Center started to collapse with the crumble of the east penthouse. The Marriott Hotel was destroyed during the collapse of the twin towers. The three remaining buildings in the WTC plaza were damaged by debris and later were demolished. Many conspiracy theories have appeared which say that certain people in the United States government knew about the attacks beforehand, or even made them happen.\nMemorials.\nThe National September 11 Memorial & Museum (also known as the 9/11 Memorial & Museum) is a memorial and museum in World Trade Center site, as the memorial of the 9/11 attacks, which killed 2,977 people, and the 1993 bombing, which killed six. It is operated by a non-profit institution whose mission is to raise funds for, program, and operate the memorial and museum at the World Trade Center site. The National September 11 Memorial opened on September 11, 2011, and the museum opened in May 2014."}
+{"id": "3455", "revid": "2133", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3455", "title": "Hour", "text": "The hour (symbol: h) is a unit of measurement used to measure time. The hour is equal to sixty minutes. Twenty-four hours are equal to one day. Unlike the second, the hour is not a base SI unit."}
+{"id": "3456", "revid": "974", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3456", "title": "Minute", "text": "A minute is a customary unit of time. It is equal to 60 seconds. There are 60 minutes in an hour. Unlike the second, the minute is not an SI unit.\nA minute is also of a degree. In this context, a minute is also called an arcminute, and is written with the formula_1 symbol.\nFor example, the Sun and Moon both have angular diameters of about 30 arcminutes\u2014when seen from Earth."}
+{"id": "3457", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3457", "title": "Coat", "text": "A coat is a piece of clothing that is worn over a person's upper body. It can be used to keep warm or dry (a raincoat). It also may be worn to make a person look good. A coat usually has long sleeves, and is fastened at the front. Sometimes it includes collars, shoulder straps and hoods. One type of coat is a jacket."}
+{"id": "3458", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3458", "title": "Study skills", "text": "Study skills or study strategies are a set of techniques and procedures that people employ to improve their learning and retention of knowledge while studying. These methods and skills assist students in becoming more successful and efficient learners. Effective study methods can make the process of learning and studying more manageable and less stressful.\nStudy skills might include a learner's ability to listen, read, comprehend, focus, recall and categorize their learning material, and manage studying time."}
+{"id": "3459", "revid": "307516", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3459", "title": "Head", "text": "The head is the part of the body where the brain is, which is protected and surrounded by the cranium, which is part of the skull. It is also where the face is, which has a lot of your senses like seeing and hearing. Not all animals have heads, like worms or a lot of other things that do not have symmetrical bodies from top to bottom.\nIn medicine.\nSome people get pains in their head occasionally, known as headaches. Also, some people have worse pains in their head called migraines. Some people heal people's heads, sometimes these people are special kinds of doctors called neurologists or head and neck doctors.\nUses.\nDifferent things may be worn on the head, for example hats or wigs.\nOther meanings.\nA \"head\" in English can also mean a person in charge of something, such as the head of a company.\nAlso, the word \"head\" can also mean the front of something. An example of this is the word \"Headline\", meaning large words on the front page of a newspaper."}
+{"id": "3460", "revid": "1666689", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3460", "title": "Norway", "text": "Norway is a country in the north of Europe. It is the western part of the Scandinavian peninsula. The mainland of Norway is surrounded by the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean on the west side, and borders Russia, Finland, and Sweden to the east. The southern coast touches the Oslofjord, Skagerrak, and the North Sea.\nThe Monarchy of Norway has been independent since 1814. Its head of state is a king - Harald the 5th (as of 2022). The national day is May 17, which celebrates Norway's constitution of 1814. The parliament is called \"Stortinget\" and its members are elected by the people every 4 years.\nAbout 5 million people live in Norway. The capital is the city of Oslo.\nNorwegian is the national language. There are two official written versions of Norwegian called \"Bokm\u00e5l\" and \"Nynorsk\".\nThe Northern Sami language is spoken by around 90% of those who speak one of Norway's 3 Sami languages. Northern Sami is also an official language in a number of municipalities.\nHistory.\nThe battle of Hafrsfjord (872 A.D.) resulted in small kingdoms becoming one larger kingdom, ruled by Harald Fairhair. After the king's death, again there were smaller kingdoms, inside Norway.\nStockfish (or fish that has been freeze-dried, outside in cold weather) has been traded and exported; this happened as early as either the 9th century, 10th century, or 11th century until 1066. Other sources say that the exporting was happening as early as the 12th century; stockfish is one of the country's oldest [type of] things to be sold for export.\nIn 1349 half of the Norwegian people died, getting sick from the bubonic plague (or Black Death).\nWhen a Norwegian king died in 1387, there was no king in Norway until the 20th century.\nIn 1397, Denmark, Norway and Sweden began the Kalmar Union.\nThe first [known] map, where Norway is drawn, was made in 1482.\nSweden left the Kalmar Union in 1523. From 1536/1537, Denmark and Norway formed a personal union that by 1660 became the state called Denmark\u2013Norway; Norway was the weaker part of the union with Denmark. That union lasted until 1814, when the Treaty of Kiel said that Norway be ceded (or given) to Sweden; Denmark did not cede the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland.\nThe Norwegian constitution was written in 1814 and signed on 17th May that year. However, Denmark, on the losing side of the Napoleon wars, lost Norway to Sweden, on the winning side.\nA Swedish\u2013Norwegian War started on 26 July 1814. It ended on 14 August, because of an agreement, called the Convention of Moss.\nThe union with Sweden: It started on 14 August 1814, when the Convention of Moss was signed; the union went on for 90 years.\nThe results of the election in 1882, led to parlamentarism becoming part of Norway's political system; the votes of the \"swamp men\" decided the outcome of the election; they included teachers, artists and craftsmen who were not poor but also did not own land; ownership of land or a contract to use land was necessary to get voting rights; the \"swamp men\" had bough cheap land which was nearly useless, except for getting a right to vote.\nThe right to vote in [ national and local ] elections, was given to the public (or the general public) in 1898.\nThe end of the Union of Sweden and Norway, was on 7 June 1905, when Norway got its independence.\nIn 1905 Prince Carl of Denmark was elected King of Norway. His name as a king, was King Haakon VII.\nIn World War I, Norway was neutral and served as a trading nation.\nNorway tried to stay neutral in World War II, but was occupied by German forces from 9 April 1940 to 8 May 1945.\nIn 1952 Norway became a member of NATO.\nOil was found in Norway's part of the North Sea, during the 1960s; the oil was found under the sea floor.\nRoyal family since 1905.\nKing Haakon VII was already married, before he came to Norway (in 1905). His wife, Princess Maud, became Queen Maud. Their son, Prince Alexander of Denmark, became Crown Prince Olav and followed after his father as King Olav V in 1957. Olav and his wife, Crown Princess M\u00e4rtha, had three children; Princess Ragnhild, Princess Astrid and Prince Harald (later Crown Prince Harald and in 1991 he followed his father as King Harald V).\nKing Harald is the first king born in Norway in over 600 years. He has two children; Princess M\u00e4rtha Louise and Crown Prince Haakon Magnus.\nGovernment.\nIn regard to the 2025 Norwegian parliamentary election: 99% of the votes have been counted (as of the morning of September 9); Media is saying that the current prime minister will stay in power; The Labour Party will get more seats in parliament, then any of the other parties; However, that party does not have a majority (by itself).\nThe prime minister is the head of the cabinet. The cabinet got two new ministers, as late as September 2025.\nMinistry of Defence.\nThe Government has Norwegian soldiers working in Syria (as of 2017), together with soldiers from other countries that belong to NATO.\nEconomy.\nExports include :\nnatural gas, oil, hydroelectric power, and fish.\nOther natural resources are agriculture, forests, and minerals.\nThe government collects much money from various sources, and has policies intended to spread this wealth among Norwegians. This spread of wealth, is done both directly and indirectly.\n[Including year 2020], the fishing industry is catching between 2.5 million tons and 3 million tons fish from the ocean per year; from fish farms around 1.5 million tons are slaughtered per year.\nNorway's annual GDP is 482.4 billion in 2022.\nTechnology and science: The country has [satellites or] \"national satellites\"; The first of those was sent into Space in 2010. Those satellites have been launched from other countries.\nEthnicity.\nMost people in Norway are ethnic Norwegians. \nA native population of Norway, the S\u00e1mi, has its home in the northern parts of the country. Their language is not at all related to Norwegian. In some municipalities in the far north, they make up the majority of people. Many Sami now live outside the Sami homeland, mostly in Oslo and other big cities. Earlier, Sami people were forced to speak Norwegian in school. Now Sami is taught as the first language in school for Sami children, and Norwegian is the first foreign language.\nThe national minorities of Norway are Kvens/Norwegian Finns, Jews, Forest Finns, Roma and Taters.\nMany immigrants have come to Norway in the last 30\u201340 years. They mostly live in and around Oslo, and in the other big cities. Many immigrants come from nearby countries, like Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Poland and Russia. There are also many from countries far away, such as Pakistan, Somalia, Iraq and Vietnam.\nAt the end of 2020, immigrants and people who were born in Norway, but who had two parents who were immigrants, they were 18.5 percent of the population; from those (two categories), 11.8% came from Poland.\nNorwegians speak a language that is related to German and English. Swedish and Danish are so close to Norwegian that most Norwegians understand them. Across Norway, many different dialects are spoken. Norwegians disagree on how to make one correct written language. Therefore, there are two standard languages, Bokm\u00e5l and Nynorsk. Nynorsk is used in writing in most of the western areas and in the central mountains. Bokm\u00e5l is written by most people in the rest of the country.\nTraditionally, all Norwegians were Lutherans, a variety of the Protestant faith. Still, more than 80% of Norwegians are Lutherans. Other important faiths include Islam, other Protestant groups and Catholicism.\nTourism.\nAmong tourists to Norway, more come from Germany than from any other country. There are also many Swedes, Danes, British, Dutch and Italians visiting Norway. The Swedes and Danes often come in winter to go skiing. The others mainly come in summer. Many people visit Norway to see the Northern Lights, also known as the 'Aurora Borealis'.\nMedia.\nThe largest national newspapers in Norway are Verdens Gang (VG), Aftenposten and Dagbladet.\nCulture.\nNorwegian culture can be compared to English culture in the way that it is considered a bad thing to show off, as opposed to the US, where this is more acceptable. This is a big aspect of Norwegian culture, and it is related to the philosophy of egalitarianism. Because of this, people will understate things, for example if a Norwegian says something is good or nice, it can mean that it's really great.\nItems from the Viking Age (in Norway), are shown in museums: One item is the Gokstad ship.\nMuseums in Norway includes The Ibsen Museum - named after Henrik Ibsen.\nThe farmers' culture (\"bondekulturen\") was brutal.\nUnwanted babies were \"placed in the forest\" (\"sette barn p\u00e5 skogen\") to die, until the nineteenth century; in the end, the [rural] police authority - consisting of individuals called lensmann - were able to control [and stop] these crimes.\nModern, cambered skis were invented in the Norwegian province of Telemark in the early 19th century.\nPolitics.\nIn Norway power is shared among three branches: The justice sector, the government and the parliament (Stortinget). Norway also has a king, Harald V, but he does not have any real power and acts as a symbol and ambassador. This form of government is called a constitutional monarchy. Elections are held every four years, and the winner of the election is the party or coalition of parties that gets the most votes and seats in the parliament. After the elections are done, the winners work together to find out who the prime minister should be, as well as who the other ministers should be.\nHere is a short summary of the biggest political parties in Norway, from left to right on the political axis:\nLargest cities.\nThe city with the most people living there (or inhabitants) is Oslo. The city of Bergen has 272,000 people living there; the city of Trondheim has 182,000 people in its population.\nSome claim that Bergen and Trondheim, each had their time as Norway's capital during the Middle Ages."}
+{"id": "3461", "revid": "40117", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3461", "title": "Albania", "text": "Albania ( ; ), officially called the Republic of Albania is an independent country located in Southeast Europe, more specifically it is located in the Balkans. The capital is Tirana, and other important cities are Durr\u00ebs, Elbasan and Vlora. Over 3 million people live in the area of that Albanians call their home. The majority of Albanians are Muslim with 55%, 23% Eastern Orthodox and 15% Roman Catholics.\nAlbania is next to Montenegro, Serbia, North Macedonia, Kosovo and Greece. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea in the west, and a coast on the Ionian Sea in the southwest. The official language is Albanian(Gjuha Shqipe). The national anthem is \"Hymni i Flamurit\".\nHistory.\nAlbania was the southern part of \"Illyria\" during the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages the Albanians were ruled by many foreign countries, including the Byzantine and Venetian Empires and during the 16th century resistance to the Ottoman Empire's rule was led by the Albanian national hero \"Skanderberg\" but his real name was Gjergj Kastrioti. After four centuries of Turkish domination, finally in the 20th century an independent Albania was created. In 1939 Albania was conquered by fascist Italy and was part of the Kingdom of Italy until 1943. After World War II Albania became independent again, under communist rule. It was ruled by Enver Hoxha, who died in 1985. Ramiz Alia took over and also later became president when, in 1992, Albania returned to democracy, and it now has friendly relations with the European Union, which it has applied to join.\nDivisions.\nAlbania is divided into 12 counties. These counties include 36 districts and 373 municipalities\nCities.\nThis is a list of the largest cities in Albania.\nArmed forces.\nThe Albanian Armed Forces were first formed after independence in 1912. Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009. In 2010 forced conscription was abolished.\nGeography.\nAlbania has a total area of 28,748 square kilometers. Albania's coastline length is . It goes along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. On the coast there are mild, wet winters and warm, sunny, and rather dry summers.\n70% of the country is mountains. The highest mountain is Korab.\nAlbania is bordered by Greece, the Republic of North Macedonia, Montenegro and Kosovo. A short stretch of sea separates Albania from the far southeast of Italy.\nFlora and fauna.\nAlthough a small country, Albania has a lot of variety in plants and animals. The total number of plants is over 3250 species. There are over 350 bird species, 330 freshwater and marine fish and 80 mammal species. The Double-headed eagle is the national symbol of Albania."}
+{"id": "3462", "revid": "1334790", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3462", "title": "Hungary", "text": "Hungary ( ) is a landlocked country in southeastern Central Europe. it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and Slovenia to the southwest, and Austria to the west. Hungary lies within the drainage basin of the Danube River and is dominated by great lowland plains. It has a population of 9.6 million, Hungarian is the official language, and is among the few in Europe outside the Indo-European family. Budapest is the country's capital and largest city, and the dominant cultural and economic centre.\nHistory.\nMedieval Hungary, 896-1526.\nThe Magyars established Hungary in 896, after they had arrived there from their previous, Eastern European territories. Prince \u00c1rp\u00e1d was their leader at the time; he also established the first royal house of the country, the \u00c1rp\u00e1d-house. In 1000, after the first king, Saint Stephen had been crowned, the country became a Kingdom.\nIn 1241, the Mongol Empire invaded the country, causing the Hungarian king B\u00e9la IV to flee and approximately 500,000 Hungarians were killed, along with heavy damage. In 1301, the \u00c1rp\u00e1d-house died out. Later on, kings from various houses ruled over Hungary. The greatest of them is Matthias Corvinus, famous for taking Austrian terrirories like Vienna, etc. and protecting the country against Ottoman aggression. However, some decades after he had died (1490), the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent defeated the Hungarian king in the Battle of Moh\u00e1cs (1526). The Kingdom was cut up into three parts: the western and northern areas remained Hungary, the southern region fell under Ottoman rule, and the eastern part became an Ottoman vassal as the Principality of Transylvania.\nBetween 1526 and 1867.\nThe Kingdom of Hungary became a Habsburg dependency, because an agreement made in Vienna in 1515 said that the Habsburg family would take over the territory of the Jagellion family in Bohemia and Hungary if the line of kings should die out. In 1686, the Ottomans were forced to leave, and the country was reunified. Many nationalities were living in the country at this time. Along with Hungarians, there were also the ancestors of modern Slovaks, Serbs, Romanians and Germans (known as Danube Swabians).\nIn 1703, Francis II R\u00e1k\u00f3czi, a Hungarian nobleman, organized a revolution against the Habsburgs, as the Hungarians were not satisfied with them. However, his revolution failed in 1711, and he had to go into exile. The next most important event is the \"Hungarian Revolution of 1848\", when the inhabitants of the country mutinied again. Fighting ended in 1849, with Habsburg success. The leaders of the revolution were executed.\nAustria-Hungary, 1867-1918.\nThe country tried to find the way towards consolidation: in 1867, the two most important Habsburg territories, Austria and Hungary signed a treaty, and they established the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The new situation was feasible for both sides: the agreement brought massive economic growth.\nBetween 1918 and 1946.\nIn 1918 after the defeat in World War I, the Kingdom was abolished, and a republic was established, as people had enough of war. This republic was short-lived, and soon the Communists seized power (1919). Their rule was irresponsible and many people, including the peasants and the intelligentsia, were tortured. The communists had to abandon the country as Romanian troops invaded.\nIn late 1919, the Hungarian forces, led by Admiral Mikl\u00f3s Horthy, finally occupied the capital, Budapest. In response to the communist terror, they launched the \"White Terror\", in which they persecuted the communists and their supporters. The kingdom was re-established but there was no king. Horthy was elected as the regent of the country, as the assembly decided not to recall the Habsburgs.\nHungary lost the war. According to the Treaty of Trianon (1920), Hungary lost two thirds of its territory. In the majority of these territories, non-Hungarians were the majority; however, many Hungarians also found themselves outside their country, in the nation state of Romanians or Slovaks. Thus, the main political goal of the governments under Horthy was to revise this treaty, and at least, to regain the Hungarian-inhabited lands.\nCommunist Hungary, 1946-1989.\nAfter the fall of Nazi Germany, Soviet troops occupied all of the country. So Hungary gradually became a communist satellite state of the Soviet Union. After 1948, Communist leader M\u00e1ty\u00e1s R\u00e1kosi established Stalinist rule in the country. He forced collectivization and a planned economy. This led to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. Hungary withdrew from the Warsaw Pact. But the Soviets sent in over 150,000 troops and 2,500 tanks. Nearly a quarter of a million people left the country during the brief time that the borders were open in 1956. J\u00e1nos K\u00e1d\u00e1r became leader of the communist party. In 1991 Soviet military presence in Hungary ended, and the transition to a market economy began.\nRepublic of Hungary, 1989 onwards.\nToday, Hungary is a democratic republic. Elections are held every four years.\nThe current president of the country is Katalin Nov\u00e1k and the prime minister is Viktor Orb\u00e1n. Orb\u00e1n was Prime Minister from 1998 to 2002, and was elected again in 2010.\nDemographics.\nHungarians make up the largest part of the population but there are also several other ethnic communities. The largest of these are the Roma and Germans. Hungarian is the most widely used language in Hungary. Ethnic communities often use their own languages as well. The majority of Hungarians are religious, mainly Roman Catholic and Calvinist (in Hungarian 'reform\u00e1tus' - 'reformed'). There are Jews, often in intellectual and artistic occupations, and some Muslims. Orthodox Christianity is practised by ethnic minorities from eastern Europe.\nGeography.\nHungary's highest point is \"K\u00e9kestet\u0151\" (1014\u00a0m; in the northeastern part of Hungary). The River Danube, one of Europe's largest rivers, divides Hungary into a western and an eastern part. The region west of the Danube is called Transdanubia (\"Dun\u00e1nt\u00fal\"). Transdanubia has a hilly landscape and many small villages and towns. The large flat area in the eastern part is the Great Plains (\"Alf\u00f6ld\"). Along the Slovakian border there are mountains.\nLake Balaton, Central Europe's largest lake can be found in Hungary. This small country has several thermal spas too. Lake H\u00e9v\u00edz is one of the world's largest thermal lakes. Hungary, however, is a landlocked country (it has no coastline).\nIts biggest cities are Budapest, Debrecen, Miskolc, Szeged, P\u00e9cs, Gy\u0151r, Ny\u00edregyh\u00e1za and Szolnok. Szolnok is found at the juncture of the Tisza River and the Zagyva River (stream)."}
+{"id": "3463", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3463", "title": "Netherlands", "text": "The Netherlands (also referred to as Holland) is a country that is part (of a constituent country) of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Most of it is in Western Europe, but there are also some parts in the Caribbean. Nearly 18 million people live there. To the north and west of the European part of the Netherlands is the North Sea, and to the east is Germany, and to the south is Belgium. The Netherlands is one of the countries that started the European Union. People who live in the Netherlands are called \"Dutch\". The language of the Netherlands is also called Dutch. The official capital of the Netherlands is Amsterdam. However, the government is in The Hague.\nName.\n\"The Netherlands\" means \"the low lands\". The land only rises, on average, 1\u00a0meter above sea level. One third of the land is below sea level. The Netherlands is also - incorrectly - referred to as Holland. Holland is a very rich area (two provinces) in the western part of the Netherlands, thus causing people to be mistaken. Most people who do not live in the western part of the Netherlands do not like it when people call the country Holland. The name \"Holland\" originates from the old Dutch words \"Holt land\" which means \"wood lands\". Holt eventually changed into hout, the current Dutch word for wood.\nHistory.\nAt the end of the Middle Ages the dukes of Burgundy, a country that is now part of France, united seventeen areas. Those areas were called the Burgundian Netherlands. When the daughter of their duke married Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1477, the Netherlands became part of Spain. In the 16th century many Dutch people became Protestant. The king of Spain did not like it, he wanted all Dutch to be Roman Catholic. Of course the Dutch people did not like this, and after violent excesses by the Spanish they started a war against Spain in 1568, also for reasons of taxation. The war lasted until 1648, therefore it is called the Eighty Years' War. An important leader of the Dutch in this war was Willem van Oranje (William of Orange) also called William the Silent.\nIn 1648 the Netherlands and Spain signed peace. The Dutch people were allowed to keep all the areas they conquered. The part of the Netherlands that was not conquered by the Dutch stayed part of Spain. Later this part became the country Belgium.\nWhen the Netherlands became independent, it was a very special country. That time almost all countries in Europe were ruled by a king, but the Netherlands was a republic. The Netherlands was made up of seven provinces, that were ruled by the big cities. The cities were ruled by the municipality which consisted of rich civilians. Together those provinces were ruled by a stadtholder, a very powerful man, but compared to the kings of other European countries he had much less power.\nIn the 17th century the Netherlands was the richest and one of the most powerful countries in the world. Therefore, the Dutch call the 17th century the Golden Age. Their Dutch Empire had colonies around the world. One important colony was the East Indies, which is now called Indonesia. They also had colonies in the Caribbean, like the other European empires. They also started New Netherland, which is now called New York. The Netherlands often fought wars against other European countries, especially the Anglo-Dutch Wars against England. Michiel de Ruyter, a Dutch admiral, became a Dutch hero when he defeated the English navy close to London.\nIn the 18th century the Netherlands became poorer. Many people blamed this on the government leaders, the stadtholders. Many thought they had too much power and wanted them to get away. In 1789 the French people deposed (got rid of) their king. French armies attacked other countries to depose their leaders too. In 1795 they attacked the Netherlands. Stadtholder William V had to flee to England. The Netherlands were renamed to Batavian Republic and became a democracy. But the French were not content (satisfied) with the Dutch ruler, so in 1806 the French emperor Napoleon made his brother Louis Bonaparte king of the Netherlands. Louis became popular in the Netherlands, but the emperor was again not content with him, so in 1810 the Netherlands became a part of France.\nIn 1815 Napoleon was defeated, and the Netherlands became independent again. The rulers of European countries thought it was a good idea to make the Netherlands stronger, to make them able to resist another French invasion. Therefore, Belgium and Luxembourg were added to the Netherlands. William I, the son of stadtholder William V, became king. Some Belgians disliked their Dutch king. In 1830 they revolted. William sent an army. He was much more powerful than the Belgians but after ten days the French sent an army to support them. In 1831 the Belgians chose their own king and Belgium became an independent country.\nSome people again thought the Dutch king had too much power. They wanted to give him less power and vote for the government themselves. In 1848 there were violent revolts against the kings of many European countries. The Dutch king was afraid the same would happen in the Netherlands. Therefore, he allowed Johan Rudolf Thorbecke to write a constitution. From then on people were allowed to vote. At first only rich men were allowed to vote. From 1919 on all adults were allowed to vote.\nIn World War I, the Netherlands did not fight and were not invaded. The Dutch wanted to stay neutral in World War II as well, but in 1940 the country was invaded and occupied by Germany. Like in other countries they had occupied, the German authorities started to kill Jews. Anne Frank was a Jewish girl who lived in the Netherlands. Her family hid from the Nazis and she wrote a diary. She died in a Nazi concentration camp and her diary became famous.\nIn 1944 the American, Canadian, Polish and British armies liberated the south of the Netherlands from Nazi Occupation. They wanted to cross the Rhine river in Operation Market Garden to liberate the rest of the country, but they were defeated. It took until May 1945 before the entire country was liberated. During the five years of Nazi occupation, 250,000 people had died in the Netherlands.\nShortly after the war, Indonesia declared its independence. The Dutch sent soldiers to fight in Indonesia. After other countries, including the United States, told the Dutch to leave Indonesia, they finally did so in 1949.\nAfter the war the Netherlands became one of the richest countries in the world. In 2004 the United Nations said that the Netherlands was the 5th best country to live in.\nPolitics.\nThe Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. That means the country has a king, but the real power is in the hands of a parliament, chosen by the Dutch people. All Dutch people at least 18 years old or older are allowed to vote. The Dutch parliament consists of two chambers: the Second Chamber (Dutch: \"Tweede Kamer\", this is the House of Representatives, elected every four years), and the First Chamber (Dutch: \"Eerste Kamer\", this is the Senate, elected by provincial politicians every four years). After the Second Chamber elections, parties that have had a majority of the votes create a cabinet. The cabinet consists of a prime minister and several other ministers and deputy ministers. Current cabinet is the liberal-Christian democratic Fourth Rutte cabinet, consisting of VVD, D66, CDA, and CU politicians. Prime Minister is Mark Rutte (VVD). This cabinet fell on 7 July 2023 and is taking care for the time being until a new cabinet has been installed.\nThe latest general elections were held on 22 November 2023. Winners were populist party PVV, leftist alliance GL-PvdA, and centrist parties NSC and BBB. Losers were liberal parties VVD and D66, leftist parties SP and PvdD, Christian democratic parties CDA and CU, populist parties FVD and JA21, and European party Volt Netherlands.\nThe Netherlands is known for tolerance in politics. The Netherlands is the only country where soft drugs are not entirely considered illegal. Furthermore, the Netherlands is one of the few countries that allow same-sex marriages, euthanasia and prostitution to a certain extent.\nMore information: \"Politics of the Netherlands\".\nSubdivisions.\nThe Netherlands is subdivided in provinces and municipalities.\nProvinces.\nIn the Netherlands there are 12 provinces:\nThese provinces are all located in the part of the Netherlands that is in Europe. The country also includes three special municipalities in the Caribbean: Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius. They are not part of any province, but together are known as the Caribbean Netherlands. The Netherlands (both the European part and the Caribbean Netherlands), together with Aruba, Cura\u00e7ao and Sint Maarten, also in the Caribbean, form a sovereign state called the Kingdom of the Netherlands.\nWhen the Kingdom was formed in 1954, the territories in the Caribbean became part of the Netherlands Antilles. At that time it also included Suriname in South America, which became an independent country in 1975. Aruba left the Antilles in 1986, and Cura\u00e7ao and Sint Maarten did the same in 2010. The rest of the islands then became the Caribbean Netherlands which is part of the Netherlands proper.\nMunicipalities.\nThe Netherlands has 342 municipalities (2023) and also three special municipalities in the so-called Caribbean Netherlands.\nAlmost every year the amount of municipalities decrease.\nCities.\nCities aren't actually a subdivision of the Netherlands. Cities are also municipalities or they make part of municipalities.\nThis is a list of the cities/municipalities with over 100,000 people.\nFor all municipalities with more population numbers,\n\"see: List of municipalities of the Netherlands.\"\nGeography.\nIn fact a large part of the Netherlands (the province Flevoland) was created by the sand that came from the many rivers flowing through it. Notable Dutch rivers are the Rhine, the Maas, the IJssel and the Scelt. A large part of the Netherlands is below sea level. This is because the Dutch have made many lakes and parts of the sea dry, creating polders. Therefore, there is a saying \"God created the earth, but the Dutch created the Netherlands.\" This makes the Netherlands very flat. In the very south-east of the Netherlands, in Limburg, there are some hills. Therefore, this region is a tourist-attraction for many Dutch people. The highest point in the European portion of the Netherlands, the Vaalserberg, is 323\u00a0metres above sea level. The highest point in both the Netherlands proper and the Kingdom of the Netherlands is Mount Scenery, on the Caribbean island of Saba, at 887\u00a0metres.\nThe Netherlands is a small flat country; about 300\u00a0kilometers from north to south, and about 170\u00a0kilometers from east to west. It has an oceanic climate (\"Cfb\" in the K\u00f6ppen climate classification).\nClimate.\nThe Netherlands has an oceanic climate, with a yearly average temperature of .\nThe highest temperature ever recorded in the Netherlands was , on 25 July 2019 in Gilze-Rijen.\nThe lowest temperature ever recorded in the Netherlands was , on 27 January 1942 in Winterswijk.\nTop 5 warmest days\nPeople.\nThe Netherlands is a small country, but many people live there. It is one of the most densely populated countries of the world.\nMost people in the Netherlands speak Dutch. In Friesland, about 200,000 people speak Frisian. Frisian is the language with the most similarities to English. Some Dutch people speak dialects. The Saxon dialects spoken in the northeastern part of the Netherlands are somewhat similar to Low German.\nAccording to a survey done in 2010, 23% of the Dutch people are Christian and 6% is islam and 71% believe in another organised religion, like Judaism, Islam or Hinduism. Twenty-six percent are 'unbounded spiritual' (have their own beliefs and are not tied to a religion). The other 44% are not religious.\nSignificant minorities in the country include Turkish people 700,000, Jews 41,000-45,000 and Roma and Sinti 40,000.\nTrains.\nNederlandse Spoorwegen () or NS is the main passenger railway operator in the Netherlands. The rail infrastructure is maintained by network manager ProRail, which was split from NS in 2003. Freight services, formerly operated by NS Cargo, merged with the DB Schenker group in 2000.\nNS runs 4,800 scheduled trains daily. In addition, NS provides international rail services from the Netherlands to other European destinations and carries out concessions on a number of foreign rail markets through its subsidiary Abellio such as Abellio Greater Anglia, Merseyrail and ScotRail.\nArriva is another passenger railway operator in the Netherlands. It is a subsidiary of the German company Deutsche Bahn. Their local headquarters is based at Heerenveen. They have been active since 1998.\nReferences.\nNotes"}
+{"id": "3464", "revid": "1674296", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3464", "title": "Ukraine", "text": "Ukraine (, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. Russia is to the north-east of Ukraine, Belarus is to the north-west, Poland and Slovakia are to the west, Hungary, Romania, Moldova and self-proclaimed Transnistria are to the south-west and the Black Sea is to the south.\nUkraine is a republic. The capital of Ukraine is Kyiv (). It was a part of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1991.\nOfficial language.\nThe official language of Ukraine is Ukrainian (, [ukrajin\u2019s\u2019ka mova]). In the 2001 census, about 29% of people in Ukraine said that they consider Russian to be their main language. These two East Slavic languages are similar in some ways but different in other ways.\nDivision of Ukraine.\nUkraine is divided into 24 oblasts and one autonomous republic, with Kyiv City and Sevastopol having special status.\nThe largest cities of Ukraine.\nThe largest cities in Ukraine are:\nName origin.\nThe name \"Ukraine\" (u-krayina) has usually been interpreted as \"edge\" or \"borderland\", but this an alternative interpretation as \"territory\" has been proposed. Language specialists are still searching for evidence of the history of the meaning of the word.\nIt was first used in reference to a core part of the territory of Kyivan Rus in the 12th century. In English, the historical region was usually known as \"the Ukraine\". Since independence in 1991, adding \"the\" is no longer proper style for referring to the country.\nHistory.\nAncient times.\nMany different tribes lived on the territory of modern Ukraine since pre-historical times. Most historians believe that the Great Steppe at the North of the Black Sea was a homeland of all Indo-European and Indo-Iranian languages. Some believe it was also the birthplace of the whole European population. Wends, Goths, Huns, Sclaveni, Avars, and other tribes and tribal groups fought among themselves, joined unions, terminated, and assimilated each other.\nBy the middle of the 4th century AD, Antes joined other tribes and established a state under their rule. Their state fell under the pressure of Avars in 602\u00a0AD and their name was longer mentioned. Since the 7th century over 10 tribal groups joined under the name \"Slavs\" and made their own state named Rus. The chronicles mention three centers that formed this state: Kuyavia (Kyiv land with Kyiv itself), Slavia (Novgorod land), and Artania (exact location unknown).\nHistorians still argue about whether Kyiv was founded by Slavs themselves, or they just captured the Khazar fortress which was located on the bank of the Dnieper river, but since the 10th century, it became the capital of the largest and most powerful state in Eastern Europe.\nKyivan Rus.\nKyivan Rus, is the medieval state of Eastern Slavs. Established by the Slavic with the help of the Varangian squads whose force was used to integrate separate tribes and their lands into one powerful state. Varangian princes, who ruled Rus from its first years were gradually assimilated by natives, but the dynasty started by semy-legendary Rurik survived and continued to govern their separate principalities even after the collapse of Rus.\nAt an early stage of its existence Rus destroyed such powerful states as the Khazar Khaganate and Old Great Bulgaria. Rus princes successfully fought against the Byzantine Empire, whose emperors had to pay tribute to them. Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities.\nIn the reign of Volodymyr the Great (980-1015) the Kyivan State almost finished its expansion. It occupied the territory from Peipus, Ladoga and Onega lakes in the north to the River Don, Ros, Sula, Southern Bug in the south, from the Dniester, the Carpathians, the Neman, Western Dvina River in the west to the Volga and the Oka River in the east, its area became about 800,000\u00a0km2. Although some of his predecessors already accepted Christianity for themselves, Volodymyr decided to convert the entire population of the state to the new religion. Partially with the help of Byzantine missionaries preachers, partly by the brutal violence, he finally made all Kyiv population to be baptized. For this action, the Ukrainian, and later the Russian Orthodox Churches canonized him under the name of Vladimir the Baptist.\nDuring the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, (1019\u20131054), Rus reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power. Rus raised the prestige of Eastern Slavs in Europe, improved the international significance of Kyiv. Rus influenced the political relations in all of Europe, Western Asia, and the Middle East. Kyivan princes supported the political, economic, dynastic relations with France, Sweden, England, Poland, Hungary, Norway, Byzantium.\nThe Rus state also ruled non-Slavic people (Finno-Ugric population of the North, Turkic of the East and South, Balts of the West, etc.). Those people gradually assimilated with the Slavs, and with each other, establishing a framework for the future emergence of three new Eastern-Slavic peoples.\nThe Kyivan State was an eastern outpost of European Christendom, it kept the movement of nomad hordes to the West, and reduced their onslaught against Byzantium and Central European countries.\nAfter the death of Mstyslav Volodymyrovych (1132), Rus lost its political unity and finally was divided into 15 principalities and lands. Among them, Kyiv, Chernygiv, Volodymyr-Suzdal, Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk, and Halycian lands and principalities were most large and powerful.\nMajor political conditions of fragmentation were:\nWhile Kyiv was the center of all social, economic, political, cultural, and ideological life in the country for a long time before, other centers have competed with it since the mid-12th century. There were old powers (Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk), as well as new ones...\nNumerous princely feuds, large and small wars between different lords, were tearing Rus. However, the ancient Ukrainian state did not fall apart. It only changed the form of its government: The personal monarchy was replaced by the federal one, Rus came to be co-ruled by the group of the most influential and powerful princes. Historians call this way of governing \"the collective suzerainty.\" The Principality of Kyiv remained a national center and the residence of bishops.\nIn 1206 the new powerful military-feudal Mongolian state headed by Genghis Khan started the war of conquest against his neighbors. In 1223 in the battle near the Kalka River, 25,000 Tatar-Mongols won a crushing victory over the squads of Southern Rus Princes, who were unable to come together even in the face of grave danger. Under the leadership of Batu, Genghis Khan's grandson, from 1237 to 1238, they conquered Riazan, Volodymir, Suzdal, and Yaroslavl lands.\nIn 1240, they attacked Kyiv. The city was plundered and destroyed. According to the legend, the enemy saved governor Dimitri's life for his personal courage in the battle. Then Kamenetz, Iziaslav, Volodymyr, and Halych lost against invaders. Batu was able to attach most of Rus to his empire, the Golden Horde, which covered the whole territory from the Urals to the Black Sea,\nAfter the fall of Kyivan State, the political, economic, and cultural center of Ukrainian lands was transferred to the Halycian-Volyn Land. In 1245 Prince Danylo of Halych had to admit his dependence on the Golden Horde. Hoping to get help from Catholic Europe in his struggle for independence, he also made a secret alliance with Poland, Hungary, Masovia, and the Teutonic Knights. In 1253 he received the crown from Pope Innocent IV and became a King of Rus. In 1259, due to the lack of military aid from the West, the king was forced to re-recognize the supremacy of the Horde. His successor, Lev I had to take part in the Tartar campaigns against Poland and Lithuania.\nIn 1308 the government moved to Danylo's grandchildren - Andrew and Lev II, who started the new struggle against the Golden Horde allied with the Teutonic knights and princes of Mazowia. However, after their death the last monarch Yuri II again had to claim himself as the Golden Horde vassal. He was murdered in 1340 and his death gave the rise to Poland and Lithuania (the neighbors who had a dynastic right for the throne of Rus) to start a war for the Halycian-Volyn heritage. In 1392 Galicia, with Belz and Chelm Lands were finally incorporated to the Kingdom of Poland and Volhynia to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.\nAt the end of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were divided between different states. Lithuania seized Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Volyn Lands. Poland ruled in Halycian and Podolian. Southern Ukraine was under the rule of the Crimean Khanate (formed in 1447) and the Eastern under the power of Muscovy. In 1569 Lithuania and Poland merged to the united state called Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita) to deal with neighbors, as a result, the central Ukrainian lands of Lithuania came under Polish control.\nEtymology.\nRus, or The Kyivan State, , ; often misspelled as \"Kievan State\" or even \"Kievan Rus\", using Russian spelling of its capital Kyiv ( [\u02c8ki\u025bf]).\nAs for the origin and definition of the name \"Rus\", there is no consensus among researchers. Several versions exist:\nUkrainian historians generally adhere to anti-Norman opinion, while not denying the contribution Varangians in the process of formation of the Rus state system. Russ, or The Rus Land in their opinion means:\nCossackian State.\nAt the end of the 15th century, the groups of warriors who called themselves Cossacks appeared on the territory between the borders of Lithuania, Muscovy, and the Crimea, in the \"wild steppes\" of Zaporizhia. From the 16th century, the Sich became their military center. Zaporizhian Cossacks participated in the wars on the side of the Commonwealth: the Livonian War (1558-1583), the Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618), Khotyn war (1620-1621), and Smolensk war (1632-1634). Cossacks also organized their own campaigns in Moldavia, Muscovy, and Crimea, on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and in Asia Minor for looting. They willingly became mercenaries, particularly during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).\nDue to the legal and social oppression of the nobility Cossacks repeatedly revolted. The largest rebellions were raised under the guidance of Kosynskiy (1591-1593), Nalyvaiko (1594-1596), Zhmaylo (1625), Fedorovych (1630), Sulima (1635), Pavlyuk (1637), and Ostryanin (1638). Cossacks, again and again, defended the rights of the Ukrainian population in the Commonwealth who experienced religious and national oppression regularly.\nFor the conflict in the 1850s see Crimean War.\n20th century.\nIn 1917 an independent Ukrainian People's Republic was established. The Red Army captured it and made it into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.\nSoviet Russia in the 1920s encouraged the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian culture. In the 1930s this policy changed to making the Ukrainians into Russians. There were mass repressions of Ukrainian poets, historians, and linguists. As in other parts of the Soviet Union, although mostly in Ukraine, millions of people starved to death in 1932 and 1933.\nDuring the first years of World War II, Ukrainian nationalists collaborated with Nazis against Soviet Union hoping to reestablish Ukrainian independence or to get autonomy under the authority of Germany. Nationalists took part in mass murders of Jews, Roma people, and other victims of the Nazi regime. However, hopes of independence were ruined and Ukrainian nationalists created Ukrainian Insurgent Army which fought against Nazi Germany but against the Soviet Union (mainly Soviet partisans) for the most part. They failed to get independence. Most Ukrainians fought on the side of the Soviet Union and participated in the liberation of Ukraine from Nazi Germany.\nIn 1986, the fourth reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded as a result of an improper test. The accident contaminated large portions of northern Ukraine and southern Belarus with uranium, plutonium, and radioactive isotopes. It was one of only two INES level 7 accidents (the worst level) in the history of nuclear power, the other being the Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan.\nIn October 1990 was remarkable because it happened before Ukraine declared independence in August 1991, and more than a year before the Soviet Union collapsed.\nDozens \"of students [... made a] tent camp in ... Kyiv\", according to media; Furthermore, they \"held a hunger strike until Soviet Ukrainian authorities [gave up] and met most of ... demands\", of the students; Furthermore, students \"even forced the resignation of Ukraine\u2019s Soviet-era prime minister\".\nUnder the second Soviet occupation repressions against Ukrainian nationalists continued and lasted till c. the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.\nIn the Soviet epoch, Ukraine was renamed to so-called a \"Soviet Socialist Republic\" incorporated into Soviet Union.\nIndependence day \u2014 24 August 1991\nModern independence.\nPresident elections: 1 December 1991, July 1994, October-November 1999, October-December 2004, January 2010\nParliament elections: March 1994, March 1998, March 2002, March 2006, September 2007 (prematurely), October 2012\nConstitution of Ukraine was adopted by Parliament (Verkhovna Rada) 28 July 1996 with changes 8 December 2004.\nThe political demonstrations in autumn-winter 2004 after the Presidential elections gathered millions of people all over the country. On November 26, 2004, Victor Yuschenko lost the Ukrainian presidential election (Viktor Yanukovych was declared the winner). However, Yuschenko and his followers argued that the election had been corrupted. They argued that the election results had been falsified by the Ukrainian government, in support of the opposing candidate Victor Yanukovych. They organized political demonstrations in autumn-winter 2004 that gathered millions of people all over the country. They called the demonstrations \"The Orange Revolution\" (). Former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko was an important ally of Victor Yuschenko during the demonstrations. The Constitutional Court of Ukraine ordered the second round of elections, which Yuschenko won.\nBig pro-European Union protests called Euromaidan () began in November 2013 and made the President go away in February.\nRussian invasion of Crimea.\nIn March 2014, Russia invaded Crimea, holding a referendum in which the people voted overwhelmingly to become independent from Ukraine and join the Russian Federation. Despite the criticisms from certain countries, the majority of Crimean residents welcomed the return to their Russian roots. \nAfter some conflicts, the regions of Donetsk and Luhansk declared independence from Ukraine; they are known as the Donetsk People's Republic, and Luhansk People's Republic. \nIn 2016, the New Safe Confinement was built to cover the remains of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and prevent radiation from escaping.\nRussian invasion in Ukraine.\nOn 24 February 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced an invasion of Ukraine with the goal to protect Russian citizens. The invasion and the Russo-Ukrainian War, are ongoing (as of 2025's first quarter). \nRussia invaded Ukraine from many different directions.\nEconomy.\n\"Real GDP in 2024 stood at [77% or] 77.4% of the level of 2021, the last year before russia\u2019s full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Nominal GDP is estimated at UAH 7,659bn\", according to media in 2025.\nEarlier (and as of 2023), \"Ukraine\u2019s defense industry [... had] 300,000 workers within about 500 different companies, of which almost 400 are private companies\", according to media; More production of \"electronic warfare weapons, unmanned aerial, naval, and ground vehicles, howitzers, ammunition, armored vehicles, bullets, mines\" (weapon), happened in 2024. \"The total volume of weapons production in Ukraine [... was] $10 billion\" (year 2024), according to media.\nIn 2023, media said that \"Ukraine\u2019s top ten manufacturing [companies or] leaders earned a total\" of ($8.3 billion, or) Hr.317.53 billion \"in profits in 2023, according to Opendatabot\".\nIn regard to minerals that have not been taken out of the ground:\n\"Ukraine holds the largest titanium reserves in Europe ... 7 percent of the world\u2019s reserves\" and lithium reserves, almost 500,000 tons.\nIn regard to inflation: yearly inflation is at [c. 13% or] 13.2% as of August 2025.\nThe unemployment rate is 12%, according to media (2025).\nAbout extra spending on defense: $10 billion is what parliament decided (July 31, 2025), to add to how much money should be spent on defense; That money is made up, of \"$2.76 billion ... for all Defense Forces personnel salaries ... $5.18 billion ... for ... weapons, military equipment, and drones\", and \"$1.9 billion... for other military needs\", according to media. Earlier, the budget for defense spending had been set at $53.7 billion.\nIn regard to the United States-Ukraine Reconstruction Investment Fund: creation of bank accounts has been authorized (September 3); More work in regard to choosing \"[test project or] pilot investment projects for the fund\", is supposed to continue, later that month.\nBudget.\nThe \"final vote due [of the budget, is supposed to happen] on December 1\", according to media.\nEarlier (and as of September 2025), \"The Ukrainian government is set to receive $37.4 billion in international financing\" over a two-year period\", according to media; Some of Ukraine's budget for 2026, will come from money that is going to be borrowed from IMF.\nPresidents of Ukraine.\nThe president (as of 2025) is Volodymyr Zelensky since 2019."}
+{"id": "3465", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3465", "title": "Liechtenstein", "text": "Liechtenstein (officially the Principality of Liechtenstein) is a country in Western Europe. It is the sixth smallest country in the world and, with Uzbekistan, one of only two doubly landlocked countries. This means that it is bordered only by landlocked countries. Liechtenstein is located between Austria and Switzerland.\nThe official language in Liechtenstein is German. The capital of Liechtenstein is Vaduz, a very small town of 5,000 people. Liechtenstein is famous for its many private banks.\nLiechtenstein is known as a principality. This means that the monarch has the title of Prince.\nHistory.\nThe territory that is now Liechtenstein was once split into two different states, the County of Vaduz and the Lordship of Schellenberg, which were both part of the Holy Roman Empire.\nThe Liechtenstein family wanted more power within the Holy Roman Empire. In the 17th century, the Holy Roman Emperor made Karl Liechtenstein a Prince. Karl's descendant, Hans Adam I purchased the lands of the County of Vaduz and the Lordship of Schellenberg and united them into one principality named Liechtenstein.\nIn 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was broken up by Napoleon. With the fall of the Empire, Liechtenstein became a free independent country. Liechtenstein remained neutral during World War I and World War II. Hitler did have plans to invade Liechtenstein alongside Switzerland in the planned Operation Tannenbaum but never did.\nIn 1969, NASA gave Liechtenstein moon rocks and a national flag that had been on the moon to thank them for their support from a Liechtenstein company during the Apollo 11 mission.\nGeography.\nLiechtenstein is located in the European Alps and is bordered to the east by the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, to the south by the canton of Grisons (Switzerland) and to the west by the canton of St. Gallen (Switzerland). \nThe Rhine forms the entire western border of Liechtenstein. Measured south to north the country is about 24 km (15 mi) long. Its highest point, the Grauspitz, is 2,599 m (8,527 ft). \nDespite its Alpine location, prevailing southerly winds make the climate comparatively mild. In winter, the mountain slopes are well suited to winter sports.\nPolitics.\nLiechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy, meaning that the head of state is a monarch (with the title Prince Regnant) but has limited political powers. The Prince can veto legislations, call for a referendum, create new bills and dissolve parliament.\nThe legislature is the landtag (or diet). There are 25 elected members. The members of government are usually all members of the biggest political party. "}
+{"id": "3466", "revid": "1254198", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3466", "title": "Portugal", "text": "Portugal is a country in Southern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. It is the westernmost country of Europe and part of the Mediterranean area. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east. Its capital city is Lisbon. It has been a member of the European Union since 1986. \nPortugal was under a dictatorship between 1926 and 1974 called Estado Novo. This dictatorship was ended by a peaceful revolution called the Carnation Revolution. The Portuguese economy has been very good since then although it was hit hard by the recession of 2007-2008.\nIt once had an empire called the Portuguese Empire, and was a powerful maritime nation from the 1500s to the 1800s, being the tenth-largest empire, with a maximum land area of 10.4 million km\u00b2 which included Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, East Timore, S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe, and Portuguese Ceylon (Sri Lanka), as well as Macau in China (until 2002).\nPortugal is a popular holiday destination but is sometimes overlooked in favor of larger countries like France, Spain and Italy. The Algarve region in the south and the capital Lisbon are the most popular destinations.\nThe country has a national football team. Portugal won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2017, and hosted the contest the following year.\nGeography.\nThree groups of islands in the Atlantic Ocean are also part of Portugal: the Azores (\"A\u00e7ores\"), Madeira and the Savage Isles (\"Ilhas Selvagens\"). The Savage Isles are a small group of uninhabited islands, administered by Madeira. Portugal claims that Oliven\u00e7a is also part of its territory, but it is controlled by Spain.\nHistory.\nKingdom of Portugal.\nPortugal became a kingdom in 1139 but was not officially recognized until 1143. It has had links with England since the 1100s by a treaty. The border with Spain has been almost the same since the 13th century. Fishing and trading with other countries were important here.\nPortugal was important in world exploration for two reasons. Firstly, Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal was very interested in exploration. Secondly, inventions in navigation led to a greater knowledge of geography.\nThis exploration of the world began the Portuguese Empire. The country was a world power during the 15th and 16th centuries. It tried to colonize Canada in the 16th century. However, it lost a lot of money soon after this. Portugal and Spain were in the Iberian Union from 1580 to 1640. The 1755 Lisbon earthquake devastated the capital and weakened the aristocracy. The country was occupied during the Peninsular War during the early 1800s. It lost its largest colony, Brazil, in 1822.\nPortuguese Republic.\nIn 1910, the Kingdom of Portugal ended and the nation became a republic. Eight years after Portugal's involvement in World War I, a military group took control of the country from the Portuguese First Republic in the 28 May coup d\u2019\u00e9tat. This began a time of rule by authoritarian governments called \"Ditadura Nac\u00edonal\" that later became known as \"Estado Novo\". During World War II Portugal remained neutral but friendly to Britain and Spain.\nIn 1974, a peaceful left-wing army coup, called the \"Carnation Revolution\" took place that overthrew the military dictatorship and ended the Portuguese Colonial War. Political prisoners and opponents of Ant\u00f3nio de Oliveira Salazar were freed. The coup was an important part of Portugal\u2019s transition to democracy and changed the way the country was run.\nIn 1975, Portugal allowed its colonies in Africa to become independent: Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde and S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe.\nEast Timor in Asia declared itself independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975, and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces nine days later. Another Asian colony, Macau, became part of China.\nPortugal joined the European Union in 1986. The main language of Portugal is Portuguese.\nSome famous Portuguese people are D. Afonso Henriques, Henry the Navigator, Bartolomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama, Pedro \u00c1lvares Cabral, Ferdinand Magellan, Lu\u00eds de Cam\u00f5es, Fernando Pessoa, Am\u00e1lia Rodrigues, \u00c1lvaro Siza Vieira, and Eduardo Souto de Moura.\nLu\u00eds de Cam\u00f5es wrote the national poem of Portugal. It is called \"Os Lus\u00edadas\" and was written in 1572."}
+{"id": "3467", "revid": "1055918", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3467", "title": "Slovakia", "text": "Slovakia (Slovak: \"Slovensko\") (Official name The Slovak Republic, \"Slovensk\u00e1 republika\") is a landlocked country in the eastern region of Central Europe. It is bordered by Austria in the southwest, Hungary in the south, Ukraine in the east, Poland in the north and Czech Republic in the northwest. Its capital city is Bratislava, the only capital of the world that borders with other two countries. Other main cities are Ko\u0161ice, Pre\u0161ov, \u017dilina, Bansk\u00e1 Bystrica, Tren\u010d\u00edn, Nitra and Trnava. Slovakia has been a member of the European Union since 2004 and its official currency is the Euro.\nHistory.\nThe Celts started to settle since 450\u00a0BC. The coins named \"Biatec\" represent the first use of writing in Slovakia. After the time of the Julio-Claudian dynasty many different Germanic tribes like Quadi and Marcomanni started to overtake the area. The Roman Empire established many outposts along the Danube river. They fought Germanic tribes, with the most northern presence being in Tren\u010d\u00edn (\"Laugaritio\"), during the Marcomannic Wars.\nGreat Moravia was at first in constant quarrels with East Francia and at the beginning of the 10th century, with the Magyars who arrived from Asia. The Magyars conquered Great Moravia in 906, and established the Hungarian Principality, resulting later in the creation of the Kingdom of Hungary in year 1000. Slovaks continued to live in the north, while most Hungarians were in the south. \nA huge population loss resulted from the Mongol invasions in 1241. The Hungarian kings started to invite other settlers, for example Germans in the 13th century, and many others started to arrive in the kingdom, Vlachs from Romania in the 14th century and Jews.\nIn the 16th century the Ottoman Empire occupied the southern part of the kingdom including the two most important towns, Buda (capital) and Sz\u00e9kesfeh\u00e9rv\u00e1r (coronation capital). Many Hungarian nobles moved to Slovakia and the king moved to Bratislava (\"Pressburg\", \"Pozsony\" at that time). The wars against the Ottomans and an uprising against the Habsburgs caused much destruction. After the Ottomans started to retreat back from Hungary, Bratislava continued to be capital until 1848, when it was moved back to Budapest.\nThe creation of a dual monarchy, Austria-Hungary, enabled the Hungarian government to initiate a policy of suppressing the teaching of languages other than the Hungarian language in state schools. The official use of other languages than Hungarian was also discouraged. During this time, a nationalist movement arose among Slovakians. A part of this movement joined forces with a part of the Czech nationalist movement. During World War I, this movement convinced the future victorious powers to recognise a new state of Czechoslovakia after the war.\nThe territory of today's Slovakia was a part of Czechoslovakia from 1918 to 1938 and again from 1945 until 1989. Czechoslovakia was one of the states which came into existence after the breakup of Austria-Hungary at end of World War I in 1918. Czechoslovakia split up in 1939, when Slovakia, under Hitler's influence and pressure, declared independence and became a client state. The state existed during World War II. It was a totalitarian one-party state and ally of Nazi Germany. Under the regime, the state fought in the war on the side of Nazi Germany and deported about 70,000 of its Jewish citizens to Nazi extermination camps as part of the Holocaust.\nThe territory of Czechoslovakia was liberated by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II in 1945. After the liberation, Czechoslovakia was reunified and briefly existed as a democratic country. The Communist Party successfully performed a state coup in 1948 and ruled Czechoslovakia as a totalitarian one-party state which was a satellite of the Soviet Union. In 1989, the one-party rule of the Communist Party was overthrown during the Velvet Revolution, which was a series of large and peaceful demonstrations by the citizens in the streets.\nCzechoslovakia again became a democratic country. However, it split up into two independent countries (Slovakia and Czech Republic) on January 1, 1993 when we became an independent country. Slovakia has been a member of the European Union since May 1, 2004.\nGeography.\nSlovakia is landlocked. It is noted primarily for its mountainous nature, with the Carpathian Mountains being in the north and various lowlands mostly in the south. The highest mountain range are the Tatra mountains with the highest peak, the Gerlachov Peak (Slovak: \"Gerlachovsk\u00fd \u0161t\u00edt\"; 2,654\u00a0m). Major Slovak rivers besides the Danube are the V\u00e1h and Hron.\nAt low altitudes, Slovakia's climate is humid continental (\"Dfb\" in the Koeppen climate classification, with warm summers and cloudy, cold and humid winters. At high altitudes it is subarctic and alpine.\nAdministrative division.\nThere are currently 8 regions of Slovakia:\nThese are further divided into many districts. There are currently 79 districts of Slovakia."}
+{"id": "3468", "revid": "1695306", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3468", "title": "Slovenia", "text": "Slovenia is a country in the region of Central Europe. The capital and largest city of Slovenia is Ljubljana. Its major language is Slovenian. Its current population is about 2.1 million. Slovenia's leading exports are manufactured goods and aluminium. It is a parliamentary republic. It is a member of the European Union and NATO. The economy of Slovenia is small, open, and export-oriented.\nHistory.\nA very long time ago, Illyrian and Celtics tribes lived in Slovenia. In the 1st century BC, Slovenia was ruled by the Romans. In the sixth century AD, Slavs lived there. Slovenia was ruled by Austria from 1335 until 1918. \nIn 1918 it became a part of Yugoslavia. During World War II, Italy, Hungary and Germany took parts of the country but in 1945 it became part of Yugoslavia again.\nIn June 1991, Slovenia voted to become independent. Yugoslavia's army tried to stop this from happening but following a 10-day war, Slovenia became an independent country.\nCurrently, it is considered the most advanced country in what is called \"Ex-Yugoslavia.\" It is also a member of the European Union."}
+{"id": "3471", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3471", "title": "Denarius", "text": "The denarius was a small silver coin used by the Roman Empire and Roman Republic. The denarius weighed about 3 to 4.5 grams. It was the main coin of Ancient Rome. It became the most common coin produced for circulation but was slowly debased in weight and silver content. The coin was then sometimes made of copper and painted silver in color. During the Empire the front side usually had a picture of the emperor on it.\nThe denarius was introduced in 211 BC, and was last made in 275 AD. By then it was made of bronze."}
+{"id": "3472", "revid": "1530097", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3472", "title": "Jackknife", "text": "A jackknife is a type of knife. It has a blade that folds into the handle. It is also a dive where the body is bent and then straightened before entering the water and when a person backs up in their vehicle with a trailer attached and it accidentally folds."}
+{"id": "3473", "revid": "18539", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3473", "title": "Luffa", "text": "A luffa (also spelled loofah or loofa) is a long thin dried inner part of the fruit of a tropical plant related to the cucumber . It is often used as a sponge for washing the body. Before it gets ripe, it is also a good vegetable. It also comes from dried corn on the cob stems."}
+{"id": "3474", "revid": "1455432", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3474", "title": "Kimono", "text": "Kimono are traditional Japanese style clothes. About a hundred years ago, most people in Japan wore kimono every day. Now, people wear the kimono for special occasions, fun, and fashion. For example, a Japanese couple might wear kimono on their wedding day.\nA kimono is a robe. When it lies flat, it is shaped like a letter T. Normal kimono reach to the ankles and have long sleeves. The sleeves of some kimono for women also reach to the ankles, but most kimono sleeves reach to the hips. Kimono come in many different designs and colours. Some colours have meanings.\nName.\nThe word \"kimono\" means \"something you wear\". \nHistory.\nThe kimono that people wear today began in the 16th century. But Japanese people have been wearing clothes that looked like the kimono for hundreds of years, since the Heian period (late 700s to late 1100s).\nChinese visitors brought the kimono to Japan. The Japanese decided to make and wear kimono too. These clothes had long, triangle-shaped sleeves and were wrapped over the body. The kimono had two parts: a jacket and either a skirt or trousers.\nThese clothes changed to look more like the kimono we see today. The kimono looked less like a triangle and more like a rectangle. The sleeves became square instead of triangle-shaped.\nCommon people wore a piece of clothing called a \"kosode\", which means \"short sleeve\". This looked like a modern kimono with a wider body and smaller sleeves. The overlap at the front of the robe was longer, the collar was wider, and the robe was shorter.\nNoble people also wore the \"kosode\", but they wore several layers on top of it. Noble women wore clothing called \"j\u016bni hitoe\", which means \"twelve layers\", though the number of layered robes was not always twelve. These robes were wider, longer, and had larger sleeves than the \"kosode\" that the common people wore. They weighed up to 20\u00a0kg. Noblemen wore round-necked jackets with wide, long sleeves and \"hakama\" trousers. They would wear this with a small cap, which was usually black in colour.\nOver time, wearing many layers of clothes became unfashionable. The government created laws to stop people from wearing many robes at once. Starting in the Muromachi period, women and men began to wear the \"kosode\" by itself or with two or three layers, with a small, thin belt called an obi, and for women, red \"hakama\" trousers. However, ceremonial clothing in the Imperial Court still looked like clothing from earlier times. Even today, the new Emperor and Empress of wear in clothes from the Heian period when they are formally named king or queen.\nDuring the Genroku period, the common people had more money, especially merchants. They wore expensive and beautiful \"kosode\", even if they were not nobles. People began to decorate their clothing in new ways, for example stitched patterns in thread, and new ways of coloring their clothing.\nThis made them look like noble people, so the government introduced laws against commoners wearing some kinds of clothes. However, people did not want to give up their beautiful clothes. Instead, they found different ways of wearing them; a man, for instance, might wear a \"haori\" jacket made out of wool in a plain, boring colour, but he could line it with beautiful silk fabric.\nThis way of thinking about clothing and appearances became known as an aesthetic idea called \"iki\", which is still important to the way people wear kimono today.\nFrom the 1600s into the 1800s, Japan's leaders decided the country should not have contact with other countries. Only a few Dutch ships were allowed to land and trade. The Dutch traders saw the kimono and knew people in Europe would like them. They asked Japanese kimono-makers to make kimono with rounder sleeves and warmer cuts for the Europeans to buy and wear. Kimono became popular with rich Europeans. When the Japanese kimono-makers could not make enough kimono for the Dutch traders to sell, the Dutch traders told clothiers in India to copy the kimono.\nOver time, the obi became wider and longer, especially for women. Because of this, the sleeves of women's \"kosode\" were no longer sewn to the body entirely. They were instead only attached at the shoulder.\nSleeves became got longer for young women, as did the length of the \"kosode\". In the Edo period, people began to say \"kimono\" instead of \"kosode\". The kimono would trail behind the wearer. This was not a problem indoors. Outside, the wearer had to pull up the kimono so it would not become dirty. Women started tucking the extra length of their kimono into a hip fold, which became known as the \"ohashori\". Kimono are still worn by women today with the \"ohashori\".\nDuring the Meiji Period, Japan's government decided the country should be more modern. They built railroads and improved the army and universities. But they also changed customs. Fewer people wore the kimono every day. Instead, they wore modern, Western clothes.\nOver time, very wide obi and very long kimono fell out of fashion. During World War Two, people thought long kimono sleeves were wasteful. Sleeves on kimono were shortened, sometimes a lot. This new sleeve length lasted, and modern kimono for women are still shorter than they were before the war. Older kimono, especially from the Taish\u014d period, still have these long sleeves.\nToday, more women wear the kimono than men. Men wear kimono most often at weddings and at Japanese tea ceremonies.\nMen's and women's kimono.\nKimono come in different sizes for different people. They come in different lengths for men and women. Men and women also wear kimono with different sleeves.\nKimono for women are much longer than kimono for men, and women fold the kimono at the waist to make it the right length. The right length for a woman's kimono is usually the same as her height.\nThe sleeves on a woman's kimono are not sewn to the body all the way down, and they are open at the back. Part of the body of the kimono is open as well. The sleeves on a woman's kimono are longer than the sleeves on a man's kimono, and sometimes they reach the ankle on kimono for young women. The curve at the edge of the sleeves is very round, especially on kimono for young women and girls.\nKimono for men do not need to be folded at the hip, and so do not have any extra length. The sleeves are shorter, and they are attached almost all the way down to the body. The back of each sleeve is sewn shut, and the body is also sewn shut. The curve at the edge of the sleeve is not as round.\nKimono for men are usually one solid colour, but they might have a very small geometric design. Kimono for women can be one solid colour, have a small design, or be decorated in larger, colourful patterns. More colourful kimono are usually worn by young women. Sometimes, these designs are only worn in certain seasons of the year.\nPeople who are very tall or very heavy can struggle to find a kimono that fits them, and sometimes have kimono made for them instead.\nTypes of kimono.\nKimono come in different types for different occasions, and both men and women have formal and casual kimono. Formal kimono have a number of crests on them, called \"kamon\" or \"mon\". These are placed on the front of the shoulders, the back of the sleeves, and the centre of the back. Kimono with crests have either one, three, or five crests on them - the crest on the centre back, the centre back and the sleeves, or the centre back, the sleeves and the shoulders.\nThe most formal kimono have all five of these crests on them. The least-formal formal kimono have just one. These crests can be outlined or coloured in fully in white, with \"kamon\" that are just an outline being the least formal.\nKimono are usually made of silk, but there are cotton, polyester, hemp and linen kimono as well. Some kimono are also made of wool, or rayon. Formal kimono are always made out of fine silk, and are usually sewn by hand. However, not all silk kimono are formal kimono, and some types of silk, such as pongee (known as \"tsumugi\") are only ever worn to casual occasions.\nThe most informal type of kimono is the \"yukata\", worn in summer to festivals and in bath houses and inns by both men and women. They are not lined, are always made of cotton, and are worn with thin, brightly coloured obi.\nFor formal occasions, men wear fine silk kimono with \"haori\" (a kimono jacket) and \"hakama\" (loose-fitting trousers). The \"hakama\" are usually striped in white and black, and the kimono and the \"haori\" will match in colour.\nWomen have a number of different types of kimono for different formal occasions. The designs on the kimono, how they are put onto the kimono, and where they are placed on the kimono all change how formal the finished outfit is. In order of formality, these are:\nAccessories.\nPeople wear a wide belt called an obi with their kimono. Obi are also colorful, and are very long. Some types of obi are not worn anymore, as they are too difficult to wear and put on. The \"maru\" obi is an example of a type of obi not worn any more. The \"fukuro\" obi replaced it, as it was less wide and easier to wear.\nCost.\nSome kimono cost a large amount of money to buy. For example, \"Furisode\" kimono are very expensive. The obi belts can be very expensive too. Other kimono are less costly. Some people make their own kimono, or they buy kimono that other people have already worn.\nOther kimono.\nPeople who play some sports, for example kendo, also wear the kimono. These kimono are strong, thick and short. They are different from long women's kimono. They are usually called \"d\u014dgi\".\nWearing the kimono.\nMost Japanese people do not know how to put on a kimono by themselves as it is very different from other clothing. Formal kimono for women can be very difficult to put on by yourself. Some people work as \"kimono dressers\". They help people to put on their kimono.\nIn Japan, people can take classes about wearing the kimono, and to learn about how to choose a kimono and how to tie the obi.\nKimono in Western culture.\nPeople wonder and argue about whether Westerners should wear kimono. Some say it is cultural appropriation. Cultural appropriation is when someone uses something from another culture because it looks fun or pretty but does not understand or respect it enough. Some Japanese people think Westerners wearing kimono is cultural appropriation and some do not. Japanese kimono-makers have been selling kimono to Western people for hundreds of years."}
+{"id": "3475", "revid": "1064256", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3475", "title": "Sconce", "text": "A sconce is a holder for candles or electric lights that is fixed on a wall. Most of the time, sconces are also meant to make the place look more beautiful."}
+{"id": "3476", "revid": "1640303", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3476", "title": "Culture", "text": "Culture is a word for the 'way of life' of groups of people, meaning the way they do things. Different groups may have different cultures. A culture is passed on to the next generation by learning, whereas genetics are passed on by heredity. Culture is seen in people's writing, religion, music, clothes, cooking, and in what they do. \nThe concept of culture is very complicated, and the word has some meanings. The word 'culture' is most commonly used in three ways.\nMost broadly, 'culture' includes all human phenomena which are not purely results of human genetics. The discipline which investigates cultures is called anthropology, though many other disciplines play a part.\nNational cultures.\nCultures are what make a country unique and interesting. Each country has different cultural activities and cultural rituals. Culture includes material goods, the things the people use and produce. Culture is also the beliefs and values of the people and the ways they think about and understand the world and their own lives.\nDifferent countries have different cultures. For example, some older Japanese people wear kimonos, arrange flowers in vases, and have tea ceremonies. Some countries oppose some things in their culture, like discrimination or religion. Some countries also have multiple cultures within them.\nRegional or non-regional cultures.\nCulture can also vary within a region, society or sub group. A workplace may have a specific culture that sets it apart from similar workplaces. A region of a country may have a different culture than the rest of the country. For example, in a large country like China or Canada a region may have a distinctive way of talking, different types of music, and different types of dances. \nA group who acts or speaks differently may be said to be, or have, a subculture.\nEthnic groups such as the Romani people in Europe have a distinct culture.\nCompany cultures.\nCompanies or other organizations (groups of people) can have a separate culture. Japanese manufacturing companies often have a different culture to Western companies; the workday starts with exercise, and the workers are very loyal to the company. \nCompanies in the high-technology sector often have a different culture than other companies. Software and computer companies sometimes allow employees to play games during the workday, or take time off work to relax, because these companies believe that this will help the workers to think better.\nAnthropology.\n\"Anthropology\" is studying human beings and how they relate to each other. An \"anthropologist\" is a person who studies anthropology. Anthropologists study how culture shapes people and their lives. Cultures constantly change as people move and communicate with new groups of people. \nFor example, immigrants (people who move from one country to another) may keep some of their customs and traditions from their old country. By keeping their culture in this way, they bring pieces of their culture to a new place where others begin to experience it."}
+{"id": "3477", "revid": "527152", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3477", "title": "Houseplant", "text": "A houseplant is any kind of decorative plant. People grow them indoors, sometimes in a house, but very often in an office or a shop.\nHouses or public premises have conditions not as favorable for plants as in greenhouses. For example, the direction of light, low light, dry air, dust, drafts, uneven temperature. So, special techniques are used to get a healthy state and proper development of plants. Conditions in public and office premises are usually even less favorable than in homes, so the most hardy indoor plants are grown there.\nBenefits of houseplants.\nFeel and observe.\nOne obvious advantage of keeping houseplants is the improvement in aesthetic quality that they provide. Some large palm varieties, can serve as a focus point for guests.\nCondition of the air.\nHouseplant may enhance indoor air quality. That is a key perk. NASA conducted a study to identify which plants are most effective at filtering out harmful chemicals.\nHealth.\nTaking care of plants, like taking care of people or animals, can have a positive effect on one's mental and emotional health.\nTherapeutic, preventative, and cosmetic.\nPlants and herbs with medical characteristics, such as Aloe Vera, are grown for human consumption."}
+{"id": "3478", "revid": "8962094", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3478", "title": "Waxed paper", "text": "Waxed paper (or wax paper) is a type of paper which has been coated on both sides with wax. This gives it a translucent look. It is used for wrapping food because grease, oil, and water cannot pass through it. It is also used to line food containers because many kinds of food which would stick to normal paper will not stick to wax paper. Many kinds of dry foods were once stored in wax paper because of its resistance to water. Wax paper has been replaced by plastic wrap for most purposes.\nUses.\nSafety razor blades are traditionally wrapped in wax paper to make holding them less dangerous. Wax paper can also be used to make paper boats that can be used for a long time without getting wet because of its high resistance to water.\nWax paper is also used to stick pieces of pattern to fabric while cutting it. \nIn photography, wax paper can be used as a light diffuser.\nWax paper is commonly used in cooking and wrapping sticky foods, because the waxy surface is cling-resistant. It is also used in arts and crafts."}
+{"id": "3479", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3479", "title": "Japanese tea ceremony", "text": "The Japanese tea ceremony (called cha-no-yu, chado, or sado) is a special way of making green tea (matcha \u62b9\u8336). It is called the Way of Tea. It is a Japanese cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of matcha, powdered tea. People who study the tea ceremony have to learn about different kinds of tea. They also have to learn about kimono (Japanese clothes), flowers, and many other things. It takes much practice to learn the tea ceremony. \nHistory.\nTea came to Japan from China in about 900 CE. Tea became very popular in Japan, and Japanese people started to grow tea in Japan.\nIn the 12th century, \"matcha\" (green tea powder), became popular. This tea comes from the same plant as black tea. \nBy the 16th century, all people in Japan, rich people and poor people, liked drinking tea. A man called Sen no Rikyu started teaching the ceremony. Many years have passed, but people still make tea the same way that Sen no Rikyu taught. Many schools of Japanese tea ceremony exist now (omote-senke, ura-senke, etc.), and each school teaches in a slightly different way.\nMaterials needed.\nPeople need many different things for a tea ceremony:\nTea ceremony.\nPeople do the tea ceremony in a special tea room or a special building called a \"cha-shitsu\". Most people wear kimonos.\nWhen people go into the tea room they take off their shoes and sit on special floor mat called a tatami.\nCha-shitsu often are very small. The guests (the people who go to the tea ceremony) sometimes eat food and drink special Japanese wine called sake. Before they drink the matcha (green tea) they eat something sweet. \nThe host (the person who does the tea ceremony) symbolically purifies the tea bowl and the other tea things. Then he or she puts some green tea powder into the tea bowl. The host mixes the tea with hot water. He or she mixes it with a whisk. The guests drink tea from the bowl.\nWhen everyone has finished drinking tea, the host cleans everything and puts them away. Then the guests leave.\nA tea ceremony can take from about twenty minutes to about four hours."}
+{"id": "3485", "revid": "36199", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3485", "title": "Sideboard", "text": "A sideboard is a piece of furniture. It is often placed in a dining room with a long table and cupboard below to hold dishes, glassware, and other things."}
+{"id": "3486", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3486", "title": "Movie", "text": "A movie or film is a type of visual art that uses images and sounds to tell stories, express ideas, or teach people something. Most people watch movies to entertain themselves or to have fun. Movies can vary significantly in emotional tone both overall as a specific genre type but also within a single work. Some of the most typical approaches are to make people laugh (comedy), make them cry (tragedy or drama), or make them feel afraid (horror). However, there are also movies that combine genres, like horror-comedy. \nOverview.\nMost movies are made so that they can be watched at home or on a movie screen at movie theaters. Movies are shown in movie theaters a few weeks or months after or before the movie is released. Movies can be marketed using media. Movies are shown on paid television or cable television or are sold or rented on DVD disks or videocassette tapes so that people can watch the movies at home. Movies can also be downloaded or streamed. Some movies are shown on television broadcasting stations.\nMovies are filmed with movie cameras or video cameras. Movie cameras take pictures very quickly, usually 24 or 25 pictures or frames every second. When a movie projector, a computer, or a television shows the pictures at 24 frames a second, it looks like the things shown in the set of pictures are moving. Sound is usually recorded at the same time as the pictures are, but sometimes, they are added later. The sounds in a movie are usually people talking, the soundtrack, and sound effects. In the 20th century, the camera used photographic film.\nMaking movies.\nMost movies start to be made when a screenwriter writes a script, which is the story of the movie with dialogue and words and things that the actors will say and do. A producer hires people to work on the movie and gets the money that will be used to pay for the actors, or actresses, and the equipment. Producers usually get the money by borrowing it from a bank or by asking investors to give money to them. Some producers work for a movie studio, but other producers work by themselves.\nActors, or actresses, and directors read scripts to learn what to say and what to do. The actors learn the words from the script that they will say in the movie and learn the things that the script tells them to do. Then, the director tells the actors what to do and a cameraman takes the film of them saying the words with a film camera.\nWhen the filming is done, an editor makes the film play after each other, which makes a story. Audio engineers and sound engineers record music and singing and combine it with the film. When the movie is done, many copies of the movie are made by movie labs and put onto film reels. Then, the reels are sent to movie theaters. A projector shines a very bright light through the film, and people sitting in a dark room see it on a big screen.\nTypes.\nA.\nA genre means a type of movie. Movies can be fictional or non-fictional. Some movies can be two or more genres.\nBusiness of making movies.\nMost movies lose money, but some make up to hundreds of millions or billions of dollars. In the United States, movies have become an enormous part of the economy. The industry has always been led by a few major movie studios like MGM/UA, Warner Bros., Sony Pictures, Paramount, or Disney. The oldest American movie studio is Universal.\nElements.\nThere are many large companies that provide all of the services needed to make movies, such as special effects, lighting, and set building companies. Many of these employees belong to trade unions who say how much their members must be paid. A large number of smaller companies also offer services, such as music studios, which record music.\nDistribution.\nFinally, there are movie distribution companies and advertising companies. Movies with famous stars (actors who are well-known) and large budgets, are designed to have a large appeal (something a person would like about the, so that hopefully, millions of people will pay to see them. The most expensive movies are called blockbusters.\nSpecial effects can add a huge amount to the cost of a movie, especially if the movie uses the newest CGI effects. However, people have come to expect them, and every blockbuster movie tries to outdo the last. Even in 2008, some movies can cost up to $200 million to make.\nVery successful movies can make many times that amount in profit, and that's why the studios keep producing them. This kind of movie will have a lot of promotion through television advertising, billboards and internet sites.\nBlockbuster.\nIn blockbuster movies, there is usually a happy ending, in which all of the problems in the plot (story) are figured out or fixed and almost everyone (except the bad guys) live happily ever after. Some movies have been so successful that the studios keep releasing more and more sequels or movies with the same characters and basic plots.\nIndie films.\nAt the opposite end of the scale to the blockbuster, there is the independent, art, or Indie movie. These are usually made by small movie companies, or even just a small group of people that do not have much money. An example is The Blair Witch Project, which cost only about $60,000, but which has so far taken perhaps $200 million in ticket and DVD sales. Movies like this are very unusual and usually become popular 'underground' (word of mouth advertising), so that they have a cult following, or popular but not mainstream.\nIndependent movies often tell more creative or unusual (strange) stories or may have sad endings that do not appeal to the big studios because they cannot be sure how the public will react to them. They rarely make a lot of money, but if they are successful, the big studios will quickly try to get the people involved to sign a contract with them, by offering them a lot of money to make another movie.\nThe Oscars.\nSome movies receive Oscar nominations, which normally reflect on the qualities of a film's production process. Also, some actors and actresses receive Oscar nominations and wins.\nAge-appropriate ratings.\nMovies are rated by their age appropriateness. Some examples include G, PG, PG 13, and R."}
+{"id": "3487", "revid": "9118082", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3487", "title": "Holland", "text": "Holland is the name of a region in the western part of the Netherlands. Holland was a county of the Holy Roman Empire and later the leading province of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (1581\u20131795).\nToday, there is no country called \"Holland\". There are two provinces called \"Holland\" in the Netherlands: North Holland () and South Holland (). Those provinces were created in 1840. The earlier country and province of Holland used to be bigger, but some parts of that province were given to other provinces during the French occupation (1795-1813). For example, Willemstad became part of North Brabant, the islands of Vlieland and Terschelling were given to Friesland, and the island of Urk to Overijssel. But for a short time during that period (1806\u20131810), there \"was\" a country called \"Holland\", the Kingdom of Holland, which was in the central and northern Netherlands and East Friesland in Germany.\nMany people use the name \"Holland\" to refer to all of the Netherlands, including the other ten provinces. That is not correct and is like calling the United Kingdom, \"England\" or \"Great Britain\". Some Dutch people who live outside \"Holland\" find it unacceptable to refer to the entire country Holland. But acceptable when you refer \"Holland\" to the Netherlands national team."}
+{"id": "3488", "revid": "195", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3488", "title": "The Netherlands", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3489", "revid": "1673488", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3489", "title": "Isotope", "text": "The atoms of a chemical element can exist in different types that have very similar behavior, but weigh different amounts. These are called isotopes of the element. Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, but different isotopes have different numbers of neutrons. Different isotopes of the same element have different masses because they have a different number of neutrons. Mass is the word for how much substance (or matter) something has. Things with different masses also have different weights. \nSome isotopes are not stable so they change to another isotope or element by radioactive decay. These are called radioactive isotopes. The ones that are not so radioactive are called stable isotopes. \nAtoms of the same element have the same number of protons, which is called the atomic number. Different isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons. As a result, they also have different mass numbers, which is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons. An isotope is usually named by giving the element and the mass number. For example, the symbol for carbon is C and all carbon atoms have 6 protons. The most common isotope of carbon also has 6 neutrons, giving a mass number of 12, and it is written carbon-12 or 12C. The isotope of carbon that has 8 neutrons is written carbon-14 or 14C.\nThe word \"isotope\", meaning \"at the same place\", comes from the fact that isotopes of the same element are at the same place on the periodic table.\nChemical properties.\nIn any neutral atom, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons. As a result, isotopes of the same element also have the same number of electrons and the same electronic structure. The way an atom acts is decided by its electronic structure, so isotopes of the same element have almost the same chemical behavior, such as the molecules it can form. It is very difficult to separate the isotopes of an element from a mixture of different isotopes because of how similar this behavior is.\nHeavier isotopes react chemically more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. This \"mass effect\" is large for protium (1H) and deuterium (2H), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium. For heavier elements, the relative atomic weight ratio between isotopes is much less, so the mass effect is usually small.\nStability.\nSome isotopes are not stable so they change to a different isotope or element by radioactive decay. These are called unstable isotopes, or radioactive isotopes. The average time it takes an isotope to decay is called the half-life. Other isotopes do not decay so they are not radioactive. They are called stable isotopes. \nEvery atom has an atomic nucleus, which is made from protons and neutrons that are held together by the nuclear force. Because protons have positive electrical charge, they repel each other. Neutrons are neutral and they stabilize the nucleus. The neutrons hold the protons slightly apart. This reduces the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, so the nuclear force can hold the protons and neutrons together. One or more neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to bind into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, so does the number of neutrons needed to have a stable nucleus.\nSome elements only have a single isotope that is stable. For example, fluorine-19 (19F) is the only stable isotope of fluorine. The other isotopes of fluorine decay rapidly so they are not found in nature. Other elements have many stable isotopes. For example, xenon has seven stable isotopes. It also has two isotopes that decay very slowly that are found in nature. The largest number of stable isotopes for any element is ten, for the element tin. Some elements do not have any stable isotopes, such as curium. These only exist on Earth because they are created in nuclear reactors, nuclear explosions, or particle accelerators.\nSome unstable isotopes exist naturally on Earth because they have a very long half-life. For example, uranium-238 has a half-life of 4468 million years. The half life of radium-226 is only 1600 years, and it is found in nature because it is constantly forming from the decay of uranium-238.\nHydrogen has three common isotopes. The most common isotope of hydrogen is called protium (1H), which has one proton and no neutrons. A hydrogen atom that has a proton and a neutron (atomic mass of 2) is called deuterium (2H). Hydrogen with one proton and two neutrons (atomic mass of 3) is called tritium (3H). Protium and deuterium are stable isotopes, while tritium is a radioactive isotope.\nThe heaviest elements in the periodic table are all radioactive. All of the isotopes of radon, thorium, and uranium are radioactive, since they are very heavy. This is because the nuclear forces inside the nucleus of the atom cannot hold together all the protons and neutrons."}
+{"id": "3490", "revid": "1391867", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3490", "title": "Crushing by elephant", "text": "In the past, many rulers in south and southeast Asia had people crushed by elephants as a death penalty. This was common for more than 4000 years. The Romans and Carthaginians also sometimes did this.\nThe elephant would step upon the head of the condemned, the one commanded to die. Usually, handlers trained the elephant to put its large foot gently on the person's head. At this point, witnesses looked under the elephant's foot to make sure the prisoner was the one who committed the crime. Often, the condemned would scream and beg the witnesses to say it was not him. If a witness stated this was not the criminal, they would probably commit perjury. In those days rulers could punish perjury with death. Few witnesses denied the condemned was the criminal, because then the elephant may crush them instead. Then the mahout, or elephant driver, gave the order, and the elephant would push down with its weight. The skull broke and the foot crushed the head flat.\nSometimes, the elephant would drag the condemned through streets before the crushing. Some elephants crushed the arms and legs first, to increase the pain.\nLocations.\nMost rajahs, Indian rulers, kept elephants for death by crushing. The public could often see the deaths. This was the rulers' warning not to commit a crime. Many of the elephants were very large, weighing more than nine tons. Rulers wanted crushing by elephant to be bloody and gross. Some rulers in history condemned children. \nOne nonreligious Mogul Emperor, Akbar (1547-1605), used his favorite elephant as a judge. Akbar ruled in the city of Agra from 1570-1585. He believed that his favorite elephant could know who was guilty. He put thousands of people to death this way. Even when the crimes were minor, he sent them to the elephant. Elephant handlers staked them before the great elephant and tried to convince it to step on them. The huge elephant crushed most, but sometimes refused. Akbar believed this proved their innocence and then released them. \nDifferent regions crushed people by elephant in different ways. One region put people inside of a bag, so they would not have to watch what was about to happen. Then, the elephant would crush the bag flat with the condemned inside. In another region, people made the condemned watch the elephant slowly come from far away. Its huge feet kept coming closer. Sometimes, they buried the condemned to the neck. The elephant would come and step on the head. Some places made the condemned put his head on a special stand. The stand had fountains on the sides where brains and blood would flow when the elephant pressed down its huge foot.\nMilitary use.\nFor hundreds of years, people used elephants for military purposes. Death under the foot of an elephant was common for people who left the army or prisoners as well as for military criminals.\nHistory in writing.\nThere are few records about crushing by elephant. Many records were lost. The British wrote about it during their long rule of India.\nRobert Knox was an English traveler. He wrote about a Sri Lankan crushing in 1681."}
+{"id": "3493", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3493", "title": "Power network", "text": "A Power network is a type of contact network where its members can tell other people what to do.\nIt must be large enough to literally scare or force people to go along with its requests, which makes them orders. This typically requires thousands of people in constant touch with each other.\nA political party is the most obvious example. It is typically much larger than a social network but is not one, since people can only call on each other for a small number of reasons, and perhaps at specific times. Also not every member of the network has the same role or right to help.\nA corporation may also be a power network if it relies on many power relations to maintain itself - for instance, the right to draw oil from the ground or dump waste without being held responsible for it.\nWhen a power network achieves some stable grasp of political power and daily working control of some important infrastructure, it becomes a power structure. In a democracy the visible power networks represented by the parties compete regularly in an election - but much of the power structure, typically the bureaucracy, does not change, and is typically ignored as a power network in itself."}
+{"id": "3494", "revid": "1685230", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3494", "title": "Citizenship", "text": "Citizenship is a legal relationship between a person and a country. Usually the country is the one they were born in, lives in, supports, and in return gets protection. A person is usually a citizen of the country where he or she is born, but sometimes a person will apply for naturalization, to become a citizen in another country. There are countries which allow dual (two) citizenship, and countries which do not.\nDefinitions.\nA citizen is a member of a sovereign group of people that have certain rights. Governments protect these rights or take advantage of them. Some Governments may exile people from citizenship laws on such matter vary between countries.\nCitizenship in Canada.\nPeople born in Canada become citizens of the country by \"Jus soli\" even if their parents are not citizens.\nIn 2018 the New York Times reported that 20% of babies born in Richmond Hospital in Richmond, British Columbia, were born to mothers involved in birth tourism. This means that the babies automatically acquire Canadian citizenship."}
+{"id": "3495", "revid": "314538", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3495", "title": "Elephant", "text": "Elephants are the biggest living land mammals. They have long noses called trunks and large flapping ears. The largest elephant ever recorded was shot in Angola in 1974. It weighed and stood tall. \nAt birth, an elephant calf may be as big as 100 kg (225 pounds). The baby elephant develops for 20 to 22 months inside its mother. No other land animal takes this long to develop before being born.\nIn the wild, elephants have strong family relationships. Their ways of acting toward other elephants are hard for people to understand. They \"talk\" to each other with very low sounds. Most elephants sounds are so low, people cannot hear them. But elephants can hear these sounds from very far away. \nElephants have strong, leathery skin to protect themselves.\nPhysical description.\nThere are two living genera of elephants. These are the African elephants (\"Loxodonta africanus)\" and the Asian elephants (\"Elephas maximus\").\nTrunk.\nThe trunk is a very long nose, made from the upper lip. An elephant uses its trunk to grab objects such as food. Though the rest of an elephant's skin is strong and thick, its trunk is very soft and sensitive. Elephants avoid Acacia trees with ants because they can bite the inside of an elephant's trunk. \nAn elephant also uses its trunk when it trumpets. It stands still, raises its trunk, and blows. This is a signal to other elephants and animals.\nTeeth.\nElephants have teeth and tusks. Tusks are large teeth coming out of their upper jaws. \nA lot of ivory comes from elephant tusks. Ivory traders killed many elephants, and hunting elephants is illegal.\nIn total, elephants have 24 teeth: 12 front teeth, called premolars, and 12 back teeth, called molars. When the last molar falls out, the elephant dies because it cannot eat. They can live for about 70 years. But in a zoo or circus, people can keep elephants alive by feeding them soft food.\nGrass wears down their teeth because it has a high concentration of silica and is very abrasive. Elephants use their teeth in sequence, not all at once. This means that, at any time, they only have one tooth in each jaw, a total of four.\nDifferences between species.\nAfrican elephants are larger and have bigger ears. They are grazers who still do a lot of browsing: they eat leaves, branches and grass. These big ears have many veins, which carry blood throughout the body. Biologists think that the blood going through their ears helps African elephants to cool off. The weather is hotter in Africa than in Asia, so cooling is more important for African elephants. Female African elephants have tusks, but female Asian elephants do not. African elephants have a low place in their back. African elephants have two \"fingers\" at the end of their trunks, but Asian elephants only have one. Indian elephants mostly eat grass.\nSome African elephants live on the savanna while others live in the forest. Today, many people think these are different species. Scientists named the forest group \"Loxodonta cyclotis\" and the savanna group \"Loxodonta africanus\".\nThe African forest elephant is the third largest living land animal in the world.\nEvolution.\nElephants are distantly related to sea cows, which are large aquatic mammals. Early ancestors in the Palaeocene and Eocene were small, semi-aquatic animals. By the Miocene several groups of large mainly forest-dwelling elephants evolved, the gomphotheres and deinotheres. Their teeth show little wear, indicating a diet of soft, nongritty, forest vegetation.\nModern elephants \u2013 the actual family Elephantidae \u2013 evolved from gomphotheres as the climate became cooler and drier in the Pliocene and Pleistocene. This includes the mammoth and mastodon as well as modern elephants.\nThe gomphotheres lasted a long time, and were hunted by modern man. There was a change in plant resources, with the reduced forests and extended grassland. This favoured specialist grass feeders over generalist eaters. This change in the dietary supply was one of the factors which forced gomphotheres toward extinction in the late Pleistocene in South America. The remaining population probably succumbed to climatic change and/or human predation around the time of the Holocene margin.\nThe significant thing about modern elephants (especially Indian elephants) is that they eat grass: they are primarily grazers, rather than browsers. Compared with gomphotheres, the teeth of modern elephants are quite different.\nUses.\nHumans have used elephants for different things. The Carthaginian general Hannibal took some elephants across the Alps when he fought the Romans. He probably used the North African elephant, a kind of elephant that does not live today. It was smaller than other African elephants. Elephants are sometimes used by tourists as rides.\nMany circuses have them. The Siamese, Indians, and other South Asian peoples used them for several things. They fought in armies, and they crushed criminals. They also did heavy work like lifting trees and moving logs.\nHowever, people have never \"domesticated\" elephants. Domesticated animals are tame and have babies under human control. The male elephant in heat is dangerous and hard to control. This state is called musth. Most elephants used by people are female, except those used in war. In a battle, female elephants run from males, so armies needed males. Elephants are sometimes used by tourists for riding.\nStatus today.\nBoth African and Asian elephants are endangered species. Elephants in captivity do not make many babies, and some captive elephants are abused and mistreated. \nAfrican elephants receive some legal protection in every country where they are found. However, 70% of their range exists outside protected areas. \nConservation efforts in some areas have led to more elephants. Local numbers may be controlled by contraception or moving the elephants to other places. Large-scale culling (legal killing) ceased in 1988, when Zimbabwe stopped doing it. \nIn 1989, trade in elephants and their products (ivory, meat) was made illegal. Appendix II status (which allows restricted trade) was given to elephants in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000. In some countries, sport hunting of the animals is legal: Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have export quotas for elephant trophies. The IUCN estimates a total of around 440,000 individuals for 2012.\nThe total population of Asian elephants is about 40,000\u201350,000 (a rough estimate). Around half of the population is in India. Although Asian elephants are declining in numbers overall, particularly in Southeast Asia, the population in the Western Ghats may be increasing.\nFamily.\nA female elephant will have a single baby (called a \"calf\") every four or five years. Calves are born tall and weigh around . An elephant's gestation lasts about 22 months. Another female elephant often stays with the new mother until its baby is born. The newborn elephant can often stand within a half hour after it is born. Mother elephants touch their babies gently with their trunks. It takes a baby a year or more to control its trunk and learn its many uses.\nBaby elephants nurse for the first two years of their lives. After it is born, the first thing that the baby does is wobble in search of its mother's milk. It drinks about 10 liters of milk every day.\nSymbolism.\nWhite elephants are considered holy in Thailand.\nOne of the most famous fictional elephants is Dumbo. It is a flying elephant in a Disney movie. \"The Elephant's Child\" is one of Rudyard Kipling's \"Just So Stories\"\nGanesha is the god of wisdom in Hinduism. He has an elephant's head.\nThe elephant is the symbol for the United States Republican Party. It is like the Democratic Party's donkey. The first person to use the elephant as a symbol for the Republican Party was Thomas Nast. He did that in a Harper's Weekly cartoon in 1874."}
+{"id": "3496", "revid": "1618275", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3496", "title": "Buddhism", "text": "Buddhism is a dharmic religion that originated in ancient India, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama better known as The Buddha \"the Awakened one\". \nOver the centuries, his teachings spread to Nepal, Central Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, and now Europe and North and South America. At least two major branches of practice and theory exist: Theravada Buddhism is most common in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, and Mahayana is most common in East Asia. Buddhism exists as many different schools and sects today but they all share common beliefs and ideas. About seven percent of the people of the world are Buddhist. \nWhile many people see Buddhism as a religion, others see it as a philosophy, and others as a way of finding reality.\nBackground and Buddhist concepts.\nSiddhartha Gautama (563483 BC) began life as the infant prince of a small kingdom in Lumbini, now in the southern part of Nepal. As an adult he left wealth and status behind to search for truth. Enlightened at the age of 35, the Buddha spent the next 45 years of his life traveling and teaching in the northern part of India. He died at the age of 80.\nThe Buddha focused much of his teaching on how to overcome suffering. He saw that all living things suffer in being born, in getting sick, in growing old, and in facing death. By overcoming suffering, he taught, a person will be truly happy. \nEarly teaching. His first lesson after becoming enlightened was to other seekers who had also renounced the world. This was a group of holy men or monks with whom the Buddha had studied for five or more years. To them he first presented what he saw as the Four Noble Truths of life and the Eightfold Noble Path (see below). These teachings identify the causes of suffering and their cure.\nThree marks of existence. The Buddha taught that life is best understood as being \"impermanent\" (everything changes), \"unsatisfactory\" (left on our own we are never truly happy), and \"interdependent\" (all things are linked, even to the degree that the self is better understood as an illusion). \nThe middle way. Buddhism teaches non-harm and \"moderation\" or balance, not going too far one way or the other. This is called the Middle Way, and encourages people to live in balance. \nMeditation. The Buddha recommended meditation as a way to discipline the mind and see the world as it is. Buddhists may meditate while sitting in a special or specific way. Standing and walking meditation are other styles. \nThree poisons. In discussing suffering, the Buddha identified the three poisons of desire, anger and stupidity, and he showed that we could end our suffering by letting go of desires and overcoming anger and stupidity. \nNirvana. The complete letting go of negative influences is called Nirvana, meaning \"to extinguish,\" like putting out the flame of a candle. This end of suffering is also called Enlightenment. In Buddhism, Enlightenment and Nirvana often mean the same thing.\nDo Buddhists believe in god or gods? The Buddha would not say if gods exist or not, although gods play a part in some Buddhist stories. If someone asked the Buddha, \"Do gods exist?\" he maintained a \"noble silence\". That is, he would not confirm or deny. Buddhists do not believe that people should look to gods to save them or bring them enlightenment. Rather individuals should work out their own path the best they can. \nOther basic teachings. Many of the Buddha's ideas are found in other Indian religions, especially Hinduism. \nMeaning of Buddha.\nBuddha is a Pali word which means \"The Awakened (or Enlightened) one\". Someone who has woken up to the truth of the mind and suffering and teaches the truth to others is called a Buddha. The word \"Buddha\" often means the historical Buddha named Buddha Shakyamuni (Siddhartha Gautama). Buddhists do not believe that a Buddha is a god, but that he is a human being who has woken up and can see the true way the mind works. They believe this knowledge totally changes the person. This person can help others become \"enlightened\" too. Enlightened people are beyond birth, death, and rebirth. \nThe first Buddha.\nAccording to Buddhism, there were countless Buddhas before Gautama Buddha and there will be many Buddhas after him. \nIn Pali texts, the first Buddha in Buddhavamsa sutta was Ta\u1e47ha\u1e45kara Buddha. The Mahapadana sutta says the earliest Buddha of the recent seven buddhas was Vipassi Buddha (\"But sutta is not saying that Vipassi is first Buddha\"). Counting from the present \"kalpa\" (the beginning of our present world (Earth)) Gautama Buddha is considered the fourth Buddha. In this telling, the first is Kakusandho Buddha, second Konakamano Buddha, and the third Kassapo Buddha. The last Buddha of this \"kalpa\" will be Maitreya Buddha. Then the world (Earth) will renew itself and from then begins a new \"kalpa\".\nBeliefs of Buddhism.\nThe three jewels.\nBuddhists respect and treasure the \"Three Jewels\", which are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.\nThe Buddha refers to the awakened one, the Dharma to the Buddha's teachings, and the Sangha to the people who follow the Buddha and his teachings. \nBuddhists say \"I take \"refuge\" in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.\" They find comfort in these jewels or treasures.\nFour noble Truths.\nThe Buddha's first and most important teachings are the Four Noble Truths.\nNoble Eightfold Path.\nThe Buddha told people to follow a special way of life called the \"Noble Eightfold Path\" if they want to understand the \"Four Noble Truths\". These are:\nFive precepts.\nBuddhists are encouraged to follow five \"precepts\", or guidelines. The Buddha taught that killing, stealing, having sex in a harmful way, and lying are not signs of skill.\nIf a person wants to be a monk or nun, they will follow other \"precepts\" as well."}
+{"id": "3504", "revid": "526512", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3504", "title": "Story", "text": "A story can be different things:"}
+{"id": "3505", "revid": "8441970", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3505", "title": "Governor-general", "text": "Governor General is a representative of a head of state. The term is mostly used in Commonwealth realm countries, where the governor general is a representative of the British monarch, who is the head of state of the Commonwealth realm countries.\nSometimes the title is spelled as \"Governor General\", which is used in Canada, but sometimes it is spelled with a hyphen \"-\", \"Governor-General\", which is the spelling used in Australia."}
+{"id": "3506", "revid": "1633172", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3506", "title": "Black hole", "text": "A black hole is a place in space where gravity is so strong that nothing can escape from it, not even light. Black holes are made when a lot of matter is squeezed into a very small space. This idea comes from Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. The outer edge of a black hole is called the event horizon. When something enters the black hole, it cannot get out. Black holes act like perfect black bodies, which means they do not reflect any light. According to quantum mechanics, black holes can slowly release a tiny amount of energy called Hawking radiation. But this radiation is so weak that it cannot be seen with the technology today.\nThe idea of objects with gravity so strong that light cannot escape was first talked about in the 1700s by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace. In 1916, Karl Schwarzschild found the first solution to Einstein's general relativity equations that was about a black hole. Because of his important work, this solution is called the Schwarzschild metric. In 1958, David Finkelstein was the first to call a black hole a place in space where nothing can escape. For a long time, people thought black holes were just an idea in mathematics. They thought black holes were not real. In 1967, Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered neutron stars. The first black hole found was Cygnus X-1. It was found by lots of scientists in 1971.\nBlack holes usually form when very large stars die at the end of their life. Black holes can grow by eating gas, dust, stars, or even combining with other black holes. Supermassive black holes are black holes which are millions of times heavier than the Sun. These big black holes might be made by merging with other black holes, eating stars, or from the collapse of huge clouds of gas. Scientists agree that supermassive black holes can be found at the centers of almost every galaxy.\nEven though black holes are invisible to us, scientists can still find them. They look at how they affect matter and light near them. When matter falls toward a black hole, it can form a spinning disk called an accretion disk. Friction in the disk heats it up. This makes it glow very brightly. Sometimes, this creates a quasar, one of the brightest things in the universe. This can be found by telescopes on Earth or by telescopes in space such as Chandra or XMM Newton. Sometimes, if a star gets too close to a supermassive black hole, it can be torn apart into a bright stream of gas before being swallowed. Scientists can also find black holes by looking at how stars move. If a star moves around something invisible, scientists can find out the mass and location of the invisible object. This helps them know it is a black hole and not something else like a neutron star. Astronomers have found some black holes. However, \"estimates from NASA [... say that maybe there are] as many as 10 million to a billion [black holes or] stellar black holes in the Milky Way\", according to media (2025).\nOne was found at the center of our galaxy. This black hole, called Sagittarius A*, is about 4.3 million times heavier than our Sun.\nThe black hole closest to Earth, is Gaia BH1. Its distance from Earth is about 1,500 light-years.\nHistory.\nIn 1783, an English clergyman named John Michell wrote that it might be possible for something to be so heavy you would have to go at the speed of light to get away from its gravity. Gravity gets stronger as something gets more massive. For a small thing, like a rocket, to escape from a larger thing, like Earth, it has to escape the pull of the Earth's gravity or it will fall back. The speed that it must travel to get away is called escape velocity. Bigger planets (like Jupiter) and stars have more mass, and have stronger gravity than Earth. Therefore, the escape velocity would need to be much faster. John Michell thought it was possible for something to be so big that the escape velocity would need to be faster than the speed of light, so even light could not escape. In 1796, Pierre-Simon Laplace wrote about the same idea in the first and second editions of his book \"Exposition du syst\u00e8me du Monde\" (it was removed from later editions).\nSome scientists thought Michell might be right, but others thought that light had no mass and would not be pulled by gravity. His theory was forgotten.\nIn 1916 Albert Einstein wrote an explanation of gravity called general relativity.\nA few months later, while serving in World War I, the German physicist Karl Schwarzschild used Einstein's equations to show that a black hole could exist. The Schwarzschild radius is the size of the event horizon of a non-rotating black hole. This radius was the measurement where the escape velocity was equal to the speed of light. If the radius of a star is smaller, then light is unable to escape, and it would be a dark star, or black hole.\nIn 1930, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar predicted that stars heavier than the sun could collapse when they ran out of hydrogen or other nuclear fuels to burn. In 1939, Robert Oppenheimer and H. Snyder calculated that a star would have to be at least three times as massive as the Sun to form a black hole. In 1967, John Wheeler invented the name \"black hole\" for the first time. Before that, they were called \"dark stars\".\nIn 1970, Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose showed that black holes \"must\" exist. Although the black holes are invisible (they cannot be seen), some of the matter that is falling into them is very bright.\nAs of spring 2019, there was an image of a black hole, or rather, the things orbiting the black hole. The image required many photos from different locations. One of the team members (Katie Bouman) made a compilation of all the images into one singular image.\nIn 2020, Roger Penrose, Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on the theory of black holes.\nFormation of black holes.\nThe gravitational collapse of huge (high-mass) stars cause \"stellar mass\" black holes. This happens when really big stars run out of fuel.\nStar formation in the early universe may have created very big stars. These stars were so large that their cores collapsed into black holes. The black hole at the center of these stars slowly consumed the star from within making black holes of up to 103 solar masses. These black holes may be the seeds of the supermassive black holes found in the centers of most galaxies. If these stars really existed, they may even explain where supermassive black holes come from.\nMost of the energy released in gravitational collapse is given off very quickly. A distant observer sees the material falling in slowly and then stop just above the event horizon because of gravitational time dilation. The light given off just before the event horizon is delayed an infinite amount of time. So the observer never sees the formation of the event horizon. Instead, the collapsing material seems to become dimmer and increasingly red-shifted, eventually fading away.\nSupermassive black holes.\nBlack holes have also been found in the middle of almost every galaxy in the known universe. These are called supermassive black holes (SBH), and are the biggest black holes of all. They formed when the Universe was very young, and also helped to form all the galaxies.\nQuasars are believed to be powered by gravity collecting material into supermassive black holes in the centers of distant galaxies. Light cannot escape the SBHs at the center of quasars, so the escaping energy is made outside the event horizon by gravitational stresses and immense friction on the incoming material.\nHuge central masses (106 to 109 solar masses) have been measured in quasars. Several dozen nearby large galaxies, with no sign of a quasar nucleus, have a similar central black hole in their nuclei. Therefore, it is thought that all large galaxies have one, but only a small fraction are active (with enough accretion to power radiation) and so are seen as quasars.\nParts of a Black Hole.\nThe Event Horizon.\nA black hole is separated from the rest of the Universe by its event horizon. Anything which crosses it cannot escape, not even light. Anything that happens inside this boundary can't be seen from the outside.\nNear a black hole, time appears to slow down. This is known as gravitational time dilation. This happens because gravity affects time. The stronger the gravity, the slower time passes. Objects seem to turn red and fade away when they reach the event horizon. This is known as gravitational redshift. \nThe shape of the event horizon for non-rotating black holes is spherical and slightly flattened for spinning ones.\nThe photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness in which photons that move on tangents to that sphere would be trapped in a circular orbit about the black hole.\nEffect on light.\nAt the middle of a black hole, there is a gravitational center called a singularity. It is impossible to see into it because the gravity prevents any light escaping.\nOutside the event horizon, light and matter will still be pulled toward the black hole. If a black hole is surrounded by matter, the matter will form an \"accretion disk\" around the black hole. An accretion disk looks something like the rings of Saturn. As it gets sucked in, the matter gets very hot and shoots x-ray radiation into space. Think of this as the water spinning around the hole before it falls in.\nMost black holes are too far away for us to see the accretion disk and jet. The only way to know a black hole is there is by seeing how stars, gas and light behave around it. With a black hole nearby, even objects as big as a star move in a different way, usually faster than they would if the black hole was not there.\nSince we cannot see black holes, they must be detected by other means. When a black hole passes between us and a source of light, the light bends around the black hole creating a mirror image. This effect is called gravitational lensing.\nHawking radiation.\nHawking radiation is black body radiation which is emitted by black holes, due to quantum effects near the event horizon. It is named after the physicist Stephen Hawking, who provided a theoretical argument for its existence in 1974.\nHawking radiation reduces the mass and the energy of the black hole and is therefore also known as \"black hole evaporation\". This happens because of the virtual particle-antiparticle pairs. Due to quantum fluctuations, this is when one of the particles falls in and the other gets away with the energy/mass. Because of this, black holes that lose more mass than they gain through other means are expected to shrink and ultimately vanish. Micro black holes (MBHs) are predicted to be larger net emitters of radiation than larger black holes and should shrink and dissipate faster.\nProperties of black holes.\nThe no hair theorem basically says that once a black hole has formed, it only has three physical properties that we can measure: mass, charge, and spin. If this is true, then if two black holes had the same mass, charge and spin then they will look the same. As of 2020, it is unclear if the no hair theorem is true for real black holes.\nThe properties are special, because all of them can be measured from outside the black hole. For example, a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object. Similarly, the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog of Gauss's law, far away from the black hole. The angular momentum or spin can also be measured from far away.\nWhen anything falls into a black hole, any property that is not part of the three properties of a black hole, like shape or charge distribution, gets erased and cannot be seen from outside. This is a very big problem because we lose a lot of information about what went into the black hole, including certain quantum properties and physics tells us that information cannot be destroyed. This puzzle is called the black hole information loss paradox. "}
+{"id": "3511", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3511", "title": "Sheffield", "text": "Sheffield is a big city in a region called South Yorkshire in the North of England. There are 534,500 people living there. Sheffield is in the middle of lots of hills. The city centre is where the River Sheaf meets the River Don, and Sheffield gets its name from the River Sheaf. The city is east of the Peak District National Park. It is estimated that Sheffield has over two million trees, which is more than any city in Europe per each person. 61% of the city is green space, such as parks and forests.\nThe area of Sheffield used to be the Anglo-Saxon shire of Hallamshire, the city itself was founded later.\nIndustry.\nSheffield is famous for making cutlery (like knives and spoons). People in Sheffield have made cutlery for a very long time (a Sheffield-made knife is referred to in Chaucer's \"Canterbury Tales\", a book from the Middle Ages). Sheffield is also famous for making steel. Benjamin Huntsman discovered the crucible technique for making steel in 1740. In 1856, Henry Bessemer invented the Bessemer converter steelmaking furnace. Henry moved to Sheffield to make steel. Later, in 1912, Harry Brearley invented stainless steel in Sheffield.\nSports.\nThe first football team in the world is from Sheffield, Sheffield F.C., set up in 1857. Sheffield currently has two big professional football teams, Sheffield Wednesday and Sheffield United.\nBands.\nThere are lots of famous bands from Sheffield. Some of them are Pulp, the Human League, Def Leppard and the Arctic Monkeys. Michael Palin is also from Sheffield.\nThere is a big arena called the Motorpoint Arena in Sheffield. WWE have visited this arena to do live shows."}
+{"id": "3515", "revid": "1389678", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3515", "title": "Fertilizer", "text": "A fertilizer is a chemical that helps plants to grow. It is used to replace the mineral salts taken by plants or removed/washed away by rain.\nCommon fertilizers:\nThe important things in fertilizer are:\nWhen fertilizers are offered for sale, the percentage of N, P, and K must be written on the bags or boxes, but for historcal reasons, P is shown as %P2O5 and K is shown as %K2O.\nE.g.:9-23-30 which means: 9% N, 23%P2O5 and 30%K2O.\nIn Australia the percent of elemental sulfur must also be shown.\nIn the UK, the elemental composition (in percentages) may also be shown alongside the mandatory traditional system, provided the numbers are put inside square brackets.\nLeafy plants need lots of N. Flowering plants need lots of P and K.\nA soil test can tell how much N, P, and K is needed."}
+{"id": "3516", "revid": "1661987", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3516", "title": "Military", "text": "Military forces (often called the military when specific to a certain group) are a group or groups of people that are given power to defend a country or territory with weapons. They are armed, so they are called the armed forces. The military protects its country by defending it from the armed forces of enemies, if there is a war. The military can also be ordered by the government of the country to attack another country. The word \"military\" comes from Latin \"miles\", warrior.\nThere are many jobs people do in a military. Some jobs are for fighting and some are for other work to support the military. Some things people do in the military include the use of weapons, driving and operating vehicles, and repairing weapons. Other people in the military learn how to fly specialized aircraft, be a pilot on ships, or repair machines. Or provide medical support. People in the military usually wear clothes called a uniform. In some places, especially where there may be combat, a uniform often has a camouflage pattern which is designed to make the person hard to see in the forest or desert.\nThere are two ways to join the military. In many countries, people join the military because they want to. In other countries, there are laws that say some people have to be in the military, even if they do not want to be. This is called \"the draft\" or conscription. It usually depends on age and physical fitness. Old military people or former military people are called \"veterans\". Some are members of a military reserve force.\nThe military of a country has different branches or organizations which do different kinds of work. Usually they include:\nMany countries include other branches:\nSome countries even have small units which perform special actions which are difficult. They are called special forces.\nThere are also mercenaries, soldiers who fight just for pay and have little loyalty to whomever might hire them, and private military contractors (PMC), which are under the command of a company (civilian company). The Medieval Italian \"condottieri\" were a historical example of PMCs. A warlord may have a private army, which are often no more trustworthy than common gangsters or criminals.\nJoining up and training.\nIn many countries of the world, young men and (in a few countries) women between 17 and 18 and of good health may be forced by the government of their country to join the military and have military training. This is called \"conscription\". The countries that do not have conscription include Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, France, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Malta, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, and the United Kingdom. In some countries, such as Argentina and United States, conscription is legal but has not been used in decades.\nWhen a person wants to join the military as a volunteer, they \"enlist\". (This means simply that they put their name on a list.) They have to be above a certain age, 17 or 18 in most countries. They have to pass physical fitness tests to show that they are well enough to do the jobs that they will have to do. They must also have good enough hearing, to hear orders, and good enough sight to use a rifle. \nNew people in the military are often called \u201crecruits\u201d. They have training at a special camp, sometimes called \u201cboot camp\" or \"basic training\". During this training, the recruits usually have very little free time. They learn to understand the \"orders\" or \"commands\" that are given by the officers to the \"troops\". (The troops are the military people in a group.) They learn the right ways to obey the orders. They do a lot of exercise to improve their fitness and strength. They learn about weapons, first aid, and their uniforms and \"kit\" (their equipment). Recruits also learn how to march. (This is the way to walk together, keeping \"in step\".) Learning to march is sometimes called \u201cdrill\u201d. By the time soldiers finish \"boot camp\", they should know enough to be a helpful person in their group. The camp usually finishes with a parade in which the newly trained recruits show off their marching and other skills they have learned in front of important visitors. Once the recruits are fully trained, they are ready to defend (protect) their country from attack, or to go to war if necessary."}
+{"id": "3518", "revid": "17988", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3518", "title": "Photosynthesis", "text": "Photosynthesis is a process in which green plants make their own food from sunlight, using the help of leaves to produce sugar. It is the process by which these organisms convert light energy into chemical energy, which is used to produce food. \nOrigin.\nPhotosynthesis is not an accident. It happens because its building blocks occur in space, and get included when planets form. We have no idea as to how common or rare this process is. We do know that higher elements are formed in supernovae, and that is the origin of all elements higher than helium. The higher elements found in Halley's Comet have been analysed.\nBefore photosynthesis, the Earth's atmosphere had almost no oxygen. Even without oxygen, some simple life-forms could have existed. But the key event for life as we know it was the Great Oxygenation Event. \nWays it is done.\nPhotosynthesis can happen in different ways, but there are some parts that are common.\nPhotosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts in leaves (or other green tissues). They contain chlorophyll, the green pigment that absorbs light energy. In leaves, palisade cells have chloroplasts to capture light.\nOxygen is produced as a result of photosynthesis and released into the atmosphere through respiration. \"All the oxygen in the atmosphere has its origin in plants\" (including those microorganisms which do photosynthesis).\nGlucose is used in respiration (to release energy in cells). It is stored in the form of starch (which is converted back to glucose for respiration in the dark). Glucose can also be converted into other compounds for growth and reproduction e.g. cellulose, nectar, fructose, amino acids and fats.\nProcess.\nPhotosynthesis has two main sets of reactions, known as \"phases\". Light-dependent reactions which need light to do work; and light-independent reactions which do not need light to do work.\nLight-dependent phase.\nLight energy from the sun is used to split water molecules (photolysis). The sunlight hits chloroplasts in the plant. This causes an enzyme to split the water. Water, when split, gives oxygen, hydrogen, and electrons.\nHydrogen, along with electrons energized by light, converts NADP into NADPH which is then used in the light-independent reactions. Oxygen gas diffuses out of the plant as a waste product of photosynthesis, and ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate. This all happens in the grana of chloroplasts.\nLight-independent reaction.\nDuring this reaction, sugars are built up using carbon dioxide and the products of the light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) and various other chemicals found in the plant in the Calvin Cycle. Therefore, the light-independent reaction cannot happen without the light-dependent reaction. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the plant and along with chemicals in the chloroplast, ATP, and NADPH, glucose is made and finally, transported around the plant by translocation.\nFactors affecting photosynthesis.\nThere are three main factors affecting photosynthesis:\nLight intensity.\nIf there is little light shining on a plant, the light-dependent reactions will not work efficiently. This means that photolysis (breakdown of water by light) will not happen quickly, and therefore little NADPH and ATP will be made. This shortage of NADPH and ATP will lead to the light-independent reactions not working as NADPH and ATP are needed for the light-independent reactions to work.\nThe light intensity required is easily investigated in an aquatic plant such as pondweed. The oxygen bubbles given off can be counted or the volume measured. By changing the distance between light and plant, the light intensity is made to vary. Change in light intensity will affect the change in rate of photosynthesis. Artificial lighting can be used in the dark to maximise the photosynthetic rate.\nCarbon dioxide levels.\nCarbon dioxide is used in the light-independent reactions. It combines with NADPH and ATP and various other chemicals to form glucose. Therefore, if there is not enough carbon dioxide, then there will be a build-up of NADPH and ATP and not enough glucose will be formed.\nTemperature.\nThere are many enzymes working in photosynthetic reactions \u2013 such as the enzyme in photolysis. All enzymes work best at their optimum temperature. All light-dependent and light-independent reactions will occur normally at average or optimum temperatures. Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates.\nWhen the temperatures are too low, there is little kinetic energy, so the reaction rate decreases. If the temperatures are too high, the enzymes become \"denatured\" and the catalysis of photosynthesis reaction stops.\nGreenhouses must keep an optimum temperature for normal functioning of plants.\nEarly evolution.\nThe first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the history of life. They may have used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water. Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced caused the oxygen catastrophe. After this, the evolution of complex life was possible.\nDifferences.\nThe photosystems of green sulfur bacteria and those of cyanobacteria, algae, and higher plants are not the same. That shows photosynthesis occurred not once, but several times over.\nEffectiveness.\nToday, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is about 130\u00a0terawatts. This is about six times larger than the current power used by human civilization.\nPhotosynthetic organisms also convert about 100\u2013115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year."}
+{"id": "3520", "revid": "1322638", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3520", "title": "Casserole", "text": "A casserole is a baked dish for many different types of food, mixed together in a fluid based on liquid. The start ingredient is often a roux. Often, one of the ingredients is a can of soup. The whole point of a casserole is that it cooks material \"slowly\". That means it can use ingredients which would not be edible if fried or roasted. \nThe casserole needs to simmer below boiling point for hours, depending on the ingredients. That way tough meat and vegetables become soft and edible.\nIt is a simple way to cook a nutritional meal.\nCasserole is from a French word meaning \"sauce-pan\"; a large, deep dish used either to cook something in an oven or to serve the food cooked in it. The French word\u00a0 \"casserole\" \u00a0had been derived from the old Proven\u00e7al word, \"cassa\" and the Medieval Latin word, \"cattia\", both of these words meaning \"ladle\".\nCasseroles are usually cooked slowly in the oven, usually covered. They may be served as a main course or a side dish, and may be served in the vessel in which they were cooked. Types of casserole include ragout, hotpot, cassoulet, tajine, moussaka, lasagne, shepherd's pie, gratin, rice or macaroni timballo, and carbonnade.\nA popular type of casserole is green bean casserole, which has green beans, milk or cream, and fried onions. It was first cooked in Berlin, New Hampshire in 1866 by, Elmire Jolicoeur.\nThe second illustration proves how old the idea is. That casserole dish has a lid, and a spout for steam to escape. The heat is applied from below as it is with a stew.\nEarly casserole dishes were rice-based that were pounded and pressed and then filled with meat. The first popular meals included French cassoulet, British pot pies, Italian lasagna, and Greek moussaka. Macaroni and cheese is the oldest written casserole recipe found in 1250."}
+{"id": "3521", "revid": "596499", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3521", "title": "Plate", "text": "A plate is a type of dish where food can be placed after being cooked for eating. Sometimes they are called dishes. They may be made out of ceramic, plastic, paper, or styrofoam.\nA plate is also one of the broken pieces of lithosphere of the Earth. These plates have irregular shapes. They lie and float on the upper mantle. They move very slowly in different directions. Their movement is driven by the convection currents in the magma. A plate can contain both oceanic and continental crusts. Some contain oceanic crust only."}
+{"id": "3523", "revid": "68157", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3523", "title": "Flea", "text": "The flea (\"Siphonaptera\") is an insect which lives on many animals and sometimes humans. Fleas are ectoparasites and drink the blood of the animal they bite.\nFleas live outdoors in sand or tall grass, and jump to any passing animal and lay eggs. Flea bites are usually red bumps and they itch. \nThere are many species of flea such as dog fleas, cat fleas, human fleas, northern rat fleas, and the oriental rat flea. During the Middle Ages, the oriental rat flea spread a bacteria that caused the bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death or Black Plague. This was a huge epidemic much more severe than today's bird flu. The oriental rat flea was infected by the bacteria \"Yersinia pestis\". "}
+{"id": "3524", "revid": "1694345", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3524", "title": "Terrorism", "text": "Terrorism is the use of fear and violence for political, religious or ideological reasons Ex:(police forces using statutes that override your constitutional rights in order to hold roadside court. Collecting roadside extortion income at gunpoint through fear of disputing in court and knowing you cant miss work these domestic terrorist persist) Many different types of social or political organizations might use terrorism to try to achieve their goals. People who carry out terrorism are called \"terrorists\". The foundation of modern terrorism is the work of Sergey Nechayev, a Russian radical who developed strategies for carrying out terrorism, which also includes politics.\nOverview.\nIt is difficult to explain terrorism. Terrorism has no official criminal law definition at the international level. Common definitions of terrorism refer to violent acts which are intended to create fear. The acts may be done for a religious, political or ideological motive and use illegal violence. Some definitions now include acts of unlawful violence and war crimes. The use of similar tactics by criminal gangs is not usually called terrorism. The same actions may be called terrorism when they are done by a politically-motivated group.\nThere are over 10,000 definitions of \"terrorism\". In some cases, the same group may be described as \"freedom fighters\" by its supporters and \"terrorists\" by its opponents. The term is often used by states to criticize political opponents. One form of terrorism is the use of violence against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining publicity for a group, cause, or individual. According to Memorial Institute for Prevention of Terrorism (MIPT), terrorists killed 20,498 people in 2006. The major effect of terrorism comes from the fear that is generated.\nCounter-terrorism.\nCounter-terrorism is broad in scope. Types of counter-terrorism include but not limited:\nContext.\nThe more modern governments restrict weapons to their military, the more ordinary people are helpless against terrorists. The Global Terrorism Database (University of Maryland, College Park) has recorded more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism. These caused at least 140,000 deaths between 2000 and 2014."}
+{"id": "3528", "revid": "1679434", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3528", "title": "South Africa", "text": "South Africa (officially called the Republic of South Africa) is a country in the southern region of Africa. About fifty-seven million people live there. South Africa is next to Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, and Eswatini.\nThe biggest city of South Africa is Johannesburg. The country has three capitals for different purposes. They are Cape Town, Pretoria, and Bloemfontein. This is because the government is based in Pretoria, the parliament is in Cape Town and the Supreme Court is in Bloemfontein.\nThere are 11 national languages. They are Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Setswana, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Venda and Tsonga. They are also known as National Lexicography Units (NLUs). Because of all the languages, the country has an official name in each language.\nOne of South Africa's most well known people is Nelson Mandela. He was its president from 1994 until 1999. He died in 2013 at the age of 95. The current president is Cyril Ramaphosa.\nLions, cheetahs, zebras, giraffes, and many species of antelope live in South Africa.\nIn terms of its resources, South Africa is one of the richest countries in Africa.\nHistory.\nSpeakers of Bantu languages had settled south of the Limpopo River by the 4th or 5th century CE. They displaced and conquered the Khoisan (Khoikhoi and San) people that lived there. Bantu peoples slowly moved south. The group that was the farthest south was the Xhosa people. Their language used some traits from the Khoisan people. The Xhosa reached the Great Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. As they migrated, these larger Iron Age groups displaced or assimilated earlier groups. In Mpumalanga Province, several stone circles have been found, along with a stone arrangement that has been named Adam's Calendar. The ruins are thought to be created by the Bakone, a Northern Sotho people.\nThe first European people to come to South Africa were Portuguese explorers. In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias found what he called the \"Cape of Storms\". The king of Portugal changed it to \"Cape of Good Hope\". He called it this because the cape gave the Portuguese a new chance to find a sea route to India.\nIn 1652, Jan van Riebeeck colonized the Cape. He started the camp for the Dutch East India Company. This was so that they could give fresh food to ships on their way to the south of Asia. There were very few native people living in the Cape. Because of this, slaves were brought from Indonesia, Madagascar and India to work at the colony. In 1795, Great Britain took the Cape from the Dutch East India Company, to stop France from taking it. The British gave it back in 1803 but then annexed the Cape in 1807 when the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt.\nDiamonds were found in South Africa in 1867. Gold was found in 1884. This made a great number of people to come to South Africa from Europe. They were hoping to make money.\nThe First Boer War happened in 1880-1881. The war was between the British and the Boers Republics. At that time, the British had the Cape. The Boer Republics were established when Dutch settlers moved north in the Great Trek. The British lost the war and came back 8 years later in 1899. They won this Second Boer War in 1902. The British had brought many more soldiers the second time. The Boers had no chance of winning. On 31 May 1910 the Union of South Africa was made from the Cape and Natal colonies. It was also made from Orange Free State and the Transvaal. These were two Boer Republics.\nSouth Africa became much more independent when the Statute of Westminster was passed in 1931. The statute said that the Parliament of the United Kingdom could not pass laws in the country. In 1941, a system of racial discrimination called apartheid was started. It gave white people in South Africa more rights than black people.\nIn 1961, South Africa became completely independent when the voters passed a referendum to become a republic. Only white people were allowed to vote in the referendum. This republic ended apartheid in 1994.\nGeography.\nSouth Africa is at the south end of Africa. It has a long coastline that reaches more than and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian). At , South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world and is almost the size of Colombia. Njesuthi in the Drakensberg at is the highest part in South Africa.\nThe majority of South Africa is the Central Plateau, bounded by the Great Escarpment. Its scrubland, the Karoo, is drier towards the northwest along the Namib desert. The eastern coastline however, is well-watered, which makes a climate similar to the tropics.\nTo the north of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the escarpment of the Highveld. It then turns into the lower lying Bushveld, an area of mixed dry forest and a lot of wildlife. East of the Highveld, beyond the eastern escarpment, the Lowveld reaches towards the Indian Ocean. It has mostly high temperatures, and is also the location of subtropical agriculture.\nClimate.\nSouth Africa has a mostly temperate climate. It is surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, and is located in the climatically milder southern hemisphere. Average elevation is higher towards the north (towards the equator) and further inland. Because of this varied topography and oceanic influence, different parts of South Africa have different climates.\nThere is a desert in the southern Namib in the farthest northwest and subtropical climate in the east along the Mozambique border and the Indian Ocean. From the east, the land quickly rises over mountains towards the back plateau known as the Highveld. Even though South Africa is thought as semi-arid, there is a difference in climate as well as topography.\nThe southwest has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean with mild, moderately wet winters and hot, dry summers. This area also makes much of the wine in South Africa. This region is also mostly known for its wind, which blows almost all year. The wind can sometimes be severe when passing around the Cape of Good Hope mostly gets bad for sailors, making many shipwrecks. Further east on the south coast, rainfall falls more evenly throughout the year, making a green landscape. This area is popularly known as the Garden Route.\nThe Orange Free State is mostly flat, because it lies in the center of the high plateau. North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not get subtropical heat. Johannesburg, in the center of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) and gets a yearly rainfall of 740 mm (29.9 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.\nPlants and wildlife.\nSouth Africa is ranked sixth out of the world\u2019s 17 megadiverse countries, with more than 20,000 different kinds of plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it very rich in plant biodiversity.\nThe most common biome in South Africa is the grassland, mostly on the Highveld. This is where grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mostly camel-thorn and whitethorn are more common than other plants. Plants become less common towards the northwest. This is because of low rainfall. There are many species of water-storing plants like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. The grass and thorn savanna turns slowly into a bush savanna towards the north-east of the country, with more thick growth. There are many numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.\nEconomy.\nSouth Africa's economy is divided. It is divided between First World and Third World standards. The developed part of the economy is similar to that of most nations with wealth (for example, Britain or Australia). The rest of the economy is closer to that of poor nations, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The main companies in South Africa are mining (mostly for gold and diamonds), car making, and service industries, such as insurance.\nUnemployment is very high. Income inequality is about the same as Brazil. During 1995\u20132003, the number of older jobs went down. Informal jobs went up. Overall unemployment got worse. The average South African household income went down a lot between 1995 and 2000. As for racial inequality, Statistics South Africa said that in 1995 the average white household earned four times as much as the average black household. In 2000 the average white family was earning six times more than the average black household. The action policies have seen a rise in black economic wealth. There is a developing black middle class. Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS. South Africa suffers from mostly heavy overall regulation compared to developed countries. labor rules have added to the unemployment weakness.\nPopulation.\nSouth Africa is a nation of about 50\u00a0million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions. The last census was held in 2001 and the next will be in 2011. Statistics South Africa had five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, \"unspecified/other\" drew \"not needed\" responses, and these results were not counted. The 2009 middle-year estimated figures for the other categories were Black African at 79.3%, White at 9.1%, Coloured at 9.0%, and Asian at 2.6%.\nEven though the population of South Africa has grown in the past decade (mostly because of immigration), the country had an yearly population growth rate of \u22120.501% in 2008 (CIA est.), counting immigration. The CIA thinks that in 2009 South Africa's population started to grow again, at a rate of 0.281%. South Africa is home to an estimated 5\u00a0million illegal immigrants, counting about 3\u00a0million Zimbabweans. A series of anti-immigrant riots happened in South Africa beginning on 11 May 2008.\nProvinces.\nSouth Africa is divided into 9 provinces. The provinces are in turn divided into 52 districts: 8 metropolitan and 44 district municipalities. The district municipalities are further divided into 226 local municipalities.\nMajor Cities.\n1. Johannesburg\n2. Cape Town\n3. Durban\n4. Pretoria\nSociety and culture.\nIt may be suggested that there is no single South African culture because of its ethnic diversity. Today, the diversity in foods from many cultures is enjoyed by all and marketed to tourists who wish to taste South African food. Food is not the only thing, music and dance is there too.\nSouth African food is mostly meat-based and has spawned the South African social gathering known as a \"braai\", or barbecue. South Africa has also developed into a big wine maker. It has some of the best vineyards lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek, Paarl and Barrydale.\nSouth Africa is the only country of Africa with a significant ethnic European population and influence\nMost South African blacks still have poor lives. It is among these people, however, that cultural traditions live most strongly. This is because blacks have become urbanised and Westernised, much parts of traditional culture have fallen. Urban blacks normally speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still important groups of speakers of Khoisan languages who are not in the 11 official languages, but are one of the eight other officially recognized languages.\nMembers of middle class, who are mostly white but whose ranks are growing numbers of black, colored and Indian people, have lifestyles similar in many ways to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia. Members of the middle class often study and work from foreign countries for greater exposure to the markets of the world.\nApproximately 9,800 Roma gypsies live in South Africa.\nReligion.\nAccording to the 2001 national census, Christians accounted for 79.7% of the population. This has Zion Christian (11.1%), Pentecostal (Charismatic) (8.2%), Roman Catholic (7.1%), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed (6.7%), Anglican (3.8%); members of other Christian churches accounted for another 36% of the population. Muslims accounted for 1.5% of the population, Hinduism about 1.3%, and Judaism 0.2%. 15.1% had no religious affiliation, 2.3% were other and 1.4% were unspecified.\nSports.\nSouth Africa's most liked sports are soccer, rugby union and cricket. Other sports that are popular are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Soccer is the most liked among youth. There are other sports like basketball, surfing and skateboarding that are becoming more liked.\nFamous boxers from South Africa are Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell. There are football players who have played for major foreign clubs. Some of them are Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga (both were of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atletico Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto and Blackburn Rovers), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth), Delron Buckley (Borussia Dortmund) and Steven Pienaar (Ajax Amsterdam and Everton). South Africa made Formula One motor racing's 1979 world champion Jody Scheckter. Famous current cricket players are Herschelle Gibbs, Graeme Smith, Jacques Kallis, JP Duminy and more. Most of them also participate in the Indian Premier League.\nSouth Africa has also made many world class rugby players. Some of them are Francois Pienaar, Joost van der Westhuizen, Danie Craven, Frik du Preez, Naas Botha, and Bryan Habana. South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup at their first try. They won the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France. South Africa was only allowed to participate from 1995 since the end of Apartheid. It followed the 1995 Rugby World Cup by hosting the 1996 African Cup of Nations. It had the national team, 'Bafana Bafana,' going on to win the tournament. It also hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. and the 2007 World Twenty20 Championship. Both of them were a great success.\nIn 2010, South Africa became the first African nation to host the FIFA World Cup. The national team has competed in three World Cups. It bid for the right to stage the 2004 Olympic Games, but finished third to Athens. South Africa is also well known for their cricket team. They are right now the world's number one in test match cricket.\nEducation.\nThe main schools span the first seven years of schooling. In the age of Apartheid, schools for blacks were subject to judgment. They often did not get enough funding because of their skin color, and other unfair treatment. Instruction can take place in Afrikaans as well. Public payment on education was at 5.4% of the 2002-05 GDP."}
+{"id": "3529", "revid": "248920", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3529", "title": "Andorra", "text": "Andorra (), officially the Principality of Andorra, is a landlocked sovereign country located in the eastern Pyrenees Mountains of Southern Europe and bordered by Spain and France. \nOverview.\nThere are about 79,000 people living in Andorra. The capital is Andorra la Vella. It is ruled by a Spanish Bishop and the French President, who hold the title of Co-Prince together. Andorra's government is a parliamentary democracy.\nAndorra is a rich country mostly because of tourism. There are about 10.2\u00a0million visitors each year. The official language is Catalan, though Spanish and French are also used. The Euro (EUR) is the currency of Andorra, though it is not a member of the European Union (EU).\nHistory.\nIt is said that emperor Charlemagne gifted the Andorran people their country in the 9th century for fighting against the Moors. Before AD 1095, Andorra was not militarily protected. The Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell decided to rule Andorra together. Andorra's first legislature was created in AD 1419.\nThe descendants of the Lord of Caboet eventually became the Kings of France over time. When France became a republic, the French King's position as the Co-Prince was taken up by the President of France.\nAndorra declared war on Imperial Germany in World War I, but did not do any fighting. Andorra remained in a state of war against Germany until 1957 as the Andorrans did not sign the Treaty of Versailles.\nGeography.\nAndorra is situated in the Pyrenees mountain range. The highest mountain is Coma Pedrosa.\nCities.\nThe largest cities in Andorra are:\nFor other locations in Andorra, see List of cities in Andorra.\nPolitics.\nThe politics of Andorra are very unique in comparison to the rest of the world. There are two heads of state, the Bishop of Urgell and the President of France, who hold the title of Co-Prince. This is because of an ancient treaty which said the Bishop of Urgell and the French leader would be the Co-Princes.\nThere is also an elected legislature named the General Council. It has between 28 and 42 members. The head of government is a member of the Council who is elected to the position by the Council.\nDefense.\nAndorra doesn't have an Army. France and Spain help to defend Andorra. The country has a police force of 295.\nReligion.\nThe population of Andorra is mostly (90%) Roman Catholic. Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell.\nEducation.\nChildren between the ages of 6 and 16 must have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is paid by the government. The University of Andorra (UdA) is the state public university. It is the only university in Andorra."}
+{"id": "3531", "revid": "195", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3531", "title": "Portsmouth Football Club", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3537", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3537", "title": "Hiroshima", "text": "Hiroshima (\u5e83\u5cf6) is the capital city of Hiroshima Prefecture. It is the largest city in the Chugoku region of western Japan. About a million people live in Hiroshima. The city is famously known as the city where the first atomic bomb was dropped (on a residential area) on the morning of 6 August 1945. About 140,000 people had died following the detonation of the atomic bomb, in the following years.\nHistory.\nAtomic bombing.\nAt the time of the attack, Hiroshima was the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and 5th Division. It contained 40,000 Japanese soldiers within the city's limit, and was a beehive (or center) of war industry. The industry manufactured parts for planes and boats, bombs, rifles, and handguns. Children also were shown how to construct and throw gasoline bombs. and the heavy sick were assembling traps to be planted in the beaches of Kyushu. As with other Japanese cities, many of the strategic targets in Hiroshima were mixed with civilian homes and centers made of wood and paper. This made it harder to conduct a successful precision attack. And the highly inaccuracy of the bombing technology in World War II was owed to it. As a result, the city became the first nuclear weapon used against a target in history.\nThe bomb exploded over Hiroshima at 8:16 on the morning of August 6, 1945. Much of the city was destroyed. An estimated 70,000 persons were killed. 20,000 were Japanese soldiers and 20,000 were Korean slave laborers of all the kiled. Another 70,000 were injured. The bomb was nicknamed \"Little Boy\" after President Theodore Roosevelt. A building near the blast center still remains and is called the Atomic Bomb Dome.\nItsukushima shrine.\nNear to Hiroshima, there is a small island called Miyajima. The island is known for its deer. An old Shinto shrine named Itsukushima Shrine is also here. It is said that Itsukushima shrine was built at the end of the 5th century. The shrine is known for its use of red-colored wood, and especially for the \"torii\" gate. The gate leads into the shrine, which is partly underwater at high tide. Today, Itsukushima shrine and the Atomic Bomb Dome are registered as World Heritage sites. Also it was a landing site for the U.S."}
+{"id": "3538", "revid": "9594394", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3538", "title": "Richter scale", "text": "The Richter scale is a scale of numbers used to tell the power (or magnitude) of earthquakes. Charles Richter developed the Richter Scale in 1935. His scale worked like a seismogram, measured by a particular type of \"seismometer\" at a distance of 100 kilometers (62 mi) from the earthquake. \nEarthquakes 4.5 or higher on the Richter scale can be measured all over the world. An earthquake a size that scores 3.0 is ten times the amplitude of one that scores 2.0. The energy that is released increases by a factor of about 32.\nEvery increase of 1 on the Richter scale corresponds to an increase in amplitude by a factor of 10 so therefore, it is a logarithmic scale.\nThe earthquake with the biggest recorded magnitude was the Great Chilean Earthquake. It had a magnitude of 9.5 on the Richter scale and occurred in 1960. Around 6,000 people died because of the earthquake. No earthquake has ever hit 10+ on the Richter Scale."}
+{"id": "3539", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3539", "title": "Day", "text": "A day is the time it takes the Earth to spin around once. It is day time on the side of the Earth that is facing the Sun. When it is night time, that side of the Earth is facing away from the Sun. It takes 24 hours for the Earth to spin once, so that is one day, including the day time and night time. This is mean solar time, measured relative to the Sun. There is also sidereal time, measured relative to the fixed stars. The sidereal day is a few minutes shorter."}
+{"id": "3540", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3540", "title": "Phases of the Moon", "text": " \nThe phases of the Moon are the different ways the Moon looks from Earth.\nAs the Moon orbits around the Earth, the half of the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up. The different shapes of the lit portion of the Moon that can be seen from Earth are known as phases of the Moon. Each phase repeats itself every 29.5 days.\nThe same half of the Moon always faces the Earth, because of tidal locking. So the phases will always occur over the same half of the Moon's surface.\nPhases.\nA phase is an angle of the Moon to the Earth so it appears differently every day. The Moon goes through eight main phases. "}
+{"id": "3541", "revid": "1035196", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3541", "title": "Sphere", "text": "A sphere is a round, three-dimensional shape. \nAll points on the edge of the sphere are at the same distance from the center. \nThe distance from the center is called the radius of the sphere. A real-world sphere is called a \"globe\" if it is large (such as the Earth), and as a \"ball\" if it is small, like an association football.\nCommon things that have the shape of a sphere are basketballs, superballs, and playground balls. \nThe Earth and the Sun are nearly \"spherical\", meaning sphere-shaped.\nA sphere is the three-dimensional analog of a circle.\nCalculating measures of a sphere.\nSurface area.\nUsing the circumference: formula_1\nUsing the diameter: formula_2\nUsing the radius: formula_3\nUsing the volume: formula_4\nCircumference.\nUsing the surface area: formula_5\nUsing the diameter: formula_6\nUsing the radius: formula_7\nUsing the volume: formula_8\nDiameter.\nUsing the surface area: formula_9\nUsing the circumference: formula_10\nUsing the radius: formula_11\nUsing the volume: formula_12\nRadius.\nUsing the surface area: formula_13\nUsing the circumference: formula_14\nUsing the diameter: formula_15\nUsing the volume: formula_16\nVolume.\nUsing the surface area: formula_17\nUsing the circumference: formula_18\nUsing the diameter: formula_19\nUsing the radius: formula_20\nEquation of a sphere.\nIn Cartesian coordinates, the equation for a sphere with a center at formula_21 is as follows:\nwhere formula_23 is the radius of the sphere."}
+{"id": "3543", "revid": "1050767", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3543", "title": "Quantity", "text": "Quantity or amount is how much of something there is that can be counted or measured. \nCounting.\nWhole numbers (1, 2, 3 ...) are used to count things. This can be done by pointing to each one. As things are pointed to, a number is said. Start with the number one. Each time another thing is pointed to, the next whole number is used. When the last thing in a group it pointed to, that number is the quantity of the group. \nMeasuring.\nMeasuring is done with a ruler or a machine. We put a ruler next to a thing to measure how long it is. We put things on a scale to measure their mass. Other machines are used to measure other quantities such as temperature, speed, electric current, and so on.\nDecimal numbers.\nWhen measuring things, a whole number might not be the best answer. A distance might be longer than 5 meters, but less than 6 meters. Meter sticks are marked off in parts of a meter. Decimals are formed by marking off a ruler in ten equal parts. Each part is a tenth. 5.2 meters is a little bit longer than 5 meters. 5.7 meters is a little bit shorter than 6 meters. Each of these tenths can be marked with ten smaller parts. The one hundred centimeters on a meter stick are done this way; by marking ten equal parts, then marking ten equal parts of each of those parts.\nFraction numbers.\nFractions are used when there are parts of a whole number. The dial on a machine may be marked with four parts between each whole number. A scale with a bag of potatoes may show five and three-quarters kilograms. This would be almost six kilograms.\nThe words \"amount\" and \"number\".\nPeople often use the word \"amount\" when they should say \"number\". The words \"number\" and \"amount\" should be used if a particular number could be put: e.g."}
+{"id": "3544", "revid": "1676352", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3544", "title": "Advertising", "text": "Advertising is how a company encourages people to buy their products, use their services, or adopt their ideas and stuff. Advertising is one element of marketing, which also includes design, research, and data mining.\nAn advertisement (or an \"ad\" for short) is usually designed by an advertising agency for a sponsor or brand and made public by various media. Ads appear on television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and billboards in streets and cities. Advertisers use methods that attract attention.\nAdvertisers influence our emotions by techniques that include stereotyping and targeting the audience: who we are. Emotions are influenced by our occupation, beliefs, personality, self-esteem, lifestyle, relationships, friends, how we look, and what we wear.\nHistory.\nCommercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.\nLondoner Thomas J. Barratt (1841\u20131914) has been called \"the father of modern advertising\". He worked for the Pears Soap company, eventually becoming its chairman. Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. It used targeted slogans, images, and phrases. One of his slogans, \"Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?\" was famous in its day and into the 20th century.\nBarratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising, and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that \"tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different \u2013 it hits the present taste.\"\nAs the economy expanded across the world during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising.\nVery important was the growth of mass media, with mass circulation illustrated newspapers in the later 19th century followed by movies, radio and television.\nTypes of advertising.\nAdvertising happens in many different ways. Many products are advertised on television, although not all channels permit advertising. The advertisements usually appear during breaks between a television show. They are usually for products, other television shows, or movies. These ads are not normally much longer than 30 seconds. Some radio stations have audio advertisements that play between programmes.\nAn advertisement for a movie is called a trailer. It shows a short collection of clips from the movie, and shows the date it will be released in cinemas.\nAdvertising also takes place on websites. These may appear as \"banner ads\" or \"popups\". They are often non-moving images or flash animations. The owner of the website will get money when a user clicks on the advertisement. Sometimes they will get a percentage of the money if they buy a product.\nBillboards advertise products on highways and city streets. These may simply be freestanding billboards or may be part of street furniture such as a bus shelter. Buses and taxis are often covered in adverts, while budget airlines sometimes allow advertising inside their planes. Adverts also appear in newspapers, magazines, and sports programmes. Many sport stadiums have adverts set around them. Sports teams, tournaments, television programmes and public events may have a sponsor who is the main or, sometimes, only advertiser.\nNowadays, the amount of online advertisements is increasing, compared to and .\nTechniques.\nAdvertisers use many different techniques to get people to notice their adverts, often using shocking or sexy images on purpose. Once advertisers have managed to make people notice their advert, they need to 'sell' the product or brand. They may try to make the product look appealing, however, often, advertisers use humor in such a way that gets people to remember the brand without actually promoting the product. Poor adverts can damage sales or spoil a brand's identity.\nRegulations.\nAdvertising is often strictly regulated, for example, in the United Kingdom it is illegal to advertise tobacco, except in the shop where it is sold and this is also restricted. In France, it is illegal to advertise alcohol, meaning that when many European football teams play in France, they cannot play in their usual shirts as breweries often advertise on sports shirts. It is also illegal to advertise on some television channels, the BBC in the United Kingdom and RTE in the Republic of Ireland are not allowed to permit advertising and instead make their revenue from selling a compulsory television licence. Some countries, such as Canada, regulate misleading advertising and labelling to try to prevent deceptive practices and protect consumers."}
+{"id": "3555", "revid": "499883", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3555", "title": "Buddha", "text": "A Buddha is the holiest type of being in Buddhism, a teacher of gods and humans. The word \"Buddha\" means \"enlightened one\" in Sanskrit or Fully Awakened One in P\u0101li.\nIt is also a title for Siddhartha Gautama. He was the man who started Buddhism. Sometimes people call him \"the Buddha\" or the \"Shakyamuni Buddha\". Other times, people call any person a Buddha if they have found enlightenment. If a person has not found enlightenment yet, but is very close to reaching it, then he is called bodhisattva.\nSummary.\nBuddhists believe that there have been many Buddhas, Gautama Buddha being merely the most famous. People who will become Buddhas someday are called \"bodhisattvas.\"\nBuddhists believe that the Buddha was enlightened, which means that he knew all about how to live a peaceful life and how to avoid suffering. He is said to have never argued with other people, but only said what was true and useful, out of compassion for others.\nSome Buddhists pray to Buddhas, but Buddhas are not gods. Buddhas are teachers who help the people who will listen. A Buddha is a human being who has woken up and can see the true way the world works. This knowledge totally changes the person so that they can have a better life in the present and the future. A Buddha can also help a person achieve enlightenment.\nThere are ideas or teachings which are said to lead someone to enlightenment. They are called the \"Dharma\" (Sanskrit) or \"Dhamma\" (P\u0101li), meaning \"the way\" or \"the truth.\" Anyone can become a Buddha, but it is very difficult. Siddhartha Gautama became Buddha under the peepal or \"bodhi\" tree at Bodhgaya in Bihar in what is now India.\nTypes of Buddhas.\nThere is a special type of Buddha called a \"pratyekabuddha\" or \"silent Buddha\". These Buddhas reached \"enlightenment\" on their own, but they did not teach others.\nAnother type of Buddha is a \"samyaksambuddha\". This is the best kind of Buddha because he is able to teach all living beings.\nSeven Buddhas of the past.\nBuddhists believe that there have been many Buddhas in the past. There will also be many Buddhas in the future. Traditionally, seven Buddhas are given names.\nMaitreya will be the next Buddha.\n32 Signs of a Great Man.\nA Buddha is a person who has reached perfection. Some believe that there are 32 physical features of a Buddha; these are the 32 marks of a Great Man from Vedic Brahmin folklore, but are mentioned in the P\u0101li canon. Some of these features are represented in art and sculpture. These are listed below.\nReferences.\n3. \u201cChapter 3 Buddhism. Origins and Fundamental Tenets. .\u201d Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations, section written by Cathy Cantwell & Hiroko Kawanami., Routledge, 2016, pp.\u00a075\u201378"}
+{"id": "3556", "revid": "1626716", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3556", "title": "Flag of the United States", "text": "The flag of the United States of America is a national flag. It has 7 red stripes and 6 white stripes. These 13 stripes represent the original thirteen colonies. The flag also has a blue \"canton\", a rectangle in the top left corner. There are 50 stars which represent the 50 states of America.\nWhen a new state joins the United States, a new flag is made with an extra star. The new flag is first flown on the 4th of July (Independence Day).\nThe last states to join the United States were Alaska and Hawaii in 1959. Alaska joined on 3 January 1959, so the new flag with 49 stars was used from 4 July 1959. Hawaii joined on 21 August 1959, so the flag with 50 stars that is used today was not flown until 4 July 1960. \nThe colors in the flag are red, white and blue. The colors have no special meaning in the flag, but in the coat of arms, white stands for purity and innocence, red for bravery and strength, and blue for watchfulness, perseverance and justice. \nThe flag is also often called the Stars and Stripes, the Star-Spangled Banner, or Old Glory. The national anthem of the United States is a reference to the flag.\nEvolution of the United States' flag.\nSince 1818, a star for each new state has been added to the flag on the Fourth of July immediately following each state's admission. In years in which multiple states have been admitted, the number of stars on the flag has jumped correspondingly. The greatest example so far was in 1890, when five states were admitted within the span of a single year (North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington in November 1889 and Idaho on 3 July 1890). This change has typically been the only change made with each revision of the flag since 1777, with the exception of changes in 1795 and 1818, which increased the number of stripes to 15 and then returned it to 13, respectively.\nAs the exact pattern of stars was not specified prior to 1912, and the exact colors not specified prior to 1934, many of the historical U.S. national flags (shown below) have had varied designs.\nInternational and space transportation of (woven) flags.\nOne flag was transported to the lunar surface during the first manned flight to the moon.\nOn 30 April 1975 the last group of (eleven) US soldiers leaving the Vietnam War did grab the US flag [of their Marine Corps unit of embassy guards ] from the outpost on the embassy roof, before all were lifted off the roof and flown out of the country by a helicopter of the Marine Corps. (That flag is in the United States.)"}
+{"id": "3569", "revid": "731605", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3569", "title": "America (disambiguation)", "text": "America is, in English, usually a short name for the United States of America.\nThe Americas (North and South America) is rarely but sometimes called \"America\".\nAmerica or Am\u00e9rica may also mean:"}
+{"id": "3573", "revid": "203", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3573", "title": "Ecological Yield", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3576", "revid": "1011913", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3576", "title": "Mahatma Gandhi", "text": "Mohandas Karmchand Gandhi (2 October 1869\u2013 30 January 1948) was a leader of nationalism in British-ruled India. He is more commonly called Mahatma Gandhi. \"mahatma\" is an honorific meaning \"great-soul\" or \"venerable\" in Sanskrit. He was first called this in 1914 in Africa \nGandhi on Mahabharata said he wished to live his life like Karna lived Like \"he sorrows life gave them and how they reacted upon them. You would be able to achieve what human history had never imagined.\"\" Gandhi was the Martyr of the Nation since 1948. Rabindranath Tagore gave him the title of 'Mahatma'.\nGandhi was one of the most important people involved in the movement for the independence of India. He was a non-violent activist, who led the independence movement through a non-violent protest.\nEarly life.\nMohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 in Porbander, India. Several members of his family worked for the government of the state. When Gandhi was 18 years old, he went to study law in England. After he became a lawyer, he went to the British colony of South Africa where he experienced laws that said people with dark skin had fewer rights than people with light skin. In 1897, Gandhi was attacked by a group of people in Durban Harbor, South Africa when he was going to work. He went to South Africa because he could not find work in India. When traveling through South Africa, Gandhi was also kicked out of a first class train because of his skin color. Then Gandhi started protesting against segregation. He decided then to become a political activist, so he could help change these unfair laws. He created a powerful, non-violent movement. During Gandhi's life, India was a colony of the British Empire, but wanted independence. He was a huge leader during that era and his thoughts helped catalyze the Indian independence movement.\nGandhi was a vegetarian almost all his life, because he believed in non-violence (ahimsa).\nAs an activist.\nOn 9 January 1915 when Gandhi returned to India, he decided to again lead a march against a law called the Rowlatt Act. But then the protest turned violent and people started to kill the protesters.\nOn 12 March 1930 Gandhi led the Salt March.\nWhen he returned to India, he helped cause India's independence from British rule, inspiring other colonial people to work for their independence, break up the British Empire, and replace it with the Commonwealth.\nPeople of many different religions and ethnic groups lived in British India. Many people thought the country should break into separate countries so different groups could have their own countries. In particular, many people thought that Hindus and Muslims should have separate countries. Gandhi was a Hindu, but he liked ideas from many religions including Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, and he thought that people of all religions should have the same rights, and could live together peacefully in the same country.\nIn 1938, Gandhi resigned from Congress. He said he could no longer work through Congress to unite the divisions in caste and religion. He also felt that he had little to offer to the political process.\nOn 15 August 1947, the British Indian Empire split into India and Pakistan. Gandhi wanted independence but did not want the former Raj to split into two different countries. Instead of celebrating independence day, he was crying over the end of British India.\nGandhi's principle of \"satyagraha\", often translated as \"way of truth\" or \"pursuit of truth\", has inspired other democratic and anti-racist activists like Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela. Gandhi often said that his values were simple, based upon traditional Hindu beliefs: truth (\"Satya\"), and non-violence (\"ahimsa\").\nDeath.\nOn 30 January 1948, he was shot to death by a Brahman activist Nathuram Godse, because Godse thought that Gandhi was too respectful to the Muslims. Godse was tried and executed by Indian officials."}
+{"id": "3581", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3581", "title": "Schizophrenia", "text": "Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is usually diagnosed by a psychiatrist and affects an individual's daily life. For some people, it is a lifelong mental disorder that causes them to behave, feel, or think differently than other people.\nSchizophrenia can cause psychotic symptoms like hallucinations or delusions. However, not all people with schizophrenia have these symptoms all the time. Schizophrenia can also cause problems with cognition (thinking) and mood.\nSchizophrenia is a common disorder, affecting one in 200 people.While it's believed that genetics, environmental, and brain chemistry play a role in such a diagnosis, it's uncertain where schizophrenia originates from. If one child in a family shows clear signs of schizophrenia, there is a higher risk that other family members will have these same symptoms.\nPeople with schizophrenia typically have a higher risk of self-harm compared to the general populations. This might be due to hallucinations, depression, and/or other factors.\nPrevention is difficult because there is no reliable way to find out in advance who will get schizophrenia. Attempting to prevent schizophrenia in the pre-onset phase with anti-psychotic drugs is of uncertain benefit and so is not recommended (as of 2009). The British NICE guidelines recommend cognitive behavioural talk therapy for all people at risk.\nSchizophrenia is treatable. Many people with the disorder live normal lives with a combination of a therapy and medications.\nSchizophrenia and dissociative identity disorder (DID) have some of the same symptoms. Some similar mental illnesses include schizotypal personality disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and schizoid personality disorder.\nName.\nThe word \"schizophrenia\" comes from the Greek words, \"schisma\" and \"phren\". Literally, it means \"split mind.\" \nSymptoms.\nNo medical tests can show that a person has schizophrenia. People are diagnosed based on the symptoms they report and show.\nDoctors and psychologists sometimes disagree on whether a person has schizophrenia. For example, lists of schizophrenia's symptoms include wording like \"Disorganized [not organized, or oddly organized] speech present for a significant portion of time.\" It is difficult to agree on what exactly \"disorganized speech\" is and how disorganized it has to be to receive a diagnosis.\nThe symptoms of schizophrenia fall into three main categories: positive symptoms, negative symptoms, and cognitive symptoms.\nPositive symptoms.\nPositive symptoms are thoughts, behaviors, or anything experienced by the senses that are not shared by others - like hearing voices that are not really there. They are called 'positive' not because they are good, but because they are added.\nThese symptoms may include:\nA person can also have these symptoms if they have stopped taking anti-psychotic or anti-vomiting medicines too quickly.\nPositive symptoms often decrease with drug treatment and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).\nDelusions and hallucinations.\nPeople with schizophrenia often have delusions or hallucinations. As estimated by the IPSS, about 70% of schizophrenic individuals experience hallucinations.\nNegative symptoms.\nA person is having negative symptoms when they do not have thoughts, behaviors or emotions that healthy people have. For example:\nNegative symptoms, as the name suggests, essentially \"take away\" from life and day-to-day interactions, making it harder for people with schizophrenia to have meaningful relationships with the people around them.\nIf a person is having negative symptoms, they do not necessarily have schizophrenia. These can also be:\nCognitive symptoms (or cognitive deficits).\nCognitive symptoms can include:\nOf all of schizophrenia's symptoms, cognitive symptoms are the most disabling because they affect day-to-day activities. Also, it can be difficult to recognize them as part of the disorder.\nLike with negative symptoms, a person does not necessarily have schizophrenia if they are having cognitive symptoms. Cognitive symptoms can also be:\nRisk factors/causes.\nThere are many risk factors that can increase a person's chances of developing schizophrenia.\nThey include trauma (damage caused by stressful events) and genetics (schizophrenia running in families). Having a schizophrenic parent may be very stressful, and there may also be genes that influence the development of schizophrenia.\nIt is very easy to show that trauma, such as sexual abuse (forced unwanted sexual behaviour towards somebody), increases the risk, but 40 years of searching for the right genes has not found anything that has been confirmed by independent research groups.\nInherited factors.\nA combination of what has happened to a person and the person\u2019s genes may play a role in the development of schizophrenia.\nPeople who have family members with schizophrenia and who experienced a brief period of psychotic symptoms have a 20 to 40 percent chance of being diagnosed one year later. This may be both the result of stressful events because of the family member and possibly a genetic effect.\nIt is difficult to know if schizophrenia is inherited because it is hard to find out whether something comes from genes or the environment. Those who have a parent, a brother or sister with schizophrenia have a higher risk of developing schizophrenia. The risk is even higher if one has an identical twin with schizophrenia. This may seem to show that schizophrenia is inherited. However, it may be the stress of living with a schizophrenic family member that is traumatic.\nIdentical twins are much closer and are treated much more in the same way, and this may be the reason why one of them is more likely to get schizophrenia if the other has it. Dr. Jay Joseph has found many problems with the scientific studies of inheriting schizophrenia, including false reporting of results. Joseph also claims that 40 years of the search for the schizophrenia gene has not found a single gene that independent research groups have confirmed.\nEnvironmental factors.\nThere are may environmental risk factors factors for schizophrenia. These include:\nSubstance abuse.\nSeveral drugs have been linked with the development of schizophrenia and the abuse (harmful use) of certain drugs can cause symptoms like those of schizophrenia. About half of those people who have schizophrenia use too much drugs or alcohol, possibly to deal with depression, anxiety, boredom, or loneliness. Frequent marijuana use may double the risk of serious mental illness, including schizophrenia.\nSmoking.\nA study made during 2019 found that approximately 80% of the sample group of surveyed individuals with a diagnosis of schizophrenia consumed tobacco.\nPre-birth factors.\nFactors such as lack of oxygen, infection, or stress and lack of healthy foods in the mother during pregnancy might result in a slight increase in the risk of schizophrenia later in life. People who have schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring (at least in the northern half of the world). This might relate to increased rates of exposures to viruses before birth.\nBrain structure.\nSome people who have schizophrenia have differences in their brain structure compared to those who do not have the disorder. These differences are often in the parts of the brain that manage memory, organization, emotions, the control of impulsive behavior, and language. For example, there is less brain volume in the frontal cortex and temporal lobes, and problems within the corpus callosum, the band of nerve fibers which connects the left side and the right side of the brain. People with schizophrenia also tend to have larger lateral and third ventricles. The ventricles are spaces within the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid.\nBrain neurons.\nIt is believed that there are problems with the brain's neurons in schizophrenia.\nDiagnosis.\nThe DSM-IV-TR or the ICD-10 criteria are used to determine whether a person has schizophrenia. These criteria use the self-reported experiences of the person and reported abnormalities (unusual occurrences) in the behavior of the person, followed by a clinical assessment. A person can be determined to have the disease only if the symptoms are severe.\nDifferential diagnosis.\nThere are various medical conditions, other psychiatric conditions and drug abuse related reactions that may mimic the symptoms of schizophrenia (meaning they have some or all of the same symptoms). For example, delirium can cause visual hallucinations, or an unpredictable changing levels of consciousness. Schizophrenia occurs along with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), a disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with certain ideas or actions. However, separating the obsessions of OCD from the delusions of schizophrenia can be difficult.\nPeople with schizophrenia may also have other mental health disorders, like depression, anxiety and drug abuse.\nTreatment.\nTreatment of schizophrenia may include medication to help treat the symptoms, different types of psychotherapy (therapy by a professional), such as cognitive-behavioral therapy and many rehabilitation therapies (therapies restoring things to how they were before), such as cognitive remediation therapy. Cognitive behavioral therapy, CBT, is a talk therapy that focuses on helping the person to think about their strange ideas (delusions) in more realistic ways.\nThe therapist may design a behavioral experiment for paranoia (false beliefs of danger) that will help the person to find out for example, if there really are cameras everywhere in the house. For hallucinations, cognitive therapy focuses on normalizing: many people hear voices without being stressed, and we all hear voices in the form of thoughts, it is just that people with schizophrenia hear them a bit more clearly than most people.\nA 2006 survey of 941 patients from 7 studies found no clear evidence that treating schizophrenia with anti-psychotic drugs early is effective. There is some evidence which shows that early treatment with drugs improves short term outcomes for people who have a serious episode of mental illness. These measures show little benefit five years later.\nSome of the goals during the acute phase of treatment are to prevent harm. To prevent harm, the person being treated will have the severity of psychosis and it's symptoms reduced. These symptoms include agitation, aggression, negative symptoms, self-disorder, and thought disorders.\nMedication.\nThe first-line psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication, which can reduce the positive symptoms in about seven to fourteen days. However, medication fails to improve negative symptoms or problems in thinking significantly.\nSome reviews of research sponsored by the makers of antipsychotic drugs claim that about 40 to 50 percent of people have a good response to medication, 30 to 40 percent have a partial response, and 20 percent have an unsatisfactory response (after 6 weeks on two or three different drugs). Other research from The British Journal of Psychiatry were more negative and claimed that \"the clinical relevance of antipsychotics is in fact limited.\" This study included 22 428 patients and 11 antipsychotic drugs.\nA drug called clozapine is an effective treatment for people who respond poorly to other drugs, but clozapine can lower the white blood cell count in 1 to 4 percent of people who take it. This is a serious side effect.\nFor people who are unwilling or unable to take drugs regularly, injectable long-acting preparations of antipsychotics can be used. When used in combination with mental and social interventions (treatment), such preparations can help people to continue their treatment.\nIn Western countries, where medications are used as treatment, 1 of 3 get well, but many suffer from drug side effects such as diabetes, obesity, and brain damage.\nPsychosocial therapies.\nNumerous mental and social interventions can be useful in treating schizophrenia. Such interventions include various types of therapy, community-based treatments, supported employment, skills training, token economic interventions, and mental interventions for drug or alcohol use and weight management. Family therapy or education, which addresses the whole family system of an individual, might reduce a return of symptoms or the need for hospitalizations (having to go into hospital.) There is growing evidence for the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy (also known as \u201ctalk therapy\u201d) .\nThe British national guidelines for treatment (NICE) recommend for both people are at risk of getting schizophrenia and people who have got it, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and family therapy. Getting support from people who have become well from schizophrenia is also strongly recommended.\n In a family oriented treatment program in Finland, Open Dialog, 8 out of 10 people with schizophrenia get well with no medication or very limited drug use, often only anxiety medication.\nOfficial guidelines.\nThe British national guidelines for treatment (NICE) suggest the following:\nThe guidelines also warn against using more than one antipsychotic drug at the same time. Both for people who are at risk for getting schizophrenia and for people who have got it, they recommend cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and family therapy. Getting support from people who have become well from schizophrenia is also strongly recommended.\n In a family oriented treatment program in Finland, Open Dialog, 8 out of 10 people with schizophrenia get well with no medication or very limited drug use, often only with anxiety medication.\nHope.\nIn a family treatment called \"Open dialog\" in Finland, eight out of every ten people with schizophrenia \"get well.\" In developing countries, where doctors use less drugs, 2 out of 3 patients get well from schizophrenia.\nOutlook.\nSchizophrenia has great human and economic costs. The condition results in a decreased life expectancy of 12 to 15 years, primarily because of its association with being overweight, not exercising, and smoking cigarettes. An increased rate of suicide (a person killing themself) plays a lesser role. These differences in life expectancy increased between the 1970s and 1990s.\nSchizophrenia is a major cause of disability, with active psychosis ranked as the third-most-disabling condition. Approximately three-fourths of people with schizophrenia have an ongoing disability with symptoms that keep coming back. Some people do recover completely and others function well in society. Most people with schizophrenia live independently, with community support. In people with a first episode of serious mental symptoms, 42 percent have a good long-term outcome, 35 percent have an intermediate outcome and 27 percent have a poor outcome. Outcomes for schizophrenia appear better in the developing world than in the developed world, although that conclusion has been questioned.\nThe suicide rate of people who have schizophrenia is estimated to be about 4.9 percent, most often occurring in the period following the first appearance of symptoms or the first hospital admission. 20 to 40 percent try to kill themselves at least once.\nSchizophrenia and smoking have shown a strong association in studies worldwide. Use of cigarettes is especially high in individuals who have schizophrenia, with estimates ranging from 80 to 90 percent of these people being regular smokers, compared to 20 percent of the general population. Those individuals who smoke tend to smoke heavily and to smoke cigarettes with a high nicotine content.\nResearch continues on schizophrenia. In the spring of 2013, genetics associations were shown between five major psychiatric disorders: autism, ADHD, bipolar disorder, depression, and schizophrenia per recent study. In the summer of 2013, for the first time, brain tissue development was replicated in three dimensions by scientists cloning a human \"mini-brain\" using stem cells. This could help with schizophrenia and autism neurological research (research related to the brain.) \nLikelihood.\nAs of 2011, schizophrenia affects around 0.3% to 0.7% of people, or 24 million people worldwide, at some point in their lives. More men are affected than women: the number of males with the disorder is 1.4 times greater than that of females. Schizophrenia usually appears earlier in men. For males the symptoms usually start from 20 to 28 years of age, and in females it is 26 to 32 years of age. Symptoms that start in childhood, middle or old age are much rarer. Despite the received wisdom that schizophrenia occurs at similar rates worldwide, its rate of likelihood varies across the world, within countries, and at the local level. The disorder causes approximately 1% of worldwide disability adjusted life years (in other words, years spent with a disability). The rate of schizophrenia varies depending on how it is defined.\nHistory.\nAccounts of a schizophrenia-like syndrome are rare before the 19th century. Detailed case reports from 1797 and 1809, are regarded as the earliest cases of the disorder. Schizophrenia was first described as a distinct syndrome affecting teenagers and young adults by B\u00e9n\u00e9dict Morel in 1853, termed \"d\u00e9mence pr\u00e9coce\" (literally 'early dementia'). The term dementia praecox was used in 1891 by Arnold Pick in a case report of a psychotic disorder. In 1893 Emil Kraepelin introduced a new distinction in the classification of mental disorders between \"dementia praecox\" and mood disorder (termed manic depression and including both unipolar and bipolar depression). Kraepelin believed that \"dementia praecox\" was primarily a disease of the brain, and a form of dementia, different from other forms of dementia such as Alzheimer's disease which usually happen later in life.\nEugen Bleuler made the word \"schizophrenia,\" which means \"split mind,\" in 1908. The word was intended to describe the separation of functioning between personality, thinking, memory, and perception.\nIn the early 1970s, the criteria for determining schizophrenia were the subject of numerous controversies. Schizophrenia was diagnosed far more often in the United States than in Europe. This difference was partly the result of looser criteria for determining whether someone had the condition in the United States, where the DSM-II manual was used. In Europe, the ICD-9 manual was used. A 1972 study, published in the journal Science, concluded that the diagnosis of schizophrenia in the United States was often unreliable. These factors resulted in the publication of the DSM-III in 1980 with a stricter and more defined criteria for the diagnosis.\nSociety and culture.\nNegative social judgment has been identified as a major obstacle in the recovery of people who have schizophrenia.\nIn 2002, the term for schizophrenia in Japan was changed from \"Seishin-Bunretsu-By\u014d\"\u3000\u7cbe\u795e\u5206\u88c2\u75c5 (\"mind-split-disease\") to \"T\u014dg\u014d-shitch\u014d-sh\u014d\"\u3000\u7d71\u5408\u5931\u8abf\u75c7 (\"integration disorder\"), to put less shame and embarrassment with schizophrenia. Because people understood that the disease is caused by many things (not just one mental cause), they gave it this new name. During the three years after the name change, the percentage of people who were informed of the diagnosis changed from 37 percent to 70 percent.\nIn the United States in 2002, the cost of schizophrenia, including direct costs (people who were not hospitalized, people who were hospitalized, medicines, and long-term care) and non-healthcare costs (law enforcement, reduced workplace productivity, and unemployment), was estimated to be $62.7 billion.\nThe book \u201cA Beautiful Mind\u201d and the film of the same name are about the life of John Forbes Nash, an American mathematician and Nobel Prize winner who has schizophrenia. The movie \u201cThe Soloist\u201d is based on the life of Nathaniel Ayers, a gifted musician who dropped out of the Julliard School, in New York City after the symptoms of schizophrenia began. He later became homeless in Los Angeles, California, in the notorious Skid Row section."}
+{"id": "3584", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3584", "title": "Drink", "text": "A drink or beverage is a liquid that an organism can take into their body, by using their mouth. Typical drinks for humans include water, tea, milk, coffee, juice, soft drinks and alcoholic drinks. \nAll drinks are mainly water. All living things need water to live. If we don't get enough water, we will dehydrate, and likely die. Plants take in water through their roots, which are underground. \nMost land animals get water by drinking.\nPlaces that have no water.\nDeserts are places that have very little water. The only area in the desert that has water is an oasis."}
+{"id": "3588", "revid": "3441", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3588", "title": "ASCII-art", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3589", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3589", "title": "Need", "text": "A need is a thing that, when a living being, plant or animal does not have it, it is not able to live.\nA thing that someone wants to have, but is able to live when they do not have it, is called a want.\nEvery person has the same basic needs for the body.\nHumans have bodily needs of water, food, clothing, and shelter to live.\nThe need for water is the most important because a person will die very quickly when they do not have drinking water. In a warm place food is the next most important need.\nIn a cold place, the need for clothes or shelter may be next most important because a person will soon die when they do not have these. \nOther human needs are not so certain. They are mostly needs for the mind. It is often said that a person needs love, family, and friends. These needs are for personal relationships. They may also be wants. It is true that a life may be better with these things, but some friends can be bad, or bad sometimes. Good relationships can make life very happy. Thinking about a need that is not possible can make a person very unhappy.\nSome of the study of philosophy is about questions like \"What are the needs of a human?\"\nSome scientists study the needs of human or animal minds and bodies. The study of the mind is called psychology - \"words about the mind\". The study of bodily needs is part of medicine."}
+{"id": "3590", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3590", "title": "Freeware", "text": "Freeware is software that people may get without paying for it. In this case, \"free\" means \"free of charge\". In freeware, users might not be allowed to customize or share the software or source code with others. This leaves the author with more control than with free software."}
+{"id": "3591", "revid": "9457096", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3591", "title": "Yahoo!", "text": "Yahoo! is a web portal and a provider of internet content and services. It offers many products and services, such as a search engine, e-mail, instant messaging, video, news, weather forecasting, money and other information. Yahoo! makes money from advertisements in their services. Yahoo started on October 8, 1997.\nHistory and growth.\nEarly history (1994\u20131999).\nIn January 1994, Jerry Yang and David Filo were electrical engineering graduate students at Stanford University. In April 1994, \"Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web\" was renamed \"Yahoo!\", for which the backronym is \"Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle\". Filo and Yang said they chose the name because they liked the word's general meaning, which comes from Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift: \"rude, unsophisticated and \". Its URL was akebono.stanford.edu/yahoo. Yang says of their selection of the name, \"We thought it fit well with what we were doing. It was irreverent. It was reflective of the Wild West nature of the Internet. A lot of people found it easy to remember, and besides, it's exactly what me and Jerry are. A couple of yahoos.\""}
+{"id": "3592", "revid": "1649829", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3592", "title": "Mecca", "text": "Mecca or Makkah (officially: Makkah al-Mukarramah; ) is a city in Saudi Arabia and the holiest city in Islam. As of the 2004 census, 1,294,169 people lived there. The city is inland from Jeddah, in the narrow sandy Valley of Abraham. It is above sea level. It is from the Red Sea. \nMakkah is the holiest city in the Islamic world. Every year, millions of Muslims take a pilgrimage to Mecca, called the Hajj. They follow in the footsteps of Muhammad. All Muslims who are able to perform the Hajj are expected to do so at least once in their life. The Kaaba and Masjid al-Haram, are the holiest mosques in Islam. Mecca is closed to non-Muslims except for some journalists reporting on the Hajj.\nHistory.\nThe Kaaba, the small cubical building which Muslims pray towards is believed to have been built by Ibrahim and has been a religious center ever since. Muslims believed that God commanded Ibrahim to send his second wife Hajar and her son Ismail there. They found the Zamzam Well which led to people settling nearby, and thus Makkah was born. When Ismail was big enough, he helped his father to build the Kaaba. The Kaaba is the place towards which Muslims turn in prayer. This is known as the Qibla."}
+{"id": "3593", "revid": "10483255", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3593", "title": "Arabian Peninsula", "text": "The Arabian Peninsula is a peninsula in Southwesterm Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia. It is east of Ethiopia and northern Somalia, south of Iraq and Jordan, and southwest of Iran. The waters around it are, to its southwest, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba; to its southeast, the Arabian Sea; and to its northeast, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The Arabian Peninsula is usually cited as the largest peninsula in the world and has an area of 3,237,500 square kilometers. \nIt includes these countries:\nMost of the population of the peninsula live in Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Northern Arabia has oil wells. Climate change and water scarcity are said to have affected the area.\nA prominent feature of the Arabian Peninsula is desert. In Hejaz and its southwest, there are mountain ranges, which may get more rain than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula."}
+{"id": "3594", "revid": "1110", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3594", "title": "Muslim world", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3595", "revid": "873387", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3595", "title": "South", "text": "South is one of the 4 cardinal directions on a compass. South is normally down on the bottom of most maps. For example: Angola is to the south of Nigeria, which is itself to the south of Morocco . The South Pole is the farthest south you can go."}
+{"id": "3596", "revid": "13968", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3596", "title": "Central America", "text": "Central America (, or \"Centroam\u00e9rica\" ) is the central geographic region of the continent known as the Americas. It goes from Mexico in the north-west, to Panama in the south-east.\nCentral America has an area of . It is almost 0.1% of the Earth's surface. This is a list of the countries in Central America, from the largest to the smallest:\nWhile Nicaragua is the largest country in area, of Central America, Guatemala has the largest population by country in Central America, with more than 14 million people and they also have the most populated city in Central America, being Guatemala City. \nSix of the seven countries have Spanish as their official language, with Belize being the non-Spanish speaking country, as their official language is English, although there are now at least 195,597 (62.8%) of people in Belize who speak Spanish.\nSome people also speak indigenous or creole languages like the Maya languages.\nCentral America has a density of 77 people per square kilometer.\nGeography.\nCentral America has an area of . It is almost 0.1% of the Earth's total surface. In 2009 the population was estimated at 41,739,000. It has a density of 77 people per square kilometer or 206 people per square mile.\nPhysical geography.\nCentral America has many unique features that go from the north-western borders of Belize and Guatemala to the Isthmus of Panama. There it connects to the Colombian Pacific Lowlands in South America.\nCentral America is an area of some 524,000 square kilometres. The Pacific Ocean is on the southwest, the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north. Most of Central America rests on the Caribbean Plate.\nThe region is geologically active. It has volcanic eruptions and earthquakes from time to time.\nThe 1976 Guatemala earthquake killed 23,001 people. Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972. The last one killed about 5,001 people. Three earthquakes hit El Salvador. The first one in 1986 and two in 2001. An earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009. It killed at least 35 people. In Honduras a powerful earthquake happened in 2009.\nVolcanic eruptions are common. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano in Costa Rica erupted. This killed at least 87 people. The 3 villages of Tabacon, Pueblo Nuevo, and San Luis were buried under ash.\nCentral America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica and Guatemala live in valleys, between mountains. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans and other crops.\nBiodiversity.\nCentral America is part of the Mesoamerican Biodiversity hotspot, boasting 7% of the world's biodiversity. As a bridge between North and South America, Central America has many species from the Nearctic and the Neotropic ecozones. However the southern countries (Costa Rica and Panama) of the region have more biodiversity than the northern countries (Guatemala and Belize), meanwhile the central countries (Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador) have least biodiversity. The table shows current statistics for the seven countries:"}
+{"id": "3597", "revid": "1366319", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3597", "title": "French language", "text": "French (French: \"\", ) is a Romance language that is from France. It is also spoken in Belgium (Wallonia), Luxembourg, Canada (Quebec), Switzerland (Romandy) and with many different countries in Africa (Francophone Africa). About 220 million people across the world speak French as a native or a second language. It has also been one of the roots of other creole/pidgin based languages such as the Haitian Creole.\nHistory.\nIn ancient times, the Celts lived in what is now France. In those days, the land was called Gaul (Latin: Gallia). The Romans conquered Gallia and divided it into provinces. Because the Romans spoke Latin, the local people learned Latin and began to speak it. Their own language, Gaulish, tended to be spoken less often, although Breton is a language still spoken today in the part of France called Brittany, that came from the old Celtic language.\nFrench pronunciation, more so than other Romance languages, became radically different from Latin. After the Roman Empire fell and Germanic peoples swarmed the countryside, Vulgar Latin was changing quickly. In medieval France it changed into two dialects or languages: \"langue d'oc\" and \"langue d'o\u00efl\". They both mean \"language of yes\", because \"oc\" was the word for \"yes\" in the south, and \"o\u00efl\" meant \"yes\" in the north. Today, the word for yes in French is \"oui\", pronounced like \"we\".\nIn 1635, France established the French Academy in order to standardize the French language. To this day, the academy establishes the rules for Standard French.\n\"Langue d'oc\" is now called Occitan, and it is still spoken by many people in Southern France.\nLetters.\nFrench uses the Latin alphabet, just like English. There are a few differences because vowels can have with three types of diacritics added on to them. They are the acute accent \u00e9; grave accent \u00e8 and circumflex accent \u00ee. A cedilla can also be added onto a c to make \u00e7.\nConsonants.\nIf a word ends with a consonant, this will usually not be pronounced unless the next word starts with a vowel. However, if the word is very short or the last consonant is a c, r, l or f, this is still pronounced.\nGrammar.\nFrench is a language that uses inflections to a moderate extent. Nouns and most pronouns are changed for the way that numbers and counting are fitted into a sentence.\nExamples.\nHere are some examples of French words and sentences :\nMany French words are like English words, because English took many words from the Norman language, a dialect of French influenced by Old Norse. This is true even though scholars consider English to be a Germanic language, like German. For example, many English words ending with \"tion\", \"sion\", \"ible\", or \"able\" came from the French language. \nFrench and English have many cognates, which are words that look and sound similar because they come from the same . Here are some examples:"}
+{"id": "3598", "revid": "10436132", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3598", "title": "Prime Minister", "text": " \nA prime minister is a common title for someone manages the politics of a country and is the head of government. With countries that have kings and queens (known as monarchs), they are very important because they are in charge of most of the politics (they are \"head of the government\"). In countries with a president, they might be in charge of most of the politics (as in the Republic of Ireland), or they may be in day-to day charge but taking orders from the president as in France. \nCountries with a Prime Minister:"}
+{"id": "3599", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3599", "title": "Greenland", "text": "Greenland is the world's largest island. Greenland is a self-governing territory of the kingdom of Denmark. This large Arctic island is near two countries, Iceland to the east and Canada to the west. The island is geographically part of North America but the culture is more closely related to Denmark. It has a population of only 50,000 people, limited by its cold climate. Most of the civilian population lives in the southern part of the island, on the coasts. The capital of Greenland is Nuuk.\nThe island is democratic, with its own elections and a representative seat of government in Nuuk. It is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, a constitutional monarchy with Frederik X as head of state. Greenland has two members in Denmark's Folketing.\nThe island's Thule Air Base is under Danish control, but is administered by the United States Air Force.\nThe island is the least densely populated country in the world, with a density of 0.026 people per square kilometer. Antarctica is not counted because it is not an independent country and has no permanent inhabitants.\nThe ice sheet that covers Greenland may hide three separate islands, which have been joined by glaciers since the last geologic ice age.\nIn Greenland, there are no forests. In the south, at the coastal area, only some dwarf trees are found.\nHistory.\nGreenland has been inhabited at intervals over at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples. They came from what is now Canada. Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, having previously settled Iceland.\nNorsemen would later set sail from Greenland and Iceland with Leif Erikson. They were the first known Europeans to reach North America. They did so nearly 500 years before Columbus reached the Caribbean islands. Inuit peoples arrived in Greenland in the 13th century. Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1261. Their colonies declined after the Black Death in the late 1400s. Denmark\u2013Norway, joined in alliance at the time, reclaimed sovereignty over the island in the 17th century. Greenland became Danish in 1814.\nLanguages.\nThe island is populated mostly by Inuit and Scandinavians who speak Greenlandic, an Eskimo-Aleut language. Danish is also spoken by most people. The national anthem of Greenland is Nunarput utoqqarsuanngoravit. Greenlandic became the sole official language in June 2009. However, it is the dialect of western Greenland, leaving other dialects to become less used and endangered. Danish is used in practice by professional people and by many of the Inuit population. English is taught in schools from the first year onwards.\nAdministrative divisions.\nUntil 2009, there were 20 communes in Greenland. Unless stated otherwise, they are in the district Kitaa:\nThis changed on January 1st, 2009, when these were merged into four large communes:\nIn addition, some parts of Greenland are outside a commune, namely:\nAs of January 1st, 2008, 218 people lived there.\nLandscape.\nThe island has many mountains. Gunnbjorn Fjeld is the tallest mountain Greenland. All of the cities are on the coast, because everywhere else is covered by a big layer of ice. The major cities are Nuuk, Sisimiut, Ilulissat, and Qaqortoq.\nClimate.\nThe coasts of Greenland are tundras. Away from the coast, it is considered an ice cap. Summers in Greenland are short and cool while winters are long."}
+{"id": "3600", "revid": "1150185", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3600", "title": "Soviet Union", "text": "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), simply known as the Soviet Union, was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. It was the first country to declare itself socialist and build towards a communist society. It was a union of 14 Soviet socialist republics and one Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR).\nThe Soviet Union was created about five years after the Russian Revolution. In which the Russian Empire was destroyed after years of fighting in World War I. It was announced after Vladimir Lenin overthrew Alexander Kerensky as Russian leader. The communist government developed from an agriculture based economy to an industry one, and over time became a major, powerful union. The largest country in the Union was Russian SFSR, Kazakh SSR was the second, and Ukrainian SSR the third largest. The capital city of the Soviet Union and RSFSR was Moscow. The Soviet Union expanded its political control greatly after World War II. It took over the whole of Eastern Europe. Those countries were not made part of the Soviet Union, but they were controlled by the Soviet Union indirectly. These countries, like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and East Germany, were called satellite states which each helped the USSR during World War II.\nThe top-level committee which made the laws was the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. In practice, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the leader and most important decision-maker in their system of government. Although the constitution said the Republics could leave the Union if they wanted, it was a completely centralized government, with no states' rights for the member countries.\nThe USSR was formed with the idea to give everyone equal social and economic equality. There was virtually no private property and everything belonged to the state; the inclusion of public property was an idea discussed by Karl Marx, and formed the ideology of socialism of 'Soviets', or workers' councils, were created by the working class to lead the socialist state democratically, but they soon lost power with the rise of Stalinism. \nThe Union was successful in many fields, putting the first man, first woman, and first satellite into space, defeating Hitler's Nazi Germany invasion and winning World War II, together with the United States and United Kingdom, helping build infrastructure, as well as schools and hospitals in many third-world countries. However, its centralized government found innovation and the changes were difficult to handle. The USSR collapsed in 1991 due to the failed efforts to reform the country by its 8th Leader and the 10th president, Mikhail Gorbachev, leaving behind Russian Federation in its place along with 14 other nations.\nRepublics of the Soviet Union.\nThe Soviet Union consisted of 15 republics. These were either \"Soviet Socialist Republics\", or \"Soviet Socialist Federal Republics\". Each republic was independent and handled its own cultural affairs. Each also had the right to leave the union, which they did in 1989.\nThe \"Federal Republics\" were different in that they had more autonomy, and were made up of states themselves. These were often called \"Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics\". There were a number of them. Most of them still exist; though they are now republics, within the independent state. The \"Tatar ASSR\" turned into the \"Republic of Tatarstan\", for example (It is located around Kazan).\nGeography, climate and environment.\nThe Soviet Union at its largest size in 1991, with , was the world's biggest country. Covering a sixth of the world's land, its total size was comparable to North America's. The western part (in Europe) accounted for a quarter of the country's area, and was the country's cultural and economic center. The eastern part (in Asia) extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and was much less lived in than the western part. It was over across (11 time zones) and almost north to south. Its five climatic (different weather, temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure) zones were tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains.\nThe Soviet Union had the world's longest border, measuring over in 1991. Two thirds of the Soviet border was coastline of the Arctic Ocean. Across the Bering Strait was the United States. The Soviet Union bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey at the end of WWII.\nThe Soviet Union's (and now Russia's) longest rivers are the Yenisey, Ob/Irtysh, Amur and Lena. The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (today it is called the Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajikistan measured at . The world's largest lake, the Caspian Sea, was mostly in the Soviet Union. as well as the world's deepest lake, Lake Baikal.\nHistory.\nThe last Russian Tsar (emperor), Nicholas II, ruled Russia until March 1917, when the Russian Empire was taken over and a short-lived \"provisional government\" replaced it, led by Alexander Kerensky and soon to be overthrown in November by Bolsheviks and started the Russian civil war.\nFrom 1917 to 1922, the country that came before the Soviet Union was the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), which was its own country, as were other Soviet republics at the time. The Soviet Union was officially created in December 1922 as the union of the Russian (also known as Bolshevist Russia), Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and Transcaucasian Soviet republics ruled by the communist Bolshevik parties.\nRevolution and the foundation.\nExtreme government-changing activity in the Russian Empire began with the Decembrist Revolt of 1825, and although serfdom was removed in 1861, its removal was achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants (poor agricultural workers) and served to encourage changers (revolutionaries). A parliament (legislative assembly)\u2014the State Duma\u2014was created in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but the Tsar suppressed people trying to move from absolute to constitutional monarchy. Rebellion continued and was aggravated during World War I by failure and food shortages in popular cities.\nA rebellion in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, caused the \"February Revolution\" and the removal of the government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian \"Provisional government\", whose leaders intended to have elections to Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue war on the side of the Entente in World War I.\nAt the same time, workers' councils, known as Soviets, sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. In November 1917, during the \"October Revolution\", they took power from the Provisional Government. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice (peace) with the Central Powers. In March, after more fighting, the Soviets quit the war for good and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.\nIn the long and bloody Russian Civil War, the new Soviet power won. The civil war between the Reds and the Whites started in 1917 and ended in 1923. It included the Siberian Intervention and other foreign interference, the killing of Nicholas II and his family and the famine in 1921, which killed about 5 million. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed and split disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. The Soviet Union had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established Republic of Finland, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Latvia, and the Republic of Lithuania, which had all escaped the empire during the civil war.\nUnification of the Soviet Republics.\nOn 28 December 1922, people from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty of Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, creating the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were made true by the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by heads of delegations.\nOn 1 February 1924, the USSR was accepted as a country by the British Empire. Also in 1924, a Soviet Constitution (set of laws) was approved, making true the December 1922 union of the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Belarusian SSR, and the Transcaucasian SFSR to form the \"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\" (USSR).\nThe big changes of the economy, industry, and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was performed according to Bolshevik Initial Decrees, documents of the Soviet government, signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most important and notable breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, that planned a major change of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The Plan was developed in 1920 and covered a 10- to 15-year period. It included the making of a network of 30 regional power stations, including ten large hydroelectric power plants, and numerous electric-powered large industrial organizations. The Plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was basically fulfilled by 1931.\nStalin's rule.\nFrom its beginning years, government in the Soviet Union was ruled as a one-party state by the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). After the economic policy of War Communism during the Civil War, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist with nationalized industry in the 1920s and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax (\"see\" New Economic Policy).\nSoviet leaders argued that one-party rule was necessary because it ensured that 'capitalist exploitation' would not return to the Soviet Union and that the principles of Democratic Centralism would represent the people's will. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for Soviet leaders to take more power in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a \"troika\" composed of Grigory Zinoviev of Ukraine, Lev Kamenev of Moscow, and Joseph Stalin of Georgia.\nStalin led the country through World War II and into the Cold War. Gulag camps greatly expanded to take a lot of prisoners. After he died, Georgy Malenkov briefly continued his policies. Nikita Khrushchev reversed some of Stalin's policies,but Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin kept things as they were.\nAfter the 1936 revised constitution, the Soviet Union stopped acting as a union of republics and more as a single super-country.\nKhrushchev era.\nStalin died on 5 March 1953. Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the following power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he denounced Stalin's repression and eased controls over party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.\nMoscow considered Eastern Europe to be a very vital buffer zone for the forward defense of its western borders. For this reason, the USSR sought to strengthen its control of the region. It did this by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and obedient to its leadership. Soviet military force was used to suppress anti-Stalinist uprisings in Hungary and Poland in 1956.\nDuring the Khrushchev\u2019s power program of relocating every urban family to a separate apartment was started. There were built a lot of 5-floor buildings to live for 20 years. \nAfter Krushchev\u2019s visit to the USA, corn became very popular in the USSR.\nIn the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the USSR's policies led to the Sino\u2013Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist\u2013Leninist movement. The governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia chose to ally with China instead of the USSR.\nDuring this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union continued to make progress in the Space Race. It rivalled the United States. The USSR launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.\nLeonid Brezhnev.\nLeonid Brezhnev led the Soviet Union from 1964 until his death in 1982. He came to power after he convinced the government to overthrow the then-leader Nikita Krushchev. Brezhnev's rule is often linked with the decline in Soviet economy and starting the chain of events that would lead to the union's eventual collapse. He had many self-awarded medals. He was awarded Hero of the Soviet Union (the highest honor) on three separate occasions. Brezhnev was succeeded by Yuri Andropov, who died a few years later. Andropov was succeeded by the frail and aging Konstantin Chernenko. Chernenko died a mere year after taking office.\nIn 1980 the Soviet Union hosted the Summer Olympics with Brezhnev opening and closing the games. The games were heavily boycotted by the western nations, particularly the United States. During the closing ceremony, the flag of the City of Los Angeles was raised instead of the flag of the United States (to symbolise the next host city/nation) and the anthem of the Olympics was played instead of the anthem of the United States in response to the boycott.\nBrezhnev was the second longest serving Soviet leader after Stalin. The following is a list of leaders (General Secretary of the Communist Party) in order of their tenure and length of leadership:\nKhrushchev and Gorbachev are the only Soviet leaders to have not died whilst in office. Lenin, Stalin and Khrushchev are the only leaders who were not (de jure) head of state during their leaderships.\nGorbachev's rule.\nMikhail Gorbachev was the Soviet Union's last leader. He was the only Soviet leader to have been born after the October revolution and was thus a product of the Soviet Union having grown up in it. He and US president Ronald Reagan signed a treaty to get rid of some nuclear weapons. Gorbachev started social and economic reforms named Perestroika that gave people freedom of speech; which allowed them to criticize the government and its policies. The ruling communist party lost its grip on the media and the people. Newspapers began printing the many failures that the Soviet Union had covered up and denied in its past. The Soviet Union's economy was lagging and the government was spending a lot of money on competing with the west.\nDissolution.\nBy the 1980s the Soviet economy was suffering but it was stable. Gorbachev's new ideas had gotten out of hand and the communist party lost control. Boris Yeltsin was elected (democratically) the President of the Russian SFSR even though Gorbachev did not want him to come into power. Lithuania announced its independence from the Union and the Soviet government demanded it surrender its independence or it would send the Red Army to keep order. Gorbachev invented the idea of keeping the Soviet Union together with each republic being more independent but under the same leader. He wanted to call it the 'Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics' to keep the Russian initials as CCCP (USSR in English).\nA group of communist leaders, unhappy with Gorbachev's idea, tried to take over Moscow and stop the Soviet Union from collapsing. It only made people want independence more. Although he survived the attempted takeover, he lost all of his power outside of Moscow. Russia declared independence in December 1991. Later in the month, leaders of Russia, Byelorussia, and Ukraine signed a treaty called the Belavezha Agreement to dissolve the USSR, extremely angering Gorbachev. He had no choice but to accept the treaty and resigned on Christmas Day 1991. The Soviet Union's parliament (Supreme Soviet) made the Belavezha Agreement law, marking formally the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The next day, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time.\nSince 2013, the document that confirmed the dissolution of the Soviet Union has been missing.\nSports.\nMade on July 20th, 1924, in Moscow, \"Sovetsky Sport\" was the first sports newspaper of the Soviet Union. Sports in the Soviet Union were highly prioritized and tightly controlled. The government invested heavily in athletic programs to showcase Soviet superiority. Success in sports was seen as a reflection of the political system's strength. The emphasis on Olympic success led to the development of talented athletes in various disciplines. However, it also involved state-sponsored doping programs, which became a controversial legacy.\nCulture.\nThe culture of the Soviet Union went through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first 10 years following the revolution, there was freedom and artists tested several different styles to find a Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be available to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of smart people, writers, and artists were killed, and their work not being available to anyone, such as Nikolay Gumilyov who was shot, for conspiring against the Bolshevik regime, without proof.\nDuring Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was described by the rise of the government-forced style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely , with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were put in prison and killed.\nFollowing the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was removed. During this time, a different period of Soviet culture developed, described by public life and an intense focus on personal life. Bigger testing in art forms was again allowed, resulting in the creation of better, important work. Underground dissident literature, known as \"samizdat\", was made during this late period. In architecture, the art or practice of designing and constructing buildings, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like jazz in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR.\nIn the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of \"perestroika\" and \"glasnost\" significantly grew freedom of expression in the country in the media and the press."}
+{"id": "3601", "revid": "593910", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3601", "title": "Monarch", "text": "A monarch is the ruler of a country which is a monarchy. Monarchs usually get their power by inheritance from one of their parents. When a monarch dies, a child or the nearest relative takes over. A male monarch is usually called a king or emperor. A female monarch is usually called a queen or empress. There female kings in history. An example of a modern woman king is Her Royal Majesty Queen Diambi, the traditional ruler of the Bakwa Luntu People in Central Kasa\u00ef, Congo, Africa. \nMonarchy is still common in Africa. Many countries have both a president and a monarch of some sort. \nMonarchs were very common in history until the 20th century. Most European countries had monarchs in past centuries, but most no longer have them. Some countries that still have monarchs have other leaders with the actual power. Most monarchies are hereditary monarchies. Some countries, however, elect their monarch, instead of using inheritance, like the Holy Roman Empire and Malaysia. Some republics, such as the Dutch Republic or North Korea, had or have a hereditary ruler but do not call him a \"monarch\".\nMonarchs can also have monarchs of lower honour below them. For example, an empire could include several kingdoms, and a kingdom could have several duchies or principalities. Nations would rarely include all titles and usually go from duchy to kingdom instead of duchy to principality to kingdom. \"Prince\" and \" princess\" are words that mean \"ruler of a principality\" and/or \"son of a king/queen.\" Some languages have separate words for them.\nThe details may vary from country to country."}
+{"id": "3604", "revid": "1477024", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3604", "title": "Unit", "text": "Unit means part of something: a ~ in an army/air force, a navy. Component, building block of constructions and molecules.\nIt could mean a unit of measurement, ~ of currency (\u00a3$\u00a5\u00a4\u20ac).\nUnits sometimes means the digit in a number on the right, which is also called the \"ones\".\nIn exact sciences use is made of cgs/psi/cal and m kg s/N/J systems. The SI units in calculation and measurement prevail.\nSome other ideas come from this word:\nIn the BBC TV series Doctor Who, UNIT is a military group on earth (UNified Intelligence Taskforce) who battle invading aliens."}
+{"id": "3607", "revid": "693482", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3607", "title": "Uncle", "text": "An uncle is a name used in an extended family. An uncle is either a brother of one of someone's parents. That person is the uncle's nephew (male) or niece (female). An uncle's child is a cousin. A (also written as great-uncle or grand-uncle) is the brother of a grandparent. In some cultures an uncle is considered a close family member. Based on the old Chinese saying \"the oldest son in the family is the father of the family\" an uncle is often the head of a family. In many cultures no single word (such as uncle) describes both their parents' brothers. Instead there are words to describe a person's kinship to their mother's brother or a person's kinship to their father's brother. An uncle can also be someone not related by blood or marriage as in a term of endearment or respect. In this use uncle can also be part of a nickname such as Uncle Sam.\n\"Avunculus\".\nDuring the Middle Ages in western Europe, a maternal uncle played a particular role in the family. A young man was often closer to his maternal uncle (from or \"little grandfather\") than to his own father. Tacitus noted the Franks had very strong ties between a maternal uncle and his nephew. In Roman family relationships the \"avunculus\" had a responsibility to defend his nephews as well as his nieces. The maternal uncle relationship was an extension of the Roman kin system's strong brother-sister relationship.\nVariation of terms.\nA maternal or paternal relative is one who is related through their mother or father, respectively. For example, a maternal uncle is the subject's mother's brother.An in-law is a relationship that is not by blood, but instead by marriage. The in-law shares the in-law relationships of the spouses relatives. For example, an uncle in-law could be the husband of the subject's Aunt."}
+{"id": "3608", "revid": "106", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3608", "title": "Shakespeare", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3609", "revid": "1571441", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3609", "title": "Information", "text": "The word \"information\" is used in many different ways. Originally, it comes from a word that meant to give a \"form\" to something. Information is something that people can learn, know about, or understand. For example, a newspaper contains information about the world. This article contains information about \"Information\".\nInformation in computer science.\nPeople who use computers often use the words \"information\" and \"data\" in the same way. There are special fields of study called \"information science\", \"information technology\" (IT), and data science.\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, some people gave a new, specific meaning to \"information\". At that time, the first computer databases were built. In computer science, \"data\" often means a kind of information that has not been checked. That means \"data\" has not been changed or fixed, and you may not be able to trust it. With the new meaning, \"information\" means data that has been checked and passed tests for what it must be. A person can trust that \"information\" is correct.\nInformation can only be correct and good enough to trust if there are very good and complete ways to check the data (data checking, validation or verification) and decide it is good enough (acceptance process). A person must know rules were used to check the data or trust the person who checked the data. If a person cannot tell that this was done, the information still seems to be data for that person, so that person must check the data again, in that general view about data.\nThe Information Age is a historic period."}
+{"id": "3610", "revid": "1674421", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3610", "title": "Airport", "text": "An airport is a place where airplanes can land or take off. Most airports in the world have only a long strip of level ground called a runway. Many airports have buildings which are used to hold airplanes and passengers. A building that holds passengers waiting for their planes or luggage is called a terminal. The sections between planes and the terminal are called \"gates\". Airports also have buildings called hangars to hold planes when they are not used. Some airports have buildings to control the airport, like a control tower which tells planes where to go.\nAn international airport is a large airport that airplanes can use to fly to and from other countries. A domestic airport is an airport which is usually smaller and only has airplanes coming from different places in the same country. Most international airports have shops and restaurants for airplane passengers to use.\nAn airport used by the military is often called an air force base or airbase. An aircraft carrier is a floating airbase.\nSafety.\nAirports are made and operated for safety. Today, people must walk through a metal detector, a machine that can tell if metal goes through it. If it makes a noise, the officers will make that person take off all things on them that are metal. They also have X-ray machines that can look into luggage. If officers find items such as weapons, or anything that can be used to kill people, that item (and the person who has it) are taken away and possibly arrested. As well as this, passengers are not allowed to bring bottles or containers with over 100 ml of liquid onto the plane because they could be turned into bombs. Therefore, all water bottles must be emptied before entering the secured area."}
+{"id": "3611", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3611", "title": "Ice", "text": "Ice is the common name for frozen water. Other liquids, such as ammonia or methane or milk, are called 'milk ice', for instance, instead of just 'ice'. Liquid water becomes solid ice when it is very cold. The freezing point is 0\u00b0 Celsius (32\u00b0 Fahrenheit or 273 kelvin).\nIce can be made in a home refrigerator or freezer. If water is put in a freezer and left for a while, the water gets very cold and will freeze solid, creating ice. Water can be placed into a copper (or other metal) container to cause it freeze into ice faster. Water can freeze faster than in a plastic ice tray.\nHow ice is formed.\nUnlike other liquids, water expands as it freezes to become ice. It floats on water because ice has less density than water. This is very unusual most other liquids become more dense as they cool. Liquid water expands by about 9% as it becomes ice \u2013 it takes up more space. This is because the water molecules are actually farther apart instead of being closer together. The molecules in an ice crystal are arranged in a way that makes it less dense than liquid water.\nIf water in plumbing freezes, it can burst the water pipe. Water in glass bottles can make them explode when it freezes. Water freezing in rock cracks can expand enough to split hard rocks apart; this is an important geological weathering process that can wear down mountains and make rock into soil.\nSalt water.\nSalt water needs a lower temperature to freeze than pure water. Most of the salt does not enter the ice, so the resulting ice is less salty than the water. This fact has sometimes been used for desalination. Salty ice is not as strong as frozen pure water. Salt that is added to ice melts it, if it's not too cold: the salt progressively eats into the ice, forming brine which does not freeze at that temperature.\nGeography of ice.\nBecause ice floats, even large bodies of water which freeze, like some oceans, only form ice on the surface. Most lakes never freeze to the bottom. Even the coldest oceans, like the Arctic Ocean, only freeze on the top, leaving liquid ocean circulating below. Because of this the Earth's oceans are able to redistribute heat. The climate of the Earth has less extremes of heat and cold than it would otherwise. A solid ocean would not circulate heat. But because ice floats on the surface the water beneath can continue to circulate. Ice on the surface stays exposed and readily melts when the temperature rises. \nBig bodies of ice on land are called glaciers. Antarctica has most of the world's ice.\nIce ages.\nClimate change happens all the time. When it is cold it is called an ice age. During ice ages large areas of the Earth are covered in ice, snow and glaciers. The causes of ice ages are complex, and not entirely known, but see Milankovic cycle. Global warming is shrinking the areas covered by ice. \nDry ice.\nThere is also 'dry ice'; it is frozen carbon dioxide. Dry ice exposed to normal air gives off carbon dioxide gas that is odorless and colorless. The gas is so cold that when it mixes with air it cools the water vapour in the air to fog, which looks like a thick white smoke. It is often used in the theatre to make fake fog or smoke."}
+{"id": "3614", "revid": "1675193", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3614", "title": "Travel", "text": "Travel is the activity of going from one place to another place. When a person makes the same trip every day to work or school, this type of traveling is usually called \"commuting.\" Some people travel to other cities as part of their job. This is called \"business travel.\" When many people travel to a distant place to stay, it is called \"human migration\".\nSome people travel on their vacation, to visit other towns, cities, or countries. This is tourism. These people stay overnight in hotels, hostels, motels, apartments or bed and breakfast. Some prefer camping. Through the centuries, modes of travel have changed. Some people (travel writers) write about travelling, as in autobiographies or journals. Some write guide books suggesting places to go.\nTypes of travelling:"}
+{"id": "3615", "revid": "1691270", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3615", "title": "CNN", "text": "The Cable News Network (CNN) is an American cable news television channel. It was founded in 1980 by Ted Turner. The Cable News Network first aired on television on June 1, 1980. The Cable News Network's first newscast was anchored (hosted) by David Walker and his wife Lois Hart. In its first year CNN hired many political analysts, including Rowland Evans and Robert Novak. On January 1, 1982 CNN launched a 24-hour sister newscast channel with no talk shows or commentary shows called . CNN broadcasts programs from its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta, or from the Deutsche Bank Center in New York City, or from studios in Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles. CNN is owned by Warner Bros. Discovery, and the U.S. news channel is a part of the CNN Global.\nShows.\nThe hosts of its opinion shows are Don Lemon, Chris Cuomo, Fredricka Whitfield, Erin Burnett, Brianna Keiler and Brooke Baldwin.\nCNN has been criticized by the right-wing Media Research Center for having a left-wing bias. According to that same Center, it is less to the left than the news divisions of ABC, NBC, and CBS. It has been criticized by Arabs for having a pro-American bias."}
+{"id": "3616", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3616", "title": "Leader", "text": "A leader is somebody whom people follow. A leader has authority. For people to accept a leader, his or her leadership must therefore be legitimate.\nBecause people follow a leader, the leader can make people do things. A leader can therefore make people work together towards a common goal. \nAn example of a leader is the head of government of a country. People within the government \"follow\" the leader, and citizens look to the head of government for inspiration and guidance. Sometimes, when a head of government lacks legitimacy, people will stop following him or her. The head of government is therefore no longer able to lead properly. This may result in a new election, or in worst case civil war.\nA group with no leader is called leaderless. "}
+{"id": "3617", "revid": "1368380", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3617", "title": "Blackboard", "text": "A blackboard, also called a chalkboard, is a surface on which chalk is visible. It is used as a surface to write on. It is usually made up of wood or fiber. It is painted black to reflect the white chalks.\nBlackboards are often used to help in teaching in school. Blackboards are not used as much now but can be seen in some schools still. The chalk dust got everywhere, and some people are allergic to chalk dust. Now people use whiteboards: they can take modern felt-tip colour markers, and clean easily. \nSchoolteachers often use the chalkboard to display things at large. It also makes the learning cooperative between teachers and student. Chalkboards can be black or dark green, in which case they may be called blackboards and greenboards."}
+{"id": "3620", "revid": "1658807", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3620", "title": "Linux", "text": "Linux or GNU/Linux is a Unix-like operating system (or family of) for computers. The Linux kernel (the basis of the operating system) is free software, meaning people can use it, see how it works, change it, or share it.\nThere is a lot of software for Linux and\u2014like Linux itself\u2014a lot of the software for Linux is free software.\nThe defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel that Linus Torvalds developed, at first alone. Linux is typically packaged in a Linux distribution (or \"distro\" for short). Distributions also include supporting system software and libraries, many of which are provided by the GNU Project.\nPopular Linux distributions include Debian, Fedora, and Ubuntu. Commercial distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SuSE Linux Enterprise Server. Desktop Linux distributions include a windowing system such as X11 or Wayland, and a desktop environment such as GNOME or KDE Plasma. Distributions intended for servers may omit graphics altogether, and include a solution stack such as LAMP. Anyone may make a distribution for any purpose.\nLinux was originally developed for personal computers. Linux is the leading operating system (OS) on servers such as mainframe computers, and the only OS used on supercomputers (at least on the TOP500 list, since November 2017). It is used by around 3.16% of desktop computers. The Chromebook, which runs Chrome OS based on the Linux kernel, dominates the US K\u201312 education market and represents nearly 20% of sub-$300 notebook sales in the U.S.\nLinux also runs on embedded systems, which are devices whose operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system; this includes mobile phones (especially smartphones), tablet computers, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, digital video recorders, video game consoles and smartwatches. In fact, the Android operating system, a mobile operating system built on top of the Linux kernel, has the largest installed base of all general-purpose operating systems. In March 2017, it was reported that there were more users on Android than on Microsoft Windows, which is not based on Linux.\nLinux is an example of free and open-source software collaboration. The source code may be used, modified and distributed\u2014commercially or non-commercially\u2014by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License.\nHow Linux was made.\nIn the 1980s, many people liked to use an operating system called Unix. But because it restricted the user from sharing and improving the system, some people made a new operating system that would work like Unix but which anybody could share or improve. MINIX, similar to Unix, was used as a teaching tool for university students to learn how operating systems worked. MINIX also restricted its sharing and improvement by its users.\nA group of people called the GNU Project wrote different parts of a new operating system called G.N.U., but it did not have all the parts an operating system needs to work. In 1991 Linus Torvalds began to work on a replacement for MINIX that would be free to use, and which would not cost anything. Linus started the project when he was attending the University of Helsinki. This eventually became the Linux kernel.\nLinus Torvalds shared the Linux kernel on some internet groups for MINIX users. Linus first called the operating system \"Freax\". The name Freax came from joining up the English words \"free\" and \"freak\", and adding an X to the name because Unix has an X in its name. Ari Lemmke, who worked with Linus at the university, was responsible for the servers that Freax was stored on. Ari did not think Freax was a good name, so he called the project \"Linux\" without asking Linus. Later, Linus agreed that Linux was a better name for his project.\nLinux relied on software code from MINIX at first. But, with code from the G.N.U. system available for free, he decided it would be good for Linux if it could use that code, instead of code from MINIX, because MINIX did not let people share or change it how they wanted. The G.N.U. General Public License is a software license that lets people change any part of the code they want to, as long as they share any changes they make with the people they give their software to and allow them to redistribute it for free or for a price . The software from G.N.U. was all licensed under the G.N.U. General Public License, so Linus and the other people who worked on Linux could use it.\nTo make the Linux kernel suitable for use with the code from the G.N.U. Project, Linus Torvalds started a switch from his original license (which did not allow people to sell it) to the G.N.U. GPL. Linux and G.N.U. developers worked together to integrate G.N.U. code with Linux to make a free operating system.\nSince 1991, thousands of programmers and companies have worked on Linux, including Google.\nTux the penguin.\nThe mascot of Linux is a cartoon penguin named \"Tux\". When a person sees the penguin on software and hardware, it means that it will work with Linux, and sometimes all systems that are like Unix.\nThe idea of the penguin came from the creator of Linux, Linus Torvalds. The image was made by a man named Larry Ewing in a competition to make a logo. The image, Tux, did not win, but it was picked as a mascot later.\nTux has now become a symbol for Linux, and sometimes even for open source. He can be seen in many different places and often, when people refer to Linux, they often think about Tux. Tux has even been included in many video games, such as Super Tux (parody of Super Mario Bros.), Tux Racer (where players race Tux down an icy hill) and Pingus (like Lemmings).\nUses.\nDesktop use.\nAlthough there are only a few Linux versions for some Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows programs in areas like desktop publishing and professional audio and video there are programs that are comparatively similar in quality compared to those available for Mac and Windows.\nMany free software programs that are popular on Windows, such as Pidgin, Mozilla Firefox, LibreOffice, Chromium, VLC and GIMP, are available for Linux. A growing amount of proprietary desktop software can also be used under Linux, such as Steam, Spotify and Skype. CrossOver is a proprietary solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running Windows applications such as Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop under Linux.\nServers and supercomputers.\nLinux has mainly been used as a server operating system, and has risen to be known by a lot of people in that area; Netcraft reported in February 2008 that five of the ten best internet hosting companies run Linux on their web servers. This is because of its stability and uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface for servers is often unneeded.\nLinux is commonly used as an operating system for supercomputers. As of November 2017, all of the top 500 fastest supercomputers run Linux.\nPronunciation.\nIn 1992, Torvalds explained how he pronounces the word \"Linux\":\nTorvalds has made available an audio sample which indicates his own pronunciation, in English and Swedish.\nSome English speakers pronounce the name as lee-narks or lee-nix or lie-nix. According to Torvalds, that is incorrect pronunciation. \nCode size.\nA 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found this distribution had 30 million lines of code. The study showed that Red Hat 7.1 required about 8,000 years of time to develop. The study also said that if all this software had been made by proprietary means, it would have cost about $1.08 billion to make in the United States. As of March 7, 2011, Linux kernel would cost about $3 billion.\nVersion 3.10 of the Linux kernel, released in June 2013, has 15 million lines of code,\u00a0while the version 4.1, released in June 2015, has grown to over 19.5 million lines of code by almost 14,000 programmers.\nMost of the code (around 71%) was written in the C programming language, and many other languages were used, including C++, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. A little more than half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL.\nDifferent Linux versions.\nDifferent versions of Linux are called \"distributions\", or \"distros\". A Linux distro has the Linux kernel, G.N.U. software, and some extra programs that might not be a part of G.N.U. Different versions include different extra programs. People can download Linux distros from a website on the internet, buy them from a store, or even get them on discs that come with magazines. Some popular linux distros are:\nPeople might pay some money for a version, so they can have a CD-ROM or DVD and to help the company to make their versions better. Usually when someone pays, it is so the company will help the user after they install it, which is called \"support\".\nSoftware commonly used in Linux includes:\nLicensing, trademark, and naming.\nThe Linux kernel and most GNU software are licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL requires that anyone who distributes the Linux kernel must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms. In 1997, Linus Torvalds said, \"Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did\". Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a type of the GPL that is less restricted, and the X Window System uses the MIT License. \"Linux\" is a trademark of Linus Torvalds."}
+{"id": "3621", "revid": "9874641", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3621", "title": "Open source", "text": "Open source is a software similar to free software, but is more related to business. It is different from other software because the source code is available to everyone. The source code is a set of instructions for the computer, written in a programming language. \nAnyone can see how the source code works and can change it if they want to make it work differently. The opposite of open source is closed source. Closed source software is not available to everyone. Open source has a lot in common with free software but each has its own focus and goals.\nOpen source and free software have been around for decades. They became more popular with the Linux and BSD software communities. To protect the code, a special user license is used. The most common kinds of licence are the GPL, BSD and LGPL. Wikipedia uses open source too. The Open Source Movement is led by the Open Source Initiative.\nThe open source movement became separate from the free software movement in 1998."}
+{"id": "3622", "revid": "927931", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3622", "title": "Desktop environment", "text": "In graphical user interfaces and consoles a desktop environment is a location on a personal computer that helps the user get around on the computer. The desktop itself is a place in the operating system used for short cuts to computer files and folders on the hard drive. Computer icons (small pictures) are used to represent files/folders. Clicking these icons will open or start a folder or program. The desktop is the area where the start menu is if the computer has a start menu.\nUsually the desktop is the main screen on the computer. If no programs or folders are open, the computer will display the desktop.\nThe most common desktop environment on personal computers is the one given by Microsoft Windows; another common environment is the one given by Apple Mac OS X. Other mostly-used desktop environments for Unix-like operating systems using the are KDE, GNOME, Xfce. There are also other desktop environments, including : Aston, EDE, Graphical Environment Manager, IRIX Interactive Desktop, Sun's Java Desktop System, Mezzo, Project Looking Glass, ROX Desktop, UDE, Xito, XFast."}
+{"id": "3624", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3624", "title": "OpenOffice.org", "text": "OpenOffice.org was a free open source office suite. The free software project was hosted by Sun Microsystems and then Oracle Corporation and it was based on the older StarOffice software that was created by Sun Microsystems. It was available for many different operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, Linux, OS X, FreeBSD and Solaris; and was meant to be an alternative to Microsoft Office. It supported Microsoft Office file formats as well as its own OpenDocument format.\nThe \".org\" part of the previous name OpenOffice.org was there because OpenOffice is already trademarked. It was often called \"OOo\" for short.\nIn January 2010, Oracle Corporation bought Sun Microsystems, which developed OpenOffice.org until that point. In September 2010, a large part of the developers created The Document Foundation and forked the project into the new LibreOffice project because, among other reasons, they were not certain if the development would be successful under Oracle management. In April 2011, Oracle stopped development of OpenOffice.org and laid off the remaining development team. A few months later, it donated the existing source code and trademarks to the Apache Foundation, which released the first version of Apache OpenOffice.\nParts.\nOpenOffice is a collection of applications that work together closely to provide the features expected from a modern office suite. Many of the parts are designed to be alternatives to those available in Microsoft Office. The parts available include:"}
+{"id": "3625", "revid": "1652218", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3625", "title": "Download", "text": "Download means to get information from another computer or server. The opposite of downloading is uploading, which is sending data to another computer. Usually, we do not say \"download\" for a single web page (for example, when you open this page on your computer). When we say we downloaded something, it is normally a bigger computer file, like data or a computer program.\nThe word downloadable means the ability to get information or data from an owner for one's use. The source is expected to be authentic and have the right to send it. At the user's end, the downloaded information or data are to be used based on agreement notice.\nSideload.\nAs most non-technical users use the word download to talk about any data transfer, the word \"sideload\" is sometimes used for local to local transfers as distinct from distant ones.\nRelated articles.\nSideloading"}
+{"id": "3628", "revid": "1578243", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3628", "title": "GNOME", "text": "GNOME is a computer desktop environment. It was designed for Linux, but many other operating systems can use it too. GNOME aims to provide an easy way to use a computer. GNOME is a free software project. It was made because people were questioning whether KDE is free. GNOME is part of the GNU project.\nAims.\nAccording to the GNOME website:\nThe GNOME project puts heavy emphasis on simplicity, usability, and making things \u201cjust work\u201d (see \"KISS principle\"). The other aims of the project are:\nApplications.\nGNOME has many applications written for it. Some of them include:"}
+{"id": "3632", "revid": "1377793", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3632", "title": "Dog", "text": "Dogs are mammals, usually to be kept as pets, or work on farms or for the police. Some dogs are trained to be rescue dogs and join teams such as mountain rescue.\nDogs have been bred by humans from ancestral wolves. They were the first animals to live with humans. There was a lot of different types among wolves in the Late Pleistocene. \nToday, some dogs are used as pets, and others are used to help humans do their work. They are popular pets because they are usually playful, friendly, loyal, and listen to humans. Thirty million dogs in the United States have been registered as pets. Dogs eat both meat and vegetables. Often mixed together and sold in stores as dog food. Dogs often have jobs including police dogs, army dogs, assistance dogs, fire dogs, messenger dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, or rescue dogs. A baby dog is called a pup or puppy.\nDogs are sometimes known as \"human's best friend\" because they are kept as pets, are usually loyal, and like being around humans.\nAppearance and behaviour.\nDogs can smell and hear better than humans but cannot see in full color. Due to the structure of their eyes, dogs can see better in low light than humans. They also have a larger field of vision.\nLike wolves, wild dogs travel in groups called packs. A dog in a group helps and cares for others.\nLifespan of dogs.\nDifferent dog breeds have different lifespans. In general, smaller dogs live longer than bigger ones. The size and the breed of the dog change how long the dog lives on average. Breeds such as the Dachshund usually live for fifteen years, Chihuahuas can reach the age of twenty. On the other hand, the Great Dane has an average lifespan of six to eight years; some Great Danes have lived for as long as ten years. An American Bulldog lives for around 15 years. Bigger dogs will have smaller lives than smaller dogs because of the pressure on its heart to move around.\nAnatomy.\nSize and skeleton.\nDogs come in a wide range of sizes, from very large breeds like the Great Dane weighing 50-79 kg and measuring 71-81 cm, to very small breeds like the Chihuahua weighing 0.5-3 kg and measuring 13-20 cm. There are variations in the skeletal structure among different types of dogs. The dog's skeleton is well-suited for running, with neck and back vertebrae having extensions for back muscles, ribs providing space for the heart and lungs, and flexible shoulders. Selective breeding over time has led to larger skeletons in breeds like smaller skeletons in breeds like terriers. Most dogs have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some naturally have as few as three. The dog's skull has consistent components across breeds but varies in shape.\nDogs and humans.\nDogs are often called \"man's best friend\" because they fit in with human life. Dogs can serve people in many ways. For example, there are guard dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, guide dogs for blind people, and police dogs. There are also dogs that are trained to smell for diseases in the human body or to find bombs or illegal drugs. These dogs sometimes help police in airports or other areas. Sniffer dogs (usually beagles) are sometimes trained for this job. Dogs have even been sent by Russians into outer space, a few years before any human being. The first dog sent up was named Laika, but she died within a few hours.\nThere is much more variety in dogs than in cats. That is mainly because of the way humans have selected and bred dogs for specific jobs and functions.\nDog breeds.\nThere are over 450 recognized dog breeds, according to the American Kennel Club. Dogs started to become more diverse during the Victorian era when humans began controlling which dogs were bred. Most breeds come from a small number of original dogs from the last 200 years. Since then, dogs have changed quickly in appearance and have been selectively bred by people. These breeds have unique features like body size, skull shape, tail type, fur texture, and color. Humans have bred dogs for specific traits to help with tasks such as guarding, herding, hunting, retrieving, and scent detection. Dogs also show different behaviors like being very social, boldness, and aggression. Today, dogs are found all over the world."}
+{"id": "3634", "revid": "344", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3634", "title": "Blind", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3635", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3635", "title": "Blindness", "text": "Blindness is to not see anything. Some people are called blind, even though they can see a little bit. This is because they cannot see clearly, but only see unfocused shapes or colors. \nIn modern countries, few young people are blind. In all the world, blindness is mostly caused by malnutrition and diseases of old people, like cataracts and trachoma. People can become blind because of diseases or accidents, but sometimes people are born blind.\nLegal blindness is defined as a level of visual acuity low enough to qualify for disability benefits and\\or special accommodations. Legal blindness is also defined as being unable to be completely corrected by prescription glasses or contact lenses.\nSome people are \"color blind\", which means they can see, but cannot tell certain colors apart. \nWhen people are blind they use such things as the alphabet in \"braille\" and \"guide dogs\" to do every day life things. In addition, they may wear sunglasses all the time to hide and \\or protect their eyes.\nFamous blind people have included Louis Braille, the inventor of the braille alphabet, Stevie Wonder, Ray Charles and Helen Keller."}
+{"id": "3636", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3636", "title": "Dutton Speedwords", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3637", "revid": "1053137", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3637", "title": "Arctic", "text": "The Arctic is the area around the Earth's North Pole. It includes parts of Russia, Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Lapland, and Svalbard. It is an ocean, mostly covered with ice. \nThe word 'Arctic' comes from the Greek word \"\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\", meaning \"bear\". The North Pole aims at the stars called the Great Bear and the Little Bear.\nLocation.\nMost scientists call the area north of the tree line \"Arctic.\"\nThe tree line follows \nAcross the world, trees cannot grow in places that are too high and/or too cold. Above the tree line, trees cannot survive. Forests on several continents have regions north of the tree line. These areas are part of the Arctic.\nThe area north of the tree line is not an empty ice field. In fact, the only large ice-covered land in the Arctic is central Greenland, which is covered year-round by a continental glacier.\nTundra.\nThe land of the Arctic (located around the edges of the Arctic Circle) is mostly tundra. A tundra is a cold, almost treeless plain covered with moss and sedges (grass-like plants). Tundras get little rain or snow. \nDuring Arctic summers, there are nights when the Sun never sets. This happens because the North Pole points toward the Sun during summertime. For this reason, people sometimes call the Arctic the \"Land of the Midnight Sun\".\nPermafrost.\nThough they get little precipitation, tundras can get very wet during the summertime. In warmer temperatures, the snow on the ground melts. However, there is a permanent layer of ice (called permafrost) under the ground. Permafrost can be thousands of miles thick and is rock-hard, so melting snow cannot soak into it. As a result, water can only form lakes and puddles on top of the ground until it freezes again or dries up.\nPlant life.\nIn some parts of the Arctic, the ground is covered with bright-colored flowers during the short summer. These little plants have very short stems. They must stay close to the ground, because the earth is warmer than the cold winds that blow above it. \nEven some rocks have plants growing on them. These plants are called lichens, and they grow on bare rocks. The Arctic reindeer's summer food, which is called yellow reindeer moss, is actually a lichen. It grows slowly, but can eventually grow to be six inches tall (15\u00a0cm) or higher. It is spongy and full of water.\nTrees are rare on the tundra. Small trees are only able to grow in protected valleys or along the banks of rivers. Rivers come into the Arctic from the warmer south, so their banks are a little warmer than the rest of the tundra - warm enough for trees to grow there. Outside of these areas, there are rare clusters of bushes. Berries are the only fruits that grow in the Arctic.\nAs ice and snow on the ground's surface melt during the summer, plants are able to flower and animals are able to find food. Because of the permafrost, melted snow stays near the top of the ground's surface. Plant roots can use this water for their growth.\nLess than half of the tundra has plants growing on it. In many Arctic places, the soil is too poor for plants to grow.\nAnimal life.\nPolar bears.\nThe polar bear is the world's largest meat-eating land animal. They are excellent swimmers, and even the coldest water on Earth does not bother them. \nPolar bears have an excellent sense of smell, which they use to find prey. They prefer to eat seals and walruses, but most often they eat fish, birds' eggs, seaweed, and dead whales. They get most of their food on pack ice.\nPolar bears have to eat and store fat before the ice is gone: they cannot catch seals in open water. However, they are well adapted to hunt seals out on the ice. If they smell a seal, they wait by breathing holes in the ice. They can also break through the ice where it is thin. Sometimes they can also sleep up on sleeping seals.\nAfter mating, female polar bears dig themselves into a den of snow on land for the rest of the winter. There they have their cubs, usually twins.\nArctic foxes.\nArctic foxes often follow bears out onto the ice to eat their leftover food. They also eat rabbits, as well as the rodents of the Arctic: lemmings and voles. Lemmings live underground in the summer, and under the snow during colder months when the ground is too frozen to burrow into. There they eat plants and roots.\nIn a year with plenty of food, millions of lemmings roam the tundra. Owls and foxes have plenty to eat, and they have more young in these years. However, the tundra does not have enough food for millions of lemmings. When there is not enough, the lemmings rush across the tundra looking for food. There they starve, get eaten by predators, or drown while trying to swim across lakes or rivers. This decreases the Arctic fox's food supply.\nCaribou and reindeer.\nCaribou and their relative, the reindeer, also live in the Arctic. \nToday, caribou are found mostly in North America, and they are larger than reindeer. During the warmer months, large herds feed on grass and lichens. When fall comes, they move south to winter feeding grounds. They dig through the snow with their sharp hooves for food. Their hollow fur creates a cushion of air around them that helps them to stay warm. In the spring they return north to the summer pastures, where their calves are born. An hour or so after being born, the calves are able to follow the herd toward the Arctic Ocean. \nMost of the world's reindeer live in Europe and Asia. Some of these reindeer are not wild. They have been tamed by herdsmen who protect them from wolves and lead the migrations each spring and fall. \nThe musk ox, which looks like a shaggy buffalo, also lives in the Arctic.\nBirds and insects.\nIn summer, many birds visit the Arctic. Most of them are water birds, such as geese, ducks, swans, loons, and Arctic terns. Flying in for the summer, they raise their young and return south for the winter. \nUnlike other Arctic birds, the snowy owl and the ptarmigan stay all year. They are well adapted for the snow. The snowy owl's color matches the snow. Meanwhile, the ptarmigan's summer plumage changes to white when it gets colder.\nThe smallest animals of the Arctic are the flies and the mosquitoes. Thick swarms bite both men and animals in the summer. The reindeer try to escape the mosquitoes by running to higher pastures, but the only real help comes with the snow and cold, when the swarms die off for another season.\nHuman life.\nMany people live in the Arctic. Some groups have lived there for thousands of years. For example, Eskimo and Lapp people lived in the Arctic long before electric heaters, snowmobiles, and modern houses.\nThe Lapps.\nIn an extremely northern part of Europe there is a place called Lapland. It is not a country, but parts of four countries. The people who lived there are called Lapps by outsiders. They call themselves \"Sami\". The Lapps of these four countries lived there long before the countries of Northway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia were created. There were several kinds of Lapp people. Some lived by the ocean and lived mostly on fish. Another group lived along the warmer rivers. These people did a little farming, hunting, and fishing to live.\nBut the best known of the Lapp people were the nomads who raised reindeer. The Lapps survived in their harsh homeland by domesticating the reindeer. The Lapps were able to get everything they needed from the deer. They ate mostly meat, milk, and cheese. Their clothes were made from reindeer skins and wool. Their tents were also made from deer skins. They are known for the beautifully decorated woollen clothing they made.\nThe Lapps protected the herds, moving with them as they migrated from summer to winter pastures. They used trained reindeer to pull sleds carrying their supplies. During the winter, the herds moved south of the treeline. The Lapps would live nearby in homes made of logs or sod. The Lapps were very careful not to waste anything they got from the reindeer. Milk was taken from the reindeer to drink or make cheese. Meat was taken for food. The blood was frozen in chunks and used for soup and pancakes. Knives and belt buckles were carved from the bones and antlers. The sinews were used as sewing thread. Cleaned-out stomachs were used to carry milk or cheese. Every part of a dead reindeer was used.\nWinter clothing was made from layers of deer skin. The inside layer would be worn with the fur facing in toward the person's skin. The second layer was worn with the fur facing out. Boots were also made of fur, lined with grass that had been gathered during the short summer. Every evening the grass would be taken out and dried by the fire, so it would be ready to use again the next day. Thus, a Lapp could be warm and comfortable in even the coldest weather.\nToday only a few of the Lapp people still follow the herds. Those few use modern tools on their ancient migration. They use snowmobiles to herd the reindeer and rifles to kill the wolves that chase them. Even helicopters and radios are used to locate and move the reindeer. Most of the Lapp people now live on small farms in one of the four nations of Lapland. They raise crops and animals, including a few reindeer, to meet their needs. The sale of reindeer meat is an important source of income for the Lapp people.\nEskimos.\nEskimos are Arctic people, too. They sometimes ate raw meat. Eskimos were also nomads, but they did not have any animals except for dogs, which they used for pulling their sleds and helping them hunt. They were hunters and gatherers, and they lived off on whatever they found or killed. Like the Lapps, though, they were very careful to make good use of every part of the animals they killed. Eskimos lived in tents during the summer, and sod houses or igloos in the winter. The Eskimos made very clever things from the bones, antlers, and wood they had. They built different kinds of boats.\nEskimos did not have a government or laws. They learned early in life to help each other to survive. Always sharing food, they usually moved around in small groups looking for food. Sometimes they'd get together in a large group when they hunted big animals such as whales. The men did the hunting and building the homes, and the women cooked, made the clothes, and took care of the children.\nThe Arctic today.\nThe Arctic region has many minerals that are important to people. Iron, lead, coal, copper, gold, and tin are all mined in different parts of this cold land. Large amounts of petroleum have been discovered in the Arctic in Russia, Alaska, and Canada. People live and work in the Arctic to remove these valuable minerals and sell them.\nOil in Alaska.\nThe oil in Alaska, for example, is very important to the United States. The main source is the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field on Alaska's north coast. It was discovered in 1968. Plans were quickly made to build a pipeline to bring the oil to an ice-free port so it could be shipped south. Oil companies spent billions of dollars to build the Trans-Alaska Pipeline in the mid-1970s. It had to be built above the ground in the northern section because of the permafrost. The warm oil in the pipes could have melted the permafrost and caused the ground to sink. That would have broken the pipes and caused an oil spill. The pipeline was completed in 1977. It brings oil to the seaport of Valdez on Alaska's south coast. From there the oil is taken by huge tankers to refineries along the west coast of the United States. If you live in western America, your family car may have Alaskan gasoline in its tank.\nThe Russian Arctic.\nRussia has more land in the Arctic than any other nation. The Russian Arctic in Asia and the area just south of it are called Siberia. It is such an empty, harsh place that it has been used as a penal colony for many years. The old Russian rulers and the modern communist Soviets would send criminals and people who disagreed with the government to live there. However, many people were also sent there to remove minerals, harvest trees from forests, and build cities.\nRussia has a huge port city right in Lapland, within the Arctic Circle. Murmansk is the largest city north of the Arctic Circle. The port is kept ice-free by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream coming up around Norway and Sweden from the South Atlantic. Huge icebreakers work to keep a path open so ships can reach the port. The port ships out fish, minerals, and lumber to Russia and the rest of the world.\nAirplane routes.\nThe Arctic is also the shortest way (Great circle route) for airlines to fly between some cities on different continents. The flight from London to Tokyo, for example, is 1,400 miles shorter if flown across the top of the world instead of the old route south across Europe and Asia. The polar route from San Francisco to Norway is several hours shorter than the same flight going across the United States and the Pacific Ocean.\nThus, man is making use of the Arctic in various ways even though it is a hard place to live."}
+{"id": "3639", "revid": "95036", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3639", "title": "Sin", "text": "A sin is a bad act. Particularly, it is a bad act against another person(s), an animal, a spirit, or a god. \nIn Abrahamic religions, such as Christianity and Judaism, it is an act that goes against what God wants. It turns people away from God and true happiness. In Exodus chapter 20, Moses was given the Ten Commandments by God, explaining important sins like murder and idolatry. This is not believed by all people, and not all societies have the same idea of sin.\nThere is a difference between sins and prohibitions. For example, Muslims and Jews say that it is wrong to eat pork, and Hindus do not eat beef. That is for them, but for others it is not wrong to eat these things."}
+{"id": "3640", "revid": "40117", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3640", "title": "Summer", "text": "Summer is one of the four seasons. It is the hottest season of the year. In some places, summer is the wettest season (with the most rain), and in other places, it is a dry season. Four seasons are found in areas which are not too hot or too cold. Summer happens to the north and south sides of the Earth at opposite times of the year. In the north part of the world, summer takes place between the months of June and September, and in the south part of the world, it takes place between December and March. This is because when the north part of the Earth points towards the Sun, the south part points away.\nMany people in rich countries travel in summer, to seaside resorts, beaches, camps or picnics. In some countries, they celebrate things in the summer as well as enjoying cool drinks. Other countries get snow in the summer just like winter.\n "}
+{"id": "3641", "revid": "1392085", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3641", "title": "Month", "text": "A month is an amount of time used with calendars. It is about 1/12th of a year. It is a little longer than a natural synodic orbital period of the moon, ca. 29.5 days. Lunar calendars use the natural synodic month. For some purposes astronomers use the sidereal month of 27.3 days.\nOther calendars, called \"solar calendars\", ignore the moon, and depend entirely on the Sun \u2014 for example, the Gregorian calendar of 365 or 366 days (12 months) used in much of the world today."}
+{"id": "3658", "revid": "1666762", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3658", "title": "Alberta", "text": "Alberta is a province in western Canada. It is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia on the west, Saskatchewan on the east, the US state of Montana on the south and the Northwest Territories to the North.\nAlberta is the fourth largest Canadian province with an area of . Alberta has over five million (5,000,000) people living there, making it the fourth most populous province in Canada.\nThe capital of Alberta is Edmonton lying near the middle of Alberta. The city of Calgary, Alberta\u2019s other major centre is located about 300 kilometres to the south of Edmonton.\nHistory.\nCanada became a country in 1867. It was much smaller than it is now, and did not include the parts of the country to the west. From 1670 to 1870, parts of Alberta were included in \"Rupert's Land\", land owned by the Hudson\u2019s Bay Company in support of its trading monopoly over a vast area of Canada and parts of the United States. Northern part of Alberta was part of the what was then called \"Northwestern Territories\".\nAlberta was made a province of Canada in 1905, at the same time as Saskatchewan.\nThe Aboriginal peoples of Canada are referred to as First Nations or by the Name of their Nation. Mixed (European/Aboriginal) People are called Metis.\nWeather.\nAlberta is very cold in the winter and has a lot of snow during the very cold season. There is a dry part of Alberta in the south.\nWork in Alberta.\nAlberta has a huge amount of oil (in the Athabasca Oil Sands) and natural gas.\nThere are also a lot of farms in Alberta. Farmers grow several different types of crops Farmers mainly grow wheat. There are also a lot of cows on Alberta farms, and Alberta beef is exported."}
+{"id": "3659", "revid": "1604351", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3659", "title": "Electronics", "text": "Electronics is the study of electricity (the flow of electrons) and how to use that to build things like computers. It uses circuits that are made with parts called components and connecting wires to do useful things. The science behind electronics comes from the study of physics and gets applied in real-life ways through the field of electrical engineering.\nMany people can name several simple electronic components, such as transistors, fuses, circuit breakers, batteries, motors, transformers, LEDs and bulbs, but as the number of components starts to increase, it often helps to think in terms of smaller systems or blocks, which can be connected together to do something useful. \nOne way of looking at an electronic system is to separate it into three parts:\nA television set, for example, has as its input a broadcast signal received from an antenna, or for cable television, a cable.\nSignal processing circuits inside the television set use the brightness, colour, and sound information contained in the received signal to control the television set's output devices. The display output device may be a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a plasma or liquid crystal display screen. The audio output device might be a magnetically driven audio speaker. The display output devices convert the signal processing circuits' brightness and colour information into the visible image displayed on a screen. The audio output device converts the processed sound information into sounds that can be heard by listeners.\nAnalysis of a circuit/network involves knowing the input and the signal processing circuit, and finding out the output. Knowing the input and output and finding out or designing the signal processing part is called \"synthesis\".\nHistory.\nPeople started experimenting with electricity as early as 600 B.C.E, when Thales of Miletus discovered rubbing fur on amber would cause them to attract each other.\nStarting in the 1900s, devices used glass or metal vacuum tubes to control the flow of electricity. With these components a low power voltage can be used to change another. This revolutionized radio, and allowed other inventions.\nIn the 1960s and early 1970s transistors and semiconductors began replacing vacuum tubes. Transistors can be made much smaller than vacuum tubes and they can work using less energy.\nAt about the same time, integrated circuits (circuits that are integrated inside other circuits) became commonly used. Integrated circuits made it possible to reduce the number of parts needed to make electronic products and made the products much cheaper in general.\nAnalog circuits.\nAnalog circuits are used for signals that have a range of amplitudes. In general, analog circuits measure or control the amplitude of signals. In the early days of electronics, all electronic devices used analog circuits. The frequency of the analog circuit is often measured or controlled in analog signal processing. Even though more digital circuits are now made, analog circuits will always be necessary since the world and its people work in analog ways.\nRadar.\nPulse circuits are used for signals that require rapid pulses of energy. For example, a radar works by using pulse circuits to create and send high powered bursts of radio energy from radar transmitters. Radar antennas are used to send (\"transmit\") the high powered bursts in the direction the antenna is pointed.\nThe radar transmitter's pulses or bursts of radio energy hit and bounce back (they are \"reflected\") from hard or big metallic objects. Hard objects are things like buildings, hills, and mountains. Big things made of metal include aircraft, bridges, or even objects in space, like satellites. The reflected radar energy is detected by radar pulse receivers which use both pulse and digital circuits together. The pulse and digital circuits in radar pulse receivers are used to show the location, distance, and speed of objects which have reflected the radar transmitter's high powered pulses.\nDigital circuits.\nDigital circuits are used for signals that only turn on and off instead of often working at levels somewhere between on and off. Active components in digital circuits typically have one signal level when turned on, and another signal level when turned off. In general, in digital circuits a component is only switched on and off.\nComputers and electronic clocks are examples of electronic devices that are made up of mostly digital circuits.\nBasic blocks:\nComplex devices:"}
+{"id": "3660", "revid": "103847", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3660", "title": "Scalar", "text": "Scalars are simple numbers. They are used for measuring things. Many things can be measured, and the measure can be explained by only giving the number.\nSuppose we are measuring a rod. We could give the measured length as 2 metres or 3 cm\u2014depending on the length of the rod under observation. Here, only the figure 2 or 3 along with the unit of measure is enough to transmit information about the rod.\nOther examples of scalars are: \nIn other words, mass is measured by scalars, just like distances are measured by scalars.\nIn mathematics, scalars are distinguished from more complex mathematical objects such as vectors and matrices in that they consist of only one number. A scalar formula_1 can also be multiplied to a vector formula_2 or a matrix formula_3, resulting in the vector formula_4 and the matrix formula_5, respectively. For vectors, scalar multiplication produces a new vector of different length in the same or opposite direction of the original vector."}
+{"id": "3661", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3661", "title": "Photon", "text": "Photons (from Greek \u03c6\u03c9\u03c2, meaning \"light\"), in many atomic models in physics, are particles which transmit light. In other words, light is carried over space by photons. Photon is an elementary particle that is its own antiparticle. In quantum mechanics each photon has a characteristic quantum of energy that depends on frequency: A photon associated with light at a higher frequency will have more energy (and be associated with light at a shorter wavelength).\nPhotons have a rest mass of 0 (zero). However, Einstein's theory of relativity says that they do have a certain amount of momentum. Before the photon got its name, Einstein revived the proposal that light is separate pieces of energy (particles). These particles came to be known as photons. \nA photon is usually given the symbol \u03b3 (gamma).\nProperties.\nPhotons are fundamental particles. Although they can be created and destroyed, their lifetime is infinite.\nIn a vacuum, all photons move at the speed of light, c, which is equal to 299,792,458 meters (approximately 300,000 kilometers) per second.\nA photon has a given frequency, which determines its color. Radio technology makes great use of frequency. Beyond the visible range, frequency is less discussed, for example it is little used in distinguishing between X-Ray photons and infrared. Frequency is equivalent to the quantum energy of the photon, as related by the Planck constant equation,\nwhere formula_2 is the photon's energy, formula_3 is the Planck constant, and formula_4 is the frequency of the light associated with the photon. This frequency, formula_4, is typically measured in cycles per second, or equivalently, in Hz. The quantum energy of different photons is often used in cameras, and other machines that use visible and higher than visible radiation. This because these photons are energetic enough to ionize atoms. \nAnother property of a photon is its wavelength. The frequency formula_4, wavelength , and speed of light formula_7 are related by the equation,\nwhere formula_9 (lambda) is the wavelength, or length of the wave (typically measured in meters.)\nAnother important property of a photon is its polarity. If you saw a giant photon coming straight at you, it could appear as a swath whipping vertically, horizontally, or somewhere in between. Polarized sunglasses stop photons swinging up and down from passing. This is how they reduce glare as light bouncing off of surfaces tend to fly that way. Liquid crystal displays also use polarity to control which light passes through. Some animals can see light polarization. \nFinally, a photon has a property called spin. Spin is related to light's circular polarization.\nPhoton interactions with matter.\nLight is often created or absorbed when an electron gains or loses energy. This energy can be in the form of heat, kinetic energy, or other form. For example, an incandescent light bulb uses heat. The increase of energy can push an electron up one level in a shell called a \"valence\". This makes it unstable, and like everything, it wants to be in the lowest energy state. (If being in the lowest energy state is confusing, pick up a pencil and drop it. Once on the ground, the pencil will be in a lower energy state). When the electron drops back down to a lower energy state, it needs to release the energy that hit it, and it must obey the conservation of energy (energy can neither be created nor destroyed). Electrons release this energy as photons, and at higher intensities, this photon can be seen as visible light.\nPhotons and the electromagnetic force.\nIn particle physics, photons are responsible for electromagnetic force. Electromagnetism is an idea that combines electricity with magnetism. One common way that we experience electromagnetism in our daily lives is light, which is caused by electromagnetism. Electromagnetism is also responsible for charge, which is the reason that you can not push your hand through a table. Since photons are the force-carrying particle of electromagnetism, they are also gauge bosons. Some matter\u2013called dark matter\u2013is not believed to be affected by electromagnetism. This would mean that dark matter does not have a charge, and does not give off light."}
+{"id": "3662", "revid": "1604351", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3662", "title": "Vector", "text": "A vector is a mathematical object that has a size, called the \"magnitude\", and a direction. It is often represented by boldface letters (such as formula_1, formula_2, formula_3), or as a line segment from one point to another (as in formula_4).\nFor example, a vector would be used to show the distance and direction something moved in. When asking for directions, if one says \"Walk one kilometer towards the North\", that would be a vector, but if they say \"Walk one kilometer\", without showing a direction, then that would be a scalar.\nWe usually draw vectors as arrows. The length of the arrow is proportional to the vector's magnitude. The direction in which the arrow points to is the vector's direction.\nHow to add vectors.\nAdding vectors on paper using the head to tail method.\nThe Head to Tail method of adding vectors is useful for doing an estimate on paper of the result of adding two vectors. To do it:\nIt's called the \"Head to Tail\" method, because each head from the previous vector leads in to the tail of the next one.\nUsing component form.\nUsing the component form to add two vectors literally means adding the components of the vectors to create a new vector. For example, let a and b be two two-dimensional vectors. These vectors can be written in terms of their components.\nformula_5\nformula_6\nSuppose c is the sum of these two vectors, so that c = a + b. This means that formula_7.\nHere is an example of addition of two vectors, using their component forms:\nformula_8\nformula_9\nformula_10\nThis method works for all vectors, not just two dimensional ones.\nHow to multiply vectors.\nUsing the dot product.\nThe dot product is one method to multiply vectors. It produces a scalar. It uses component form:\nformula_11\nUsing the cross product.\nThe cross product is another method to multiply vectors. Unlike dot product, it produces a vector. Using component form:\nformula_12\nHere, formula_13 means the length of formula_14, and formula_15 is the unit vector at right angles to both formula_14 and formula_17.\nMultiplying by a scalar.\nTo multiply a vector by a scalar (a normal number), you multiply the number by each component of the vector:\nformula_18\nAn example of this is\nformula_19"}
+{"id": "3665", "revid": "8976446", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3665", "title": "Soap bubble", "text": "A soap bubble is a very thin film of soap water. Their shape is a hollow, round ball, or sphere. They have a colorful surface. Soap bubbles do not last very long. Sometimes they break in the air. When they touch something else, they usually break. When people talk about soap bubbles they think about them being pretty but short-lived. So, they are a symbol for other things that are pretty but short-lived or unimportant. Children enjoy playing with bubbles. Sometimes, adults enjoy seeing art done with soap bubbles.\nThey get their colors from iridescence."}
+{"id": "3666", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3666", "title": "Mathematical", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3667", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3667", "title": "Fire Brigades Union", "text": "The Fire Brigades Union (FBU) is the main union for firefighters in the United Kingdom. A union is a group of workers. They make the group to improve pay and working conditions. It was founded in 1918 in the London area as the \"Firemans Trade Union\". It soon grew to cover the entire country. Today, it has around 50,000 members."}
+{"id": "3672", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3672", "title": "Accelerate", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3674", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3674", "title": "Bicycle", "text": "A bicycle (or bike) is a small, human powered land vehicle with a seat, two wheels, two pedals, and a metal chain connected to cogs on the pedals and rear wheel. A frame gives the bike strength, and the other parts are attached to the frame. The name comes from the prefix \"bi\" (meaning two) and the suffix \"cycle\" (meaning wheel). It is powered by a person riding on top, who pushes the pedals around with his or her feet.\nRiding bicycles, which is also called cycling, is an important way to travel in several parts of the world. The most popular type of cycling is Utility cycling. It is also a common kind of recreation, a good form of low-impact exercise, and a popular sport. According to one study, road bicycle racing is the eighth most popular spectator sport in the world.\nCycling uses less energy per mile than any other human transport.\nInvention.\nIn 1817 a German professor, Baron Karl von Drais, created the first two-wheeled bicycle. It was made of wood and had two wheels. The front wheel could be turned using the handlebars in order to steer the bike. However, it did not have pedals, so the rider would have to push their feet on the ground to make it move.\nIn the 1860s, French inventors added pedals to the front wheel. However, it took a lot of effort to turn the pedals. Later inventors made bikes out of metal only, and made the front wheel very big, giving higher speed. This design was called the penny-farthing bicycle. However, it was difficult to ride, since it could fall easily and the rider would fall far.\nSeveral improvements were made in the 1880s and '90s. In 1885, the safety bicycle was invented. This had two wheels the same size so that the rider could sit at a lower height. It was called the safety bicycle because it much easier to ride than the penny-farthing. When stopping, the rider can simply put down a foot instead of completely dismounting. Instead of pedaling and steering with the front wheel, the safety bicycle steers with the front wheel while the pedals turn the back wheel using a chain. Brakes operated by hand levers on some bikes also increased safety.\nIn 1888, Scottish inventor John Boyd Dunlop re-invented a type of tire which was filled with air. This made safety bicycles more comfortable. Soon, the freewheel was invented. This was a device inside the hub of the back wheel that allowed the wheel to spin even if the rider wasn't pedaling. However, this meant the rider could no longer stop the bike by backpedaling. As a result, better hand brakes were invented, and a different type of brake which could stop the bike if the pedals were turned backwards. Later inventions included better brakes, and gears which made cycling over hills much easier. During this time the bicycle became very popular. \nBasic Design.\nBasic components common to most bikes include a seat, pedals, gearing, handlebar, wheels, and brakes, all mounted on a frame. The majority also have a gear shifter. The cyclist's feet push the pedals to make them go around in circles, which moves the chain, which turns the back wheel of the bike to make the bike move forwards. The front wheel is connected to the handlebar, so turning the handlebar from side to side swivels the front wheel which steers the bike.\nSafety.\nMany thousands of people are hurt every year in bicycle accidents, and hundreds die. Careful riding helps prevent accidents. When riding on streets, it is safest to ride on the same side of the street that cars drive (which would mean riding on the right side of the road in countries where people drive on the right side of the road, and riding on the left in countries where people drive on the left). Riders need to obey stop signs and traffic lights. To avoid hitting people, riders must obey signs that say \"no bicycling\", even if it does not seem to make sense at the time. Low light makes bicycle lighting important. It may not be safe to ride when it is dark. Riders wear reflective clothing to be safer in low light. Wearing a helmet makes bicycle riding safer. Wearing a helmet does not mean that somebody cannot be hurt if they crash their bicycle, but it makes being hurt less likely. Some bicycles have bells or horns that the rider can use to warn other people that they are riding by them.\nMany places have a bicycle path linking houses with shops, schools and stations. These make bicycling safer, letting cyclists stay away from busy motor traffic on dangerous roads."}
+{"id": "3675", "revid": "1260226", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3675", "title": "Wheel", "text": "A wheel is a disc or circle-shaped mechanical device. Its main purpose is to allow things to \"roll\"; in other words, the wheel spins, and object on the wheels moves more easily along the ground. It is a simple machine. The principle behind the wheel is that of mechanical advantage. \nMost land vehicles roll on wheels. Wheels are often used in pairs, connected by a rod of wood or metal known as an axle. The wheel and axle turn together. The part of the wheel that attaches to the axle is called the hub. \nThe wheel with an axle is the basis of many machines, not just vehicles. The potter's wheel, the lathe and the windlass are examples. Many machines have wheels with teeth, known as gears.\nHistory.\nMost experts believe that the ancient Mesopotamians invented the wheel about 4000 BC.\nPeople in Asia also discovered it on their own around 3500 BC. The Inca and Maya had wheels on children's toys around 1500 BC, but they did not use wheels for work. Africa south of the Sahara desert and Australia did not have the wheel until people there met people from Europe. Early wheels were solid disks; the spoked wheel was invented around 2000 BC. The earliest documentation of a vehicle with wheels is a painting dated between 33503500 BC.\nUses.\nToday, wheels are used in cars, carts, airplanes, wheelchairs, bicycles, trains, and skateboards, in addition to many more devices."}
+{"id": "3679", "revid": "1626716", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3679", "title": "Physical exercise", "text": "The word exercise means:\nBasic modes of physical exercises.\nPeople do physical exercises as a part of their healthy lifestyle to get stronger and healthier or stay strong and healthy or to improve their body image. There are three basic modes of physical exercises:\nExercises can be an important part of physical therapy, weight loss, or sports performance.\nExercise can be fun, but it is important for the exerciser to do what they like and eat enough calories, so when they exercise they are building up muscles, not just breaking them down for fuel. Carbohydrates are muscle-sparing; and if one does not get enough calories overall, there is the risk of burning muscles up with the fat to make up the deficit.\nExercise benefits.\nBenefits of exercise for all ages have been known since antiquity. Marcus Cicero, around 65 BC, stated: \u201cIt is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor.\u201d\nThe CDC recommends that adults should get 150 minutes of physical activity weekly. Regular exercise has been shown to help high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and depression, among others. Exercise also helps people feel less tired.\nRegular exercise can have a profoundly positive impact on depression, anxiety, and ADHD. It also relieves stress, improves memory, helps sleep better, and boosts overall mood. Studies show that exercise can treat mild to moderate depression as effectively as antidepressant medication but without the side-effects, of course.\nReferences.\n7. Why Fitness is famous and necessary? "}
+{"id": "3680", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3680", "title": "Percentage", "text": "Percent means \"out of one hundred\". It is often shown with the symbol \"%\". It is used even if there are not a hundred items. The number is then scaled so it can be compared to one hundred. Percent is also used to indicate changes in numerical quantities. \nFor example, we have a bowl of fruit with three apples and one orange. The percentage of apples is 3 out of 4, or 3/4 = 75/100 = 75%. \nA percentage is only one way of writing a ratio; one can also write it as a fraction or decimal. There are ways to convert fractions to percentages or decimals to percentages.\nUses.\nPercentages are useful in practice, because it allows one to compare things that are not out of the same number. For example, exam marks are often percentages, which can compare them even if there are more questions on one exam paper than the other."}
+{"id": "3681", "revid": "1695192", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3681", "title": "Writing", "text": "Writing is the art/act of recording language on a visual medium using a set of symbols. The symbols must be known to others, so that the text may be read.\nA text may also use other visual systems, such as illustrations and decorations. These are not called writing, but may help the message work. Usually, all educated people in a country use the same writing system to record the same language. To be able to read and write is to be literate.\nWriting differs from speech because \"the readers need not be present at the time\". We can read writing from long ago, and from different parts of the world. Text stores and communicates knowledge. Writing is one of the greatest inventions of the human species. It was invented after people settled in towns, and after agriculture started. Writing dates from about 3,300, which is over 5000 years ago, in the Middle East.\nWriting today is usually on paper, though there are ways to print on almost any surface. Television and movie screens can also display writing, and so can computer screens. Many writing materials were invented, long before paper. Clay, papyrus, wood, slate and parchment (prepared animal skins) have all been used. The Romans wrote on waxed tablets with a pointed stylus; this was popular for temporary notes and messages. The later invention of paper by the Chinese was a big step forward.\nWriting is traditionally done using a hand tool such as a pencil, a pen, or a brush. More and more, however, text is created by input on a computer keyboard.\nDefinition of writing.\nThere are two schools of thought:\nTherefore, depending on an author's definition of writing, the term may be used in different ways. With many early systems we do not know what they do convey. The central idea is that \"a full writing system must be able to represent anything that might be said in spoken language\".p7, 217 From this point of view the invention of the rebus is an essential step.\nWe can only be sure a sign system is full writing if we can translate the symbols into a modern language. In the case of some ancient scripts we cannot do this.\nHistory of writing.\nWriting was invented independently a number of times. The Sumerian, the ancient Egyptian, the Chinese and the Mayan writings are separate in their invention.p85 All these writing systems started with \"pictographs\", symbols that stood for things. Then they developed a mixture of methods. Our own alphabetic system is different. It is based on the sounds of spoken language. All alphabets are modified versions of the first one, which originated with the Phoenicians and the Ancient Greeks.\nSumer.\nThe Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. 5000 years ago this was a fertile region and is now mostly in Iraq. The Sumerians developed a form of writing called cuneiform. Triangular marks were pressed into soft clay tablets. After the clay had dried in the sun the tablets were baked. Then they were carried somewhere else for others to read. We know that its first uses were for trade, accounting and administration.\nThe earliest signs were mostly pictorial, but soon they stood as symbols for objects, ideas and sounds. This writing system was extremely successful, and outlasted the Sumerian empire. It was then used by other civilisations in the Middle East, such as the Old \nAkkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Elamite, Hittite, Old Persian and Ugaritic empires. The last cuneiform inscription was dated as 75. Thus the system had lasted for more than 3000 years.p71 Each version of cuneiform had to be deciphered separately, because all the languages were different. Documents (including stone objects) written in more than one language provided the clues.\nAncient Egypt.\nThis is the most famous of the old forms of writing, or \"scripts\". It was invented at roughly the same time as cuneiform, yet was quite different in style, and used different materials. Egyptians ended up with three writing systems for the same language. They were:\nThe writing tools used varied according to the material which was written on. The two cursive scripts were written with reed pens and carbon inks onto papyrus. If the material was cloth, then the writing was done by a brush. Many examples survive. The hieroglyphs were inscribed (carved) into stone (hammer & chisel) or painted onto stone surfaces. Many survive, some with the original colours intact. The key event in the decipherment of hieroglyphic writing was the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. This is a granite slab with the same message written in hieroglyphic, demotic and in Greek. Ancient Greek is well understood, and made possible the interpretation of the other two scripts.\nChinese.\nChinese is the language with the largest number of native speakers. Its history dates back to about 1400.p183 The Chinese writing system is idio-syllabic, a mixed method using characters which may have one or more of these elements:\nChinese has a huge number of characters: in the region of 50,000.p186 Because of this, printing methods were never really successful in China, despite their early invention. In the 14th century Wang Tzhen had sixty thousand wood block characters cut, a huge investment in time and money. He printed 100 copies of a local gazette, and was author of a treatise on agriculture and other technical works. Even with printing machines from Europe in the 19th century, the process was hampered by the huge number of characters, which slowed the \"composition\" to a snail's pace.\nChina has eight regional languages that are mutually unintelligible, and many true dialects. The system appears to work mainly because as many as 70% speak Mandarin. Fluency in Chinese reading and writing is undoubtedly difficult to achieve, and this must act as a brake on the drive for literacy. There have been a number of attempts to reform or simplify the system. The most radical in Pinyin, which is a program to replace Chinese characters with an alphabetic system. This was supported by Mao, but faltered after his death.\nAlphabets.\nIt seems that the idea of an alphabet\u2013a script based entirely upon sound\u2013arose only once, and has been copied and adapted to suit many different languages. Although no alphabet fits its language perfectly, it is flexible enough to fit any language approximately. It was a unique invention.p12\nOur alphabet is called the Roman alphabet, as compared with the Cyrillic and other alphabets. All of these come from the ancient Greek alphabet, which dates back to about 1100 to 800.p167 The Greek alphabet was probably developed from the Phoenician script, which appeared somewhat earlier, and had some similar letter-shapes.\nThe Phoenician language was a Semitic language, often called Canaanite. The Semitic group of languages includes Arabic, Maltese, Hebrew and also Aramaic, the language spoken by Jesus. We do not know much about how the alphabetic idea arose, but the Phoenicians, a trading people, came up with letters which were adapted by the early Greeks to produce their alphabet. The one big difference is that the Phoenician script had no pure vowels. Arabic script has vowels which may be shown by diacritics (small marks above or below the line). The oldest Qu'ran manuscripts had no diacritics. Israeli children today use texts with vowel 'dots' added, to about the third grade.p89\nNo ancient script, alphabetic or not, had pure vowels before the Greeks. The Greek alphabet even has two vowels for 'e' and two for 'o', to distinguish between the long and short sounds. It is fairly clear from this that careful thought went into both the Phoenician invention and the Greek adaptation. However, no details survive of either process.\nSemitic scripts apparently derive from \"Proto-Sinaitic\", a script of which only 31 inscriptions (plus 17 doubtful) are known. It is thought by some researchers that the original source of this script was the Egyptian hieratic script. By the late Middle Kingdom (about 1900) hieratic had added some alphabetic signs for representing the consonants of foreign names. Egyptian activity in Sinai was at its height at that time. A similar idea had been suggested many years before.\nUndeciphered scripts.\nThere are a number of scripts which have never been deciphered, despite much effort.p145 Perhaps the most famous are the script of the Indus Valley civilization, and Etruscan. The Indus River civilisation predates other literate civilisations on the Indian subcontinent, going back to about 2500. Their cities of Mohenjo-Daru and Harappa were well-planned, with good drainage. The script is found on seal stones, terracotta, bronze, bone and ivory. All are brief, and the language is unknown.\nThe Etruscan language used Greek letter-forms, and is found mainly on Etruscan tombs, from Tuscany through to Venice. They were an empire before the Romans, who defeated them, and absorbed their ideas. All knowledge of their language was lost, except that some of the names on tomb memorials can be read from the Greek letters.\nVin\u010da symbols.\nThe T\u0103rt\u0103ria tablets are three tablets discovered in 1961 in the village of T\u0103rt\u0103ria (Hungarian: Als\u00f3tat\u00e1rlaka). This is about from Alba Iulia in Romania. The tablets, dated to around 5300 BC, have symbols in clay: the \"Vin\u010da symbols\". Some claim they are a yet undeciphered language. If this is so, they would be the earliest known form of writing. In 1908 similar symbols were found during excavations, by Miloje Vasi\u0107 (1869\u20131956) in Vin\u010da. This is a suburb of Belgrade (Serbia), some 300\u00a0km from Turda\u0219. Later, more were found in another part of Belgrade. Since 1875 over one hundred and fifty Vin\u010da sites have been found in Serbia alone. Many, including Vin\u010da itself, have not been fully excavated. The culture of the whole area is called the Vin\u010da culture. Although some of these symbols look exactly the same as some letters in Etruscan, Greek, and Aramaic, they are generally regarded as an original, independent development.\nIndus script.\nThe Indus script is another group of early symbols. It was used by the Indus Valley Civilization in what is now Pakistan and north-west India, from about 2600 BC to 1900 BC. The symbols are mostly known from small stone seals and clay tags, which may have been used in trade. Most texts are very short, with only a few signs, and the script has not been deciphered. No bilingual text is known for it.\nSome experts think the Indus script is a full writing system for a spoken language. Others think it is a simpler system of signs. A 2025 study by Max Freedom Pollard suggests that many of these symbols were merchant marks used in trade and record-keeping, to show the owner, the type of goods, or a weight or number. In this view, the script may not be a full writing system that can say everything in a language, but a more narrow system of labels and marks. The same study also suggests that a famous long signboard from the city of Dholavira shows parts of an animal-drawn cart in order, like a large shop sign, instead of a normal sentence.\nLiteracy.\nIt is only in the last 150 years that most people have been able to read and write in Europe and North America. In many other parts of the world this did not happen until the 20th century. Until then, literacy was mainly for clerics, that is, people who had training as priests. Even wealthy people were often illiterate, and used scribes to write for them. The invention of printing came before mass literacy. Before 1500, each book had to be created by hand, so there were few books available compared to the billions in the world today. Mass literacy needed cheap books.\nEven now, there is still widespread illiteracy. There is often a political dimension to this. People who cannot write are easier to control.\nHandwriting.\nThe ordinary use of writing by means of a pen and paper. Can refer to writing for oneself, as in a diary, but mostly it refers to sending letters. Once it was almost the only means of communication between people who were separated. Now, the telephone and e-mail are the most common means of distance communication."}
+{"id": "3683", "revid": "10111668", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3683", "title": "Rock", "text": "Rock has several meanings:"}
+{"id": "3684", "revid": "1530422", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3684", "title": "Plato", "text": "Plato ( ) was one of the most important philosophers of all time. Born to wealthy parents in Athens, Greece, Plato was a student of Socrates (who did not write) and, later, became the teacher of Aristotle. Plato started a university in Athens called the Academy where he taught. Plato wrote about many ideas in philosophy that are still talked about today, including political philosophy and the philosophy of language. One modern scholar, Alfred North Whitehead, said that all European philosophy since Plato is a series of footnotes to his works.\nDialogues.\nPlato wrote his books in the form of conversations called dialogues. In a dialogue, two or more people talk about ideas and sometimes disagree over them. The \"Laws\" is Plato's longest dialogue and probably his last.\nSocrates is usually the main person in Plato's dialogues. Often, Socrates talks with people and tries to see if they believe anything that is illogical. Because of this, some people became angry with Socrates and tried to kill him. In Plato's Apology, Socrates is put on trial by these people and is eventually sentenced to death by drinking poison.\nTheory of Forms.\nPlato is famous for developing the theory of forms. This theory says that everything in our world is imperfect but corresponds to a perfect version of itself that exists in another realm. \nFor example, there are wooden chairs, metal chairs, square chairs, big chairs, small chairs, etc. All the chairs we can ever sit in, according to Plato, are imperfect versions of the perfect form of \u201cchairness,\u201d the ideal chair. The same is true of every other object our senses can perceive: it is imperfect but corresponds to a perfect version of itself. \nOne simple way to think about Plato's theory is with numbers. The difference between \"chairness\" and a regular chair is similar to the difference between the number five and having five apples, oranges, pears, etc. \nIn other words, Plato thought that the world we live in is just a shadow of the real, \"intelligible realm,\" which only a few people will ever understand. He thought that all perfect forms come from perfection itself, which he called \"the good.\u201d\nPlato vs. Socrates.\nPeople who study Plato argue about whether Socrates really said the same things that Plato makes him say, or whether Plato just used Socrates as a character to make the ideas he was talking about seem more important.\nWorks by Plato.\nThere are many dialogues that were written by Plato. This list includes those he probably did write:"}
+{"id": "3686", "revid": "1237047", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3686", "title": "Book", "text": "A book is now a set of printed sheets of paper held together between two covers. The sheets of paper in a book are called pages. The pages have words written in them and maybe illustrations drawn. The first books were not printed, but written by hand in ink. \nThe book is a more flexible format than the earlier idea of the scroll. The change from scrolls to books began in the Roman Empire and took many centuries to become complete.\nA writer of a book is often called an author. Someone who draws the pictures in a book is called an illustrator. Books can have more than one writer or illustrator.\nA book can be a text that is a part of a larger collection of texts. A section of a text may be published as a book so that it only has one writer or only focuses on one subject area. Books written in this way can be understood without reading whole collection of writings. Examples are the Iliad, Odyssey, Bible, Quran and Torah. Encyclopedias often have separate articles written by different people, and are published as separate volumes. Each volume is a book.\n\"Hardcover\" books have hard covers made of cardboard that is covered in cloth or leather and sewn together. \"Paperback\" books have covers made of stiff paper that is glued together. A small book is a \"booklet\" and may be stapled together. The words in books can be read aloud and recorded. These are called \"audiobooks\".\nBooks may be borrowed from a library or bought from a bookstore. People can make their own books and write in them, and add family photos and drawings. Some books are empty inside, like a diary, an address book, or photo album. These books are meant to be written in. Usually, the word \"book\" means that the pages inside have words, and often pictures.\nSome books are written just for children, some are for entertainment, and some are textbooks for studying something in school, such as math or history.\nEtymology.\nIt is thought that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood. The Latin word , means a book in the modern sense (bound and with separate leaves). It originally meant 'block of wood'.\nContent of books.\nThere are two main kinds of book text: fiction and non-fiction.\nFiction.\nThese books are novels and short stories. They are stories that have not happened. They are often imagined by the writer. Many books are based on real events from history,but the writer creates imaginary characters or dialogue for the events.\nNon-fiction.\nNon-fiction fiction are about true facts or things that have really happened. Some examples are dictionaries, cookbooks, textbooks for learning in school, or a biography (someone's life story).\nHistorical.\nBetween the written manuscript and the book are several inventions. While manuscripts are hand-made, books are now industrial products.\nManuscripts.\nA common type of manuscript was the scroll. It is a long sheet that is rolled up. The sheet could have been made of papyrus (made by the Egyptians, by weaving the inner stems of the papyrus plant and then hammering them together), or parchment or vellum (very thin animal skin, first used by the ancient Greeks), or paper (made from plant fibers, invented by the Chinese). Manuscripts of this kind lasted to the 16th century and beyond. Turning the manuscript into a book required several developments.\nOther systems.\nIn Roman Britain we have examples of a message system which was widespread. It was wax on boards, reusable. Waxed boards could be scratched with messages such as (from one woman to another) \"Dear, please come to my birthday party, it won't be the same without you\". Many examples have been found near Roman encampments on the border with Scotland.\nThe codex.\nThe Romans were the first people to put separate pieces of manuscript between covers, to form a \"codex\". This was more convenient to handle and store than scrolls, but was not yet a book as we understand it.\nPrinting.\nScrolls and codices were written and copied by hand. The Chinese invented \"woodblock printing\", where shapes are carved out of a block of wood, then ink is applied to the carved side, and the block is pressed onto paper. This woodcut method was slow because the symbols and pictures were made by cutting away the surrounding wood.\nJohannes Gutenberg was the first person to invent a machine for printing, called the printing press. He made it in the 15th century. This involved more than just a press because it involved the production of a movable metal type that was suitable for the machine process.\nInitially, the machines were slow, and needed a muscle power to work. The Industrial Revolution brought steam power, and later electrification.\nPaper and ink.\nPaper had been invented in China in the 8th century, but it was kept secret for a long time. In Europe hand-made paper was available from about 1450. It was cheaper than parchment but still expensive, and the early printing was a slow process. Therefore, books remained rare. In 1800 the first machines for making paper from wood pulp were invented. New kinds of inks were also invented for various purposes, and machines were driven by steam engines and later by electricity.\nThe common cheap supply of paper fed the faster printing machines, and books became cheaper. At the same time, in America, Britain and continental Europe, more people learnt to read. So, in the 19th century, many ordinary people could afford to buy books and could actually read them. Also in the 19th century came public libraries, so poorer people could get access to the best books.\nBinding.\nPrinting was done on large sheets of paper, which were then folded, guillotined (cut) and sewn into the covers. Bookbinding and all the other processes have been done by machines since the 19th century.\nNow.\nToday, some of the technologies have been changed, especially those involving illustration and typography. However, books look much the same as they did, with more illustration in color, but basically the same. That is because experience has shown that readers need certain things for pleasurable reading. Graphic design and typography are the practical arts used to make books attractive and useful to readers."}
+{"id": "3687", "revid": "9694916", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3687", "title": "Sundial", "text": "A sundial shows the current solar time during the day. It does this because the sun appears to move through the sky. At different times in the day when the sun is shining, a shadow is cast in different places on the dial. A person marks the dial with the time at a certain shadow. This lets users easily see the time. There are a few commonly seen designs, such as the 'ordinary' or standard horizontal garden sundial. However, sundials can be designed for any surface where a fixed object casts a predictable shadow. They may be horizontal or vertical or tilted. \nAncient Egypt had sundials. Other cultures developed them further, including the Greeks and Romans."}
+{"id": "3689", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3689", "title": "Penninsula", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3690", "revid": "1680064", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3690", "title": "Peninsula", "text": "A peninsula is a region of land that sticks out in a body of water. It is also defined as a piece of land with water on three sides.\nMany countries are on peninsulas, and may either take up part of a peninsula (such as Portugal) or all of it (such as India). Parts of a country may also be on a peninsula. For example, Jutland is a peninsula, as is Baja California in Mexico.\nIf Eurasia is considered a continent then the continent of Europe is technically a peninsula. In this case, the great peninsulas of Europe, the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas would technically be peninsulas within peninsulas. The area of the European Peninsula, comprised of Europe minus Chalkidiki, Greece, and any islands, is roughly 4.4 million square kilometers.\nThe Arabian Peninsula is usually cited as the largest peninsula in the world with an area of 3,237,500 square kilometers."}
+{"id": "3691", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3691", "title": "Derivation", "text": "A derivative is something created from a primary source, which can mean different things."}
+{"id": "3692", "revid": "9426995", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3692", "title": "Combinatorial game theory", "text": "Combinatorial game theory, also known as CGT is a distinct branch of mathematics and theoretical computer science that studies combinatorial games, and is distinct from \"traditional\" or \"economic\" game theory. CGT arose in relation to the theory of impartial games, the two-player game of Nim in particular, with an emphasis on \"solving\" certain types of combinatorial games.\nA game must meet several conditions to be a combinatorial game. These are:\nCombinatorial Game Theory is largely confined to the study of a subset of combinatorial games which are two player, finite, and have a winner and loser (i.e. do not end in draws.)\nThese combinatorial games can be represented by trees, each vertex of which is the game resulting from a particular move from the game directly below it on the tree. These games can be given game values. Finding these game values is of great interests to CG theorists, as is the theoretical concept of game addition. The sum of two games is the game in which each player on her/his turn must move in only one of the two games, leaving the other as it was. \nElwyn Berlekamp, John Conway and Richard Guy are the founders of the theory. They worked together in the 1960s. Their published work was called \"Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays\".\nDefinitions.\nIn the theory, there are two players called \"left\" and \"right\". A game is something that allows left and right to make moves to \"other games\". For example, in the game of chess, there is a usual starting setup. One could also, however, think of a chess game after the first move as a different game, with a different setup. So each position is also called a game.\nGames have the notation {L|R}. formula_1 are the games the left player can move to. formula_2 are the games the right player can move to. If you know chess notation, then the usual chess setup is the game \nThe dots \"...\" mean there are many moves, so not all are shown.\nChess is very complex. It is better to think of easier games. Nim, for example, is much simpler to think about. Nim is played like this:\nThe easiest game of Nim starts with no counters at all! In such a case, neither player can move. That is shown as , or 0). If instead right moves first, there will be no more moves for left. So both left and right can make a move to 0. That is shown as , or {0|0}. The first player to move will win. Games equal to {0|0} are very important. They are written with the symbol, * (star)."}
+{"id": "3693", "revid": "1643584", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3693", "title": "Nim", "text": "Nim is a simple game used for examples in combinatorial game theory. The rules of nim are simple:\nThere is a simple mathematical strategy to play the game perfectly. If both players play perfectly, the winner is determined by the initial setup."}
+{"id": "3694", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3694", "title": "CGT", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3695", "revid": "371", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3695", "title": "Mathematic", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3696", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3696", "title": "Windows operating system", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3697", "revid": "1260226", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3697", "title": "Blue", "text": " \nBlue is one of the colors of the rainbow that people can see. It is one of the primary colors (colors that can be mixed with other colors) of light, along with red and green. Apart from indigo and violet, it has the shortest wavelength of colors in the rainbow (about 470 nanometers).\nBlue paint can be made by mixing magenta and cyan paint.\nBlue is the color of the Earth's sky and sea. Earth looks blue when seen from outer space by astronauts.\nIt is the color of cold, introversion and openness, by opposition to the red, which is the color of warm, extroversion and the closure. In alchemy, blue is also the color of the warm introvert (blue fire), by opposition to the red, which is the color of the warm extrovert (red fire).\nBlue is usually associated with masculinity, harmony, conservatism, liberalism, the cold, sadness, calmness and royalty.\nMeaning of blue.\nThe color blue is sometimes associated with sadness, which may be where the name of the music style The Blues comes from.\nBlue is a color of the Jewish religion.\nIn Western cultures since the 1940s, blue is associated with men/boys, while pink is associated with women/girls. Before the 1940s, it was the other way around in some countries, so blue was for women/girls and pink was for men/boys. Nobody knows exactly why it changed."}
+{"id": "3702", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3702", "title": "Memory", "text": "Memory is the personal record of past experiences. It is the brain's ability to store information to use later. Memory is studied in sciences known as \"cognitive psychology\". \nThere are two types of memory: short-term and long-term memory, or known as working memory and reference memory.\nThe Greeks considered memory (Mnemosyne) as the mother of Muses, for without her there would be no art and science. "}
+{"id": "3703", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3703", "title": "Symbols", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3705", "revid": "1306278", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3705", "title": "Animals", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3706", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3706", "title": "Murder", "text": "Murder is where one person kills another person with aforethought. If a person does something reckless that makes someone else die, without the intention of killing, it is homicide and may be manslaughter. An accident caused by carelessness may be criminally negligent homicide. Sometimes, a death caused by someone else may not be a crime, for example killing in self-defense. Though, if the killer could've stopped a violent encounter without killing the victim, it's generally \"not\" a lawful killing. \nA person who commits murder is called a murderer. The legal definition of \"murder\" and \"manslaughter\" may be different between countries. A killing in war is not usually called \"murder\" by those who fight in the war, as it's justifiable homicide. Killing in self defense is usually not \"murder\". Some countries do not even have manslaughter as a legal concept, and only have murder; the countries that do not have manslaughter charge with murder instead. In fact, the United States did not have manslaughter on the books until the 20th century. England was the first country to indoctrinate manslaughter, and the United States was second.\nMost common circumstances for murder in the United States (1999).\nA total of 12,658 murders were reported in 1999 in the U.S., including 1,903 without a specified reason, and 3,779 for which the reasons were unknown.\nWorst cities for murder in the United States (1999).\nNew York's status as the murder capital of the world improved during the 1990s. What follows are the number of murders for 1999:\nAttempted murder.\nAttempted murder is a crime. Attempted murder, or \"attempt murder\" in common law countries, also sometimes called \"murder attempt\", is when someone tries to kill another person. Just planning a murder is not enough. The act must come close to, but does not actually take the life of the other person.\nIt was punishable by death and the execution was carried out in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Mesopotamia, the Indus River Valley, Ancient Greece, The Roman Empire, and of course, China, which is by far the most populated country in the world, to this day. \nThe Roman Empire carried out about ten thousand executions, most if not all beheadings, during its time, and there is no doubt that many of these were those convicted of attempted murder.\nAssassination.\n\"Assassination\" is a word which means murdering a prominent person for a reason. The word is most used when the person who was killed was a celebrity or was a person involved in politics. The people who carry out assassinations are called \"assassins\" or \"Hit-men\". An assassin may murder someone for political reasons, for money, or for other reasons, such as favors owed and revenge.\nThe word \"Assassin\" comes from Hashishin, a Muslim group that was active in the Middle East from the 8th to the 14th centuries. This secret society killed people for political and religious reasons. It is thought that the assassins were under the influence of hashish and opium during their killings or during their training. The word \"assassin\" comes from either \"hashashim\", the influence of the drugs, or \"hassansin\", after their leader, Hassan-i Sabbah.\nMurdersuicide.\nA murdersuicide is when a person kills someone else (murder), and then they kill themselves (suicide).\nNo one is tracking the number of murder\u2013suicides in the United States. However, medical studies estimate between 1,000 and 1,500 deaths per year in the United States are murder-suicides.\nDegrees of murder.\nMurder often comes in three degrees: first, second, and third degree murder. First degree murder is considered murder that has been planned out prior to being committed, and this ranges from stalkers to those who assassinate. Second degree murder is considered murder in action, or murder that was committed with intent to kill, but without planning. Third degree murder is when someone kills someone without intent or planning. An example could be in a drunken bar fight. Two men are fighting, both drunk, and one kills another accidentally. While the killer did not intend nor plan to kill the other man, he committed third degree murder by killing him."}
+{"id": "3707", "revid": "1609553", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3707", "title": "Bird", "text": "Birds (Aves) are a group of animals with backbones. Birds are the only dinosaurs that survived and are part of the theropod group of dinosaurs. The word for \"bird-like\" is \"avian\".\nBirds are warm blooded. Their feathers help prevent loss of body heat. Modern birds do not have teeth. They have beaked jaws. Birds lay hard-shelled eggs. They have a high metabolic rate and a strong but lightweight skeleton. Their hearts have four chambers.\nBirds live all over the world. They range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.70 m (9 ft) ostrich. There are about ten thousand species of birds. More than half of these are passerines, or perching birds.\nBirds have wings. The wings develop differently in different species. The only known groups of birds without wings are the extinct moa and the elephant birds. Wings evolved from the forelimbs of birds. They give birds the ability to fly. Over time, many groups of birds evolved with smaller wings. These include ratites, penguins and many island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also adapted for flight. Some bird species in aquatic environments have evolved as good swimmers. This is seen in seabirds and some waterbirds.\nIn general, birds inherit their behaviour almost entirely. The key elements of their lives are inherited. It was a great discovery that birds never learn to fly. It is wrong to say when a chick waves its wings in the nest that \"it is learning to fly\". What the chick is doing is exercising its muscles. If they are a species that flies, they develop the ability \"automatically.\" If they are species that migrates, that behaviour is also inherited. Many species migrate over great distances each year. Other main features of their life may be inherited, though they can, and do, learn. Birds have good memories, An example of this is when they search for food.\nSeveral bird species make and use tools. Some social species pass on some knowledge across generation. This is a form of culture. Birds are social animals. They communicate with visual signals as well as with calls and bird songs. Most of their social behaviours are inherited. Examples of this include flocking, mobbing of predators and cooperative breeding and hunting, \nMost bird species are socially monogamous; they usually mate for one breeding season at a time. They may mate for years. It is rare that these birds will mate for life. Other species are polygynous, in these species, one male will mate with many females. Birds species are rarely polyandrous. In these species, one female will mate with many males. Birds produce offspring by laying eggs. The eggs are fertilised by sexual reproduction. The eggs are often laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds take care of their offspring after hatching. Some birds, such as chickens, lay eggs even when not fertilised. Unfertilised eggs do not produce offspring.\nMany species of birds are eaten by humans. Domesticated and undomesticated birds are sources of eggs, meat and feathers. In English, domesticated birds are often called poultry and undomesticated birds are called game birds. Songbirds, parrots and other types of birds are popular as pets. Guano is bird manure. It is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120\u2013130 species of birds have become extinct because of human activity since the 17th century. Many more species had become extinct before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, Things are being done to protect them. Recreational bird-watching is an important part of the ecotourism industry.\nBird colours.\nBirds come in many different colours. These colours can be useful to a bird in two ways. Camouflage help to hide birds from predators. Brighter colours can also be useful to birds. They can be used to identify the bird to others of the same species. Male bird are often brightly coloured while the female is camouflaged. The logic is as follows: the female carries the \"precious package\" of developing eggs. The male has to defend a territory. His colour and song are used to let others know that \"this place is occupied\".\nBird camouflage.\nMany birds are brown, green or grey. These colours make a bird harder to be seen: they camouflage the bird. Brown is the most common colour. Brown birds include: sparrows, emus, thrushes, larks, eagles and falcons and the female birds of many species such as: wrens, ducks, blackbirds and peafowls. When a brown bird is in long grass or among tree trunks or rocks, it is \"camouflaged\". Birds that live in long grass often have brown feathers streaked with black which looks like shadows. A bittern is almost invisible in long reeds because its camouflage is helped by its posture (beak and head pointed upwards). Other birds, including starlings and mynas, are quite dark in colour, but are flecked with little spots that look like raindrops on leaves. Bird may also camouflage their nests.\nMany birds from hot countries are green or have some green feathers, particularly parrots. Birds that live in green trees often have green backs, even if they have bright-coloured breasts. From the back, the birds are camouflaged. This is very useful when sitting on a nest. The bird's bright-coloured breast is hidden. Budgerigars are bred in different colours such as blue, white and mauve, but in the wild, they are nearly all green and yellow. Even though they fly very well, they normally spend a lot of time on the ground, eating grass seeds. Their yellow and black striped back helps to hide them in the shadows made by long dry grass, while their green breasts are a similar colour to the leaves of gum trees.\nGrey birds include most pigeons and doves, cranes, storks and herons. Grey birds are often rock-living birds like pigeons or birds that sit on dead tree trunks looking like a broken branch. Water birds like herons often have a pale grey colour which makes it harder for a fish to notice that the bird is standing, looking down for something to catch. Water birds, no matter what colour they are on top, are often white underneath, so that when a fish looks up, the bird looks like part of the sky.\nBlack birds include crows, ravens and male blackbirds. Some birds that are dark colours spend quite a lot of time on the ground, hopping around in the shadows under bushes. Among these birds are the male blackbird and the satin bowerbird which is not black but very dark blue. Crows and ravens often perch high on bare trees in the winter, where their black shape against the sky looks like the dark bare branches.\nNoticeable colours.\nMany birds are not camouflaged, but stand out with vivid colours. They are usually male birds whose females are dull and camouflaged. The function of the colours is two-fold. First, the colours help them get mates, and second, the colours identify them to other males of the same species. Many birds are territorial, especially in the nesting season. They give out territory sounds and are easily seen. This lets other males know they will defend their territory. It sends out a \"look elsewhere\" signal to their competitors.\nSome birds are famous for their colour and some are named for it, such as the bluebird, the azure kingfisher, the golden pheasant, the scarlet macaw. The European robin is known popularly as the red robin.\nMany other birds are very brightly coloured, in countless combinations. Some of the most colourful birds are quite common, like pheasants, peacocks, domestic fowl and parrots. Colourful small birds include blue tits, the goldfinches, hummingbirds, fairy wrens and bee eaters (which are also called rainbow birds). Some birds, like those of the bird of paradise in Papua New Guinea have such beautiful feathers that they have been hunted for them.\nThe peafowl is the best example of a display of colour to attract a mate. Also the male domestic fowl and junglefowl have long shiny feathers above his tail and also long neck feathers that may be a different colour to his wings and body. There are only a few species of birds (such as the eclectus parrot) where the female is more colourful than the male.\n\"Pied birds\" are black and white. Black and white birds include magpies, pied geese, pelicans and Australian magpies, which are not really magpies at all. Pied birds often have brightly coloured beaks and legs of yellow or red. The silver pheasant, with its long white tail striped with fine bars of black, has a brightly coloured face.\nFlight.\nMost birds can fly, and if they do, then the ability is inherited, not learnt. They fly by pushing through the air with their wings. The curved surfaces of the wings cause air currents (wind) which lift the bird. Flapping keeps the air current moving to create lift and also moves the bird forward.\nSome birds can glide on air currents without flapping. Many birds use this method when they are about to land. Some birds can also hover in the air. This method is used by birds of prey such as falcons that are looking for something to eat. Seagulls are also good at hovering, particularly if there is a strong breeze. The most expert hovering birds are tiny hummingbirds which can beat their wings both backwards and forwards and can stay quite still in the air while they dip their long beaks into flowers to feed on the sweet nectar. \nTypes of flight.\nDifferent types of birds have different needs. Their wings have evolved to suit their lifestyle. Large birds of prey, such as eagles, spend a lot of time soaring on the wind. They have wings that are large and broad. The main flight feathers are long and wide. They help the eagle to stay on rising air currents without using much energy, while the eagle looks at the ground below, to find the next meal. When the eagle sees some small creature move, it can close its wings and fall from the sky like a missile, opening its great wings again to slow down as it comes to land. The world's largest eagle, the Philippine eagle has a wingspan of about 2 m (6.7\u00a0ft) wide.\nBirds that live in grassland areas or open forests and feed on fruit, insects and reptiles often spend a lot of time flying short journeys looking for food and water. They have wings that are shaped in a similar way to eagles, but rounder and not as good for soaring. These include many Australian birds like cockatoos.\nBirds such as geese that migrate from one country to another fly very long distances. Their wings are big and strong, because the birds are large. They stock up on food for the long flight. Migrating water birds usually form family groups of 1230 birds. They fly very high, making use of long streams of air that blow from north to south in different seasons. They are well organised, often flying in a V pattern. The geese at the back do not have to flap so hard; they are pulled on by the wind of the ones at the front. Every so often, they change the leader so that the front bird, who does most work and sets the pace, can have a rest. Geese and swans are the highest-flying birds, reaching 8,000 metres or more when on migration. Geese often \"honk\" loudly while they are flying. It is thought that they do this to support the leader and help the young ones.\nBirds that fly very quickly, such as swifts and swallows, have long narrow pointed wings. These birds need great speed because they eat insects, catching most of them while they are flying. These birds also migrate. They often collect in huge flocks of thousands of birds that move together like a whirling cloud.\nBirds that live in bushes and branches have triangular wings that help the bird change direction. Many forest birds are expert at getting up speed by flapping and then gliding steadily among the trees, tilting to avoid things as they go. \nBirds such as owls that hunt at night have wings with soft rounded feathers so that they do not flap loudly. Birds that are awake at night are called \"nocturnal\" birds. Birds that are awake during the day are \"diurnal\".\nWandering albatross might spend several years without coming to land. They can sleep while gliding. Arctic terns nest every one to three years.\nFlocks.\nFlocks of birds can be very highly organised in a way that takes care of all the flock members. Studies of small flocking birds like tree sparrows show that they clearly communicate with each other, as sometimes thousands of birds may fly in close formation and spiral patterns without colliding (or flying into each other).\nTwo common behaviours in flocking birds are guarding and reconnaissance. When a flock of birds is feeding it is common for one bird to perch on a high place to keep guard over the flock. In the same way, when a flock is asleep, often, one bird will remain awake. It is also common for large flocks to send one or two birds ahead of them when they are flying to a new area. The look-out birds can spy the lie of the land to find food, water and good places to perch. Mixed feeding flocks occur, and can help to spot predators.\nFlightless birds.\nSome birds do not fly. Flightlessness in birds has evolved many times.\nThese include running birds like ostriches and emus and ocean-living birds, the large penguin family. Birds on islands have usually lost the power of flight. This is to their advantage because birds with the power of flight can be blown off their island during a storm. The same ability which got them to the island may later take them away in a storm.\nOstriches and emus do not need to fly because although they feed and nest on the ground, their great size and their speed is their protection. Some other ground-feeding birds have not been so lucky. Some birds such as the dodo and the kiwi were ground-feeding birds that lived in safety on islands where there was nothing dangerous to eat them. They lost the power of flight. Kiwis are endangered because European settlement to New Zealand brought animals like cats, dogs and rats which kill kiwis and eat their eggs. However, kiwis and also the rare New Zealand ground parrot have survived. In the case of dodos, they were fat and disgusting in taste. All the same, they were killed and eaten by sailors until there was none left. Other flightless birds which have disappeared are the great auk and the moa.\nPenguins are a very successful group of birds. They are a clade. They spend half their time on land. Their wings are adapted to life in the sea and have become flippers which let them in swim fast. They catch fish at sea, where they are in danger from seals.\nPreening.\nPreening is how birds keeps their feathers in order. They use their beak to position feathers, interlock feather barbules that have become separated, clean plumage, and keep ectoparasites in check. \nFeathers in good shape help the bird's insulation, waterproofing and flight. Their condition is vital to the bid's survival.\nDigestion.\nModern birds do not have teeth, and many swallow their prey whole. Nevertheless, they must break up food before it is digested. First of all, along their throat (oesophagus) they have a crop. This stores food items before digestion. That way a bird can eat several items, and then fly off to a quiet spot to digest them. \nTheir stomach comes next, with two very different parts. One part is like a straight hollow rod (the \"proventriculus\") which secretes mild hydrochloric acid and an enzyme to break down protein. The other part of the stomach is the gizzard. This is muscular, and grinds up the contents. In herbivorous birds the gizzard contains some gastroliths (small stones or pieces of grit). Bones of fish will mostly be dissolved by the stomach acid. The partly digested and ground-up food now goes to the intestine, where digestion is completed, and most contents are absorbed. Anything indigestible, for example remains of feathers, is regurgitated via the mouth, not the cloaca.\nThe system is effective, and carnivorous birds can swallow quite large prey. A blue heron can swallow a fish as large as a carp successfully. Raptors eat by holding the prey down with a foot, and tearing it apart with their beak.\nReproduction.\nMating.\nAlthough birds are warm-blooded creatures like mammals, they do not give birth to live young. They lay eggs as reptiles do, but the shell of a bird's egg is hard. The baby bird grows inside the egg, and after a few weeks hatches (breaks out of the egg).\nBirds in cold climates usually have a breeding season once a year in the spring. Migratory birds can have two springs and two mating seasons in a year. \nNinety-five per cent of bird species are socially monogamous. These birds pair for at least the length of the breeding season. In some cases this arrangement lasts until the death of one of the pair. Monogamy clearly helps if females need males' help to raise a brood successfully. It has other practical advantages: the nest is never left without defence. Birds are generally small, and they have many potential enemies.\nSome birds mate for life, like married couples. These birds include pigeons, geese, and cranes. Other birds look for new partners each year. For birds that choose new mates, part of the breeding season is display. The male bird will do all sorts of things to attract females. These include singing, dancing, showing off the feathers and building a beautiful nest. Some male birds have splendid feathers for attracting females. The most famous is the peacock who can spread the feathers above his tail into a huge fan. \nOther mating systems do occur in some species. Polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity do happen. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances.\nNesting.\nOnce the birds have found partners, they find a suitable place to lay eggs. The idea of what is a suitable place differs between species, but most build bird nests. The bird is driven by a hormone (estradiol E2) to prepare a place for the eggs to hatch. Birds' nests may be up a tree, in a cliff or on the ground according to species. When filled with eggs they are almost always guarded by one of the pair. In fact it is virtually impossible for the eggs to survive if one of the parents dies.\nRobins will make a beautiful little round nest of woven grass and carefully line it with feathers, bits of fluff and other soft things. Swallows like to nest near other swallows. They make nests from little blobs of clay, often on a beam near the roof of a building where it is well sheltered. Many birds like a hollow tree to nest in. Eagle's nests are often just piles of dead wood on the top of the tallest tree or mountain. Scrub turkeys scratch together a huge pile of leaves that may be 10 metres across. Guillemots lay their eggs on rock shelves with no nest at all. Their eggs are shaped so that they roll around in circles and do not fall off cliffs. A cuckoo does not make its own nest. It lays its egg in the nest of another bird and leaves it for them to care for. The cuckoo eggs are camouflaged to look like the host's eggs.\nWhen the nest has been prepared, the birds mate so that the eggs are fertilised and the chicks will start growing. Unlike mammals, birds (and reptiles) only have one opening as the exit hole for body fluids, and for reproduction. The opening is called the cloaca. A female bird, called a hen, has two ovaries, of which the left one usually produces eggs.\nMost male birds have no sex organs that can be seen. But inside the male are two testes which produce sperm which is stored in the cloaca. Birds mate by rubbing their cloacas together, although with some birds, particularly large water birds, the male has a sort of a penis inside the cloaca.\nHatching.\nOnce the hen has mated, she produces fertile eggs which have chicks growing inside them. She lays the eggs in the nest. There might be just one egg or a number of them, called a clutch. Emus might lay as many as fifteen huge dark green eggs in a clutch. After the eggs are laid, they are incubated, or kept warm so the chicks form inside. Most birds stay together for the whole nesting season, and one advantage is that the work is shared. Many birds take turns sitting on the eggs, so that each adult can feed.\nThis is not always the case. With emus, the male does all the sitting and all the baby-minding. With emperor penguins it is also the male that cares for the egg. There is only one egg, which he keeps on his feet and under his feathers, standing in a big group of males without feeding until the chick is hatched. While the eggs are hatching, the females are at sea, catching fish, so that they can feed the chicks when they return.\nSome birds put the eggs inside or on top of the mound of leaves and twigs. The mound acts like a compost heap. The decomposition of the rotting leaves causes the temperature to rise. This is heat released by the chemical action of bacterial and fungal respiration. It is the same reaction as that which keeps mammals and birds at a high temperature. The parents leave the mound. When the chicks hatch, they are able to feed themselves.\nMany small birds take 2\u20134 weeks to hatch eggs. Albatrosses take 80 days. During this time the female loses a lot of her body weight.\nThe quickest hatching time is for the cuckoo. Some types of cuckoos take only 10 days. This means that when they hatch in the nest of their \"foster parents\", the eggs that the parents have laid are not yet ready. Newborn cuckoos are naked, blind and ugly, but they are strong. They get under any eggs that are in the nest and throw them out before they hatch. That means that the cuckoo has the whole care of both parents. Baby cuckoos grow fast and often get bigger than the parents who feed them.\nWhen baby birds hatch, in most types of birds, they are fed by both parents, and sometimes by older aunts as well. Their mouths are open all the time and are often very brightly coloured, which acts as a \"releaser\", a trigger which stimulates the parent to feed them. For birds that eat grain and fruit, the parents eat and partly digest the food for the babies. It is then vomited carefully into the baby's mouth.\nFamilies.\nMany birds, particularly those that mate for life, are very sociable and keep together in a family group which might be anything from 4 or 6 adult birds and their young to a very large flock.\nAs chicks grow they change the fluffy down that covers them as babies for real feathers. At this stage they are called fledglings. Other family members may help care for fledgling chicks, feeding them and protecting them from attack while parents are feeding. When the fledglings have their new feathers, they come out of the nest to learn to fly. In some types of birds, like pigeons, the parents watch over this and as the young ones get stronger, will give them flying lessons, teaching them how to glide, how to fly in spirals and how to land like an expert.\nCommunication.\nMost birds are social animals, at least part of the time. They communicate to each other using sounds and displays.\nAlmost all birds make sounds to communicate. The types of noises that vary greatly. Some birds can sing, and they are called songbirds or passerines. Examples are robins, larks, canaries, thrushes, nightingales. Corvids are passerines, but they do not sing. Birds that are not songbirds include: pigeons, seagulls, eagles, owls and ducks. Parrots are not songbirds, even though they can be taught to sing human songs.\nSongbirds.\nAll birds make noises (\"bird vocalisation\"), but not all sing. Songbirds are passerines, many of which have beautiful melodic songs. Songs have different functions. Danger cries are different from territorial songs and mating calls are a third type. Fledgling may also have different calls from adults. Recognition calls for partners are quite common.\nAs to where the song comes from, there are three kinds of species:\nMost singing birds that are kept as pets, like canaries, have several tunes and some variations. \nThe same species of bird may sing different songs in different regions. A good example of this is the currawong. This is an Australia bird which is like a black and white crow. In the autumn, families get together in large flocks and do a lot of singing. Currawongs from some areas sing much more complex songs than others. Generally, currawongs from the Blue Mountains are the finest singers. The song of the currawong can be sung as a solo, but is often performed as a choir. One bird will take the lead and sing \"Warble-warble-warble-warble!\" All the other birds will join in and sing \"Wooooooo!\". When all the birds know the song, the choir will sing the \"Warble\" part and the soloist will sing the \"Woo!\". The song changes a bit from year to year and from place to place.\nLorenz's studies.\nThe Austrian naturalist Konrad Lorenz studied the way in which birds communicate, or talk to each other. He found that each type of bird had a number of sounds which they made automatically, when ever they felt a certain way. Every sound had an action that went with it. So, if the bird was frightened, it acted frightened and made a frightened sound. This told the other birds around it that something frightening was happening.\nIf a flock of birds were flying over a field, they would be calling \"Fly! Fly!\" But a hungry bird, seeing something good to eat down below might start calling \"Food! Food!\" If other birds were also hungry, they would make the same call until more birds were calling \"Food! Food!\" than \"Fly! Fly!\". At this point, the mind of the flock would be changed. Some of the birds would start to yell \"Fly downwards! Fly downwards!\" as they sank from the sky, until the whole flock was all noisily calling the same thing.\nThese communication sounds are often short hard sounds like: chirps, squeaks, squawks and twitters. Sometimes the calls are longer and more musical. They include the \"Rookety-coo\" sound of a pigeon and the \"Cockadoodledoo!\" of a rooster. The bird cannot change these sounds. They always make them in the same way. The bird is locked into making each sound every time a particular idea comes into its head. The connection between how they feel and how they call is innate: they are born with it. Some calls in some species are learnt. Then, it is the tendency to learn which is inherited.\nThe Jackdaw of Altenberg.\nKonrad Lorenz noticed that when birds sing, they often use a lot of their regular calls as part of the song. Lorenz had a flock of jackdaws which were scattered during World War II. One day, an old bird returned. For many months she sat on the chimney singing her song, but in the song she kept making the call which Lorenz knew meant \"Come home! Come home!\" One day, to the great surprise of Lorenz, a male bird flew from a passing flock and joined her on the chimney. Lorenz was sure that it was her long-lost \"husband\" who had found his way home at last.\nEvolution and taxonomy.\nPalaeontologists have found some exceptional places (lagerst\u00e4tten) where fossils of early birds are found. The preservation is so good that on the best examples impressions of their feathers can be seen, and sometimes even the remains of meals they have eaten. From these remains we know that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs (theropods) in the Jurassic period. They radiated into a huge variety in the Lower Cretaceous. At the same time, their direct competitors, the pterosaurs, dwindled in numbers and variety, and became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic.\nBirds are classified by taxonomists as 'Aves' (Avialae). Birds are the only living descendants of dinosaurs (strictly speaking, they \"are\" dinosaurs). Birds and Crocodilia are the only living members of the once-dominant Archosaur reptiles.\nDefinition.\nThe class Aves is was defined (1990) as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and \"Archaeopteryx lithographica\". But \"Archaeopteryx\" is almost certainly \"not\" the ancestor of modern birds. The transition to flight happened a number of times. The researchers offered four definitions. Birds can be: \nThe first bird-like creatures.\n\"Archaeopteryx\", from the Upper Jurassic some 150\u2013145 million years ago (mya), was for a long time the earliest known bird which could fly. It is famous, because it was one of the first important fossils found after Charles Darwin published his ideas about evolution in the 19th century. By modern standards, \"Archaeopteryx\" could not fly very well. Other early fossil birds are, for example, \"Confuciusornis\", \"Anchiornis huxlei\" and other Paraves.\nMany fossils of early birds and small dinosaurs have been discovered in the Liaoning Province of Northeast China. These include \"Anchiornis huxlei\", from about 160 mya. The fossils show that most small theropod dinosaurs had feathers. These deposits have preserved them so well that the impressions of their feathers can be clearly seen. This leads us to think that feathers evolved first as heat insulation and only later for flight. The origin of birds lies in these small feathered dinosaurs.\nPalaeontologists now agree that birds are included in Maniraptora group of dinosaurs. This explains why we say that birds are living dinosaurs.\nEvolution of modern birds.\nBirds are the closest living relatives of the Crocodilia. This is because they are the two main survivors of a once huge group called the Archosaurs. \nModern birds are \"not\" descended from \"Archaeopteryx\" specifically. According to DNA evidence, \"modern\" birds (Neornithes) evolved in the long Cretaceous period. More recent estimates showed that modern birds originated early in the Upper Cretaceous.\nPrimitive bird-like dinosaurs are in the broader group Avialae. They have been found back in the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Many of these early \"stem-birds\", such as \"Anchiornis\", were not yet capable of fully powered flight. Many had primitive characteristics like teeth in their jaws and long bony tails.p274\nThe Cretaceous\u2013Palaeogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off all the non-avian dinosaur lines. Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world. Diversification occurred around the Cretaceous\u2013Palaeogene extinction event. \nA leading authority says \"Most living birds have fossil representatives in the Cenozoic\"... \"Key problems remain in understanding bird phylogeny... we seem to understand as little about the relationships among living birds as among Cretaceous birds\". A useful source for modern birds is Clements J. 2007. \"The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World\". Cornel University Press (6th ed).\nBirds and people.\nSome birds are eaten as food. Most usually it is the chicken and its eggs, but people often also eat geese, pheasants, turkeys and ducks. Other birds are sometimes eaten are: emus, ostriches, pigeons, grouse, quails, doves, woodcocks and even songbirds. Some species have died out because they have been hunted for food, for example the dodo and the passenger pigeon.\nMany species have learned how to get food from people. The number of birds of these species has grown because of it. Seagulls and crows find food from garbage dumps. The feral pigeon (\"Columba livia\"), sparrows (\"Passer domesticus\" and starlings (\"Sturnus vulgaris\") live in large numbers in towns and cities all over the world.\nSometimes people also use working birds. For example, homing pigeons carry messages. Nowadays people sometimes race them for sport. People also use falcons for hunting, and cormorants for fishing. In the past, people in mines often used a canary to see if there were bad gas methane in the air.\nPeople often have colourful birds such as parrots and mynahs as pets. These intelligent birds are popular because they can copy human talking. Because of this, some people trap birds and take them to other countries to sell. This is not usually allowed these days. Most pet birds are specially bred and are sold in pet shops.\nPeople can catch some bird diseases, for example: psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis, influenza, giardiasis and cryptosporiadiosis. In 2005, there was an epidemic of bird influenza spreading through some parts of the world, often called avian flu.\nSome people have birdboxes in their gardens to give birds a place to nest and bird tables where birds can get food and water in very cold or very dry weather. This lets people see some small birds close up which are normally hidden away in bushes and trees.\nBird orders.\nThe following is a listing of all bird orders:\nBird population decreasing.\nA report produced by BirdLife International every five years measures the population of birds worldwide. One in every eight types of birds is now \"in decline\"."}
+{"id": "3711", "revid": "580899", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3711", "title": "Freedom of speech", "text": "Freedom of speech is the right to state one's opinions and ideas without being stopped or punished. Sometimes this is also called freedom of expression.\nFreedom of speech may include freedom of the press and freedom of information. It usually includes \"speaking in public\"; only rarely does it include speaking in the family or in other private situations. \nMost people think freedom of speech is necessary for a democratic government. In countries without free speech, people might be afraid to say what they think. Then, the government does not know what the people want. If the government does not know what they want, it cannot respond to their wants. Without free speech, the government does not have to worry as much about doing what the people want. Some people say this is why some governments do not allow free speech: they do not want to be criticised, or they fear there would be revolution if everyone knew everything that was happening in the country.\nA well-known liberal thinker, John Stuart Mill, believed that freedom of speech is important because the society that people live in has a right to hear people's ideas. It's not just important because everyone should have a right to express him or herself.\nFew countries with \"free speech\" let everything be said. For example, the United States Supreme Court said that it was against the law to shout \"fire\" in a crowded theater if there is no fire, because this might cause people to panic. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also says that it is not okay to cause national, racial or religious hatred. Also, some countries have laws against hate speech.\nAs Tocqueville pointed out, people may be hesitant to speak freely not because of fear of government punishment but because of social pressures. When an individual announces an unpopular opinion, he or she may face the disdain of their community or even be subjected to violent reactions. While this type of suppression of speech is even more difficult to prevent than government suppression is, there are questions about whether it truly falls within the scope of freedom of speech, which is typically regarded as a legal right to be exercised against the government, or immunity from governmental action."}
+{"id": "3712", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3712", "title": "Democratic", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3713", "revid": "279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3713", "title": "Vatican", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3715", "revid": "1293570", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3715", "title": "Banana", "text": "A banana is the common name for a type of fruit and also the name for the herbaceous plants that grow it. These plants belong to the genus \"Musa\". They are mostly found in the tropical region of southeast Asia. They are considered to be berries. \nHistorians think the first people to grow bananas for food lived in Papua New Guinea. Today, they are grown in tropical regions around the world. Most banana plants are grown for their fruits, which are a type of berry. Some are grown as ornamental plants, or for their fibres.\nThere are about 110 different types of bananas. In popular culture and commerce, \"banana\" usually refers to the soft and sweet kind, also known as \"dessert bananas\". Other kinds, or cultivars, of bananas have a firmer, starchier fruit. Those are usually called plantains. Plantains are mostly used for cooking or fibre.\nOther than being used as food, beer can be made by fermenting the juice of certain cultivars in Africa, known as \"beer bananas\". The ash of bananas can be used to make soap. In Asia, bananas are often planted to provide shade to plants that like shade, for example coffee, cocoa, nutmeg or black pepper. Because of this, banana plants can often be found in plantations of other crops.\nBanana plant.\nThe banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant. Banana plants are often mistaken for trees. Bananas have a \"false stem\" (called \"pseudostem\"), which is made by the lower part of the leaves. This pseudostem can grow to be two to eight meters tall. Each pseudostem grows from a corm. A pseudostem is able to produce a single bunch of bananas. After fruiting, the pseudostem dies and is replaced. When most bananas are ripe, they turn yellow or, sometimes, red. Unripe bananas are green in color.\nBanana leaves grow in a spiral and may grow long and wide. They are easily torn by the wind, which results in a frayed look.\nFruit.\nThe banana fruits grow from a banana fruit in hanging clusters, also called a \"bunch\" or \"banana stem\". The fruits grow in rows called \"tiers\" or \"hands\". There can be as many as twenty fruits to a hand, and as many as twenty tiers in a bunch. A bunch usually weighs between 30 and 50 kilograms (65 to 110 pounds).\nA single fruit weighs about 125 grams (4.4 ounces) on average; about three quarters of this is water.\nEach banana (or \"finger\") has a protective outer layer (called \"peel\" or \"skin\"). There is a fleshy part inside that readily splits into three segments. It may be the only tri-segmented fruit in the world. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten. Western cultures generally eat the inside raw and throw away the skin. Some Asian cultures eat both the skin and the inside cooked. Each fruit has many \"strings\" that run between the skin and the inner part. \nBananas have a lot of vitamin B6, vitamin C, and potassium.\nOriginally.\nBefore cultivation, bananas were smaller, and had seeds. What you see now is the result of artificial selection by humans. This is true of most popular fruits.\nGrowing and trading bananas.\nBananas are grown in at least 107 countries. The banana species growing in the wild have fruits with many hard, large seeds, but almost all bananas grown to be eaten have seedless fruits. Bananas are classified either as dessert bananas or as green cooking bananas. Almost all exported bananas are of the dessert types. Only about ten to fifteen percent of all production is for export. Dessert bananas change their color and usually turn yellow, when they are ripe; plantains and bananas generally used for cooking stay green. Certain bananas have other colors when ripe.\nThe countries that produce the most bananas include India, Brazil, China, Ecuador and the Philippines. The top five countries that exported bananas were Ecuador, Costa Rica, the Philippines, Colombia and Guatemala. The United States, the European Union and Japan buy the most bananas. Bananas are among the most valuable agricultural export products; They provided about sixty percent of export earnings of Saint Lucia and about twelve percent of the Gross Domestic Product of the country, between 1994 and 1996.\nAllergies.\nSome people are allergic to bananas. There are two basic forms of these allergies. The first is known as oral allergy syndrome. Within an hour of eating a banana, swelling starts inside the mouth or throat. This allergy is related to allergies caused by pollen, like that of the birch tree. The other is similar to latex allergies. It causes urticaria and potentially serious upper gastrointestinal symptoms.\nOther uses of bananas.\nTextiles.\nThe fibre gained from the banana plant has been used to make textiles for a long time. In Japan, bananas have been grown to be used for clothing and in the house since at least the 13th century. In the Japanese system, the leaves and shoots are cut from the plant regularly to make sure they are soft. The harvested shoots must first be boiled in lye to prepare the fibres for the making of the yarn. These banana shoots produce fibres of varying degrees of softness. They can be used for yarns and textiles of different qualities, and for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibres of the shoots are the coarsest they are good for tablecloths. The softest innermost fibres are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese banana cloth making process has many steps, all performed by hand.\nAnother system is used in Nepal. There the trunk of the banana plant is harvested instead. Small pieces of this trunk are then softened. The fibres are extracted mechanically, bleached, and dried. They are then sent to the Kathmandu Valley, where high-end rugs are produced. These rugs have a texture and general qualities similar to that of silk. These banana fibre rugs are woven by traditional Nepalese hand-knotted methods.\nPaper.\nBanana fiber is also used to make \"banana paper\". There are two different kinds of banana paper: paper made from the bark, and paper made from the fibre and from unused fruits."}
+{"id": "3720", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3720", "title": "Biel/Bienne", "text": "Biel/Bienne (official name; \"Biel\" is German, \"Bienne\" is French) is an industrial town in Switzerland. It is in the part of Switzerland named Bern and near the city also named Bern. The town is known for many companies that make watches and machines. \nDescription.\nThe town of Biel, the capital of Swiss watch-making, lies at the end of Lake Biel, at the foot of the Jura Hills in the Lake Region. \nThe wonderful old town with its town church and its location as the gateway to the three Jura lakes (Lakes Biel, Lake Neuch\u00e2tel and Lake Murten) with vineyards on the hillsides and extensive vegetable cultivation make the town very attractive.\nBiel is the only town in Switzerland in which German and French are spoken side by side We can feel the relaxed mentality here coming from the mixture of these three languages. \nBiel was awarded the Wakker Prize in 2004 by the Swiss Heritage Society for the way it conserved its 20th century buildings, especially the \u2018new construction\u2019 from the 1920s and 30s. \nSwatch, Rolex, Omega, Tissot, Movado and Mikron all come from this town. But Biel has also become important in the field of other industries and in communication. \nIt is possible to travel on various routes along the lakes on passenger boats in summer. The day trip through all three Jura lakes is especially popular. Of course there are all types of water sports on Lake Biel.\nOld town.\nThe town of Biel was built by the Prince-Bishop of Bale between 1220 and 1230. The old town is the smallest part of Biel with only . Most buildings there still look as in the 18th century. The biggest part of the old town is without any traffic. There aren\u2019t any big stores or industries or any big companies. Each Saturday there is a market. The castle, \u201cthe ring\u201d and the theatre are very popular. The town church is on the \u201cRingplatz\u201d and was built between 1451 and 1470.There they burned the witches in the 18th century. From the 6 medieval city gates only one and two towers survived.\nHeritage sites.\nThe entire town of Biel is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites. Several individual buildings in the old town have also been protected for their cultural heritage.\nThe Reformed City Church is one of the most important late-Gothic buildings in the Canton of Bern. The church has a main floor, two second floors and four small chapels. There are some wall-paintings in the church. Most windows are among the oldest ones in Switzerland. The church was first written about in an index in 1228. After a horrible fire in the old town the church was destroyed. It was rebuilt between 1367 and 1451. The town church got on a new organ on 6th November 2011. The church was closed for more than half a year to put the new organ in and to improve the inside of the church. It cost about 1,74 million Swiss francs. The old organ was sent to Poland.\nLanguage.\nAbout 57% of the people in Biel speak German as their mother tongue. The remaining 43% speak French as their mother tongue. That is why the city has two names."}
+{"id": "3722", "revid": "323", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3722", "title": "Biel Mean Time", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3723", "revid": "396686", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3723", "title": "Swatch Internet Time", "text": "Swatch Internet Time is a way to measure time invented in 1998 by the Swatch manufacturing firm in Biel/Bienne, Switzerland. Time is shown as an \"@\" mark with three numerals. The day starts with @000 for midnight. Noon is @500. Just before midnight is @999. The thousand parts which make up a day are called \"dot beats\" (.beats). Each dot beat is one minute and 26.4 seconds long. Midnight is the same as Central European Winter Time (UTC+1)and Internet Time is the same all over the world. It does not change during the Summer. People can use it to plan phone calls or Internet meetings. Most types of Linux can show Internet Time as the desktop clock."}
+{"id": "3727", "revid": "1652218", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3727", "title": "Test tube", "text": "A test tube is a kind of laboratory glassware, composed of a fingerlike length of glass tubing, open at the top, and closed at the bottom.\nThey range in size from a couple inches to several inches long, from a few millimeters to a couple centimeters in diameter. They are designed to allow easy heating of samples, to be held in a flame, and often are made of expansion-resistant glasses, such as borosilicate glass (known by brand-names such as Pyrex and Kimax).\nTests tubes are often preferred above beakers when multiple small chemical or biological samples have to be handled and/or stored.\nVacutainers are a type of test tube that can be used for both collection and storage of blood."}
+{"id": "3729", "revid": "1652218", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3729", "title": "Beaker", "text": "A beaker is a kind of laboratory glassware. A beaker is a cylinder with a lip and a spout (a bend in the rim of the beaker which makes it easier to pour liquids without spilling any). A beaker is usually about the same width as its height. This makes beakers very stable and easy to handle. They may be made of plastic, glass, or borosilicate glass (Pyrex). Some beakers have marks on them to show about how much volume of liquid they hold, however, these can not be used for exact measurements.\nBeakers are often used to make solutions and they are probably the most used piece of laboratory glassware. "}
+{"id": "3730", "revid": "1652218", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3730", "title": "Crucible", "text": "In chemistry, a crucible is a kind of laboratory equipment that is usually a small cup, about the size of a shot glass, made of porcelain or non-reactive metal. Crucibles are used to heat chemical compounds to very high temperatures. Metals such as nickel and zirconium are also used as a modern crucible material."}
+{"id": "3732", "revid": "2", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3732", "title": "Crucibles", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3733", "revid": "2", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3733", "title": "Beakers", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3734", "revid": "2", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3734", "title": "Test tubes", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3735", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3735", "title": "Lithium", "text": "Lithium (from Greek \"lithos\" 'stone') is a soft, silver-white metal with symbol\u00a0Li. It is the third chemical element in the periodic table. This means that it has 3 protons in its nucleus and 3 electrons around it. Its atomic number is 3. Its mass number is 6.94. It has two common isotopes, 6Li and 7Li. 7Li is more common; 92.5% of lithium is 7Li. Lithium is a soft silvery metal that is very reactive. It is used in lithium batteries and certain medicines.\nProperties.\nPhysical properties.\nLithium is one of the alkali metals. Lithium is a silvery solid metal (when freshly cut). It is very soft. Thus it can be cut easily with a knife. It melts at a low temperature. It is very light, similar to wood. It is the least dense metal and the least dense element in a solid or liquid state. It can hold more heat than any other solid element. It conducts heat and electricity easily.\nChemical properties.\nIt will react with water, giving off hydrogen to form a basic solution (lithium hydroxide). Because of this, lithium must be stored in petroleum jelly. Sodium and potassium can be stored in oil but lithium cannot because it is so light. It will just float on the oil and not be protected by it.\nLithium also reacts with halogens. It can react with nitrogen gas to make lithium nitride. It reacts with air to make a black tarnish and then a white powder of lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate.\nChemical compounds.\nLithium forms chemical compounds with only one oxidation state: +1. Most of them are white and unreactive. They make a bright red color when heated in a flame. They are a little toxic. Most of them dissolve in water. Lithium carbonate is less soluble in water than the other alkali metal carbonates like sodium carbonate.\nOccurrence.\nIt does not occur as an element in nature. It only is in the form of lithium compounds. The ocean has a large amount of lithium in it. Certain granites have large amounts of lithium. Most living things have lithium in them. There are some places where much lithium is in the salt. Some silicates have lithium in them.\nThe largest current find of lithium on Earth may be at the McDermitt Caldera near the Oregon-Nevada border. That's the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem on this wiki.\nHistory.\nLithium (Greek \"lithos\", meaning \"stone\") was discovered by Johann Arfvedson in 1817. In 1818, Christian Gmelin observed that lithium salts give a bright red color in flame. W.T. Brande and Sir Humphrey Davy later used electrolysis on lithium oxide to isolate the element. Lithium was first used in greases. Then nuclear weapons became a big use of lithium. Lithium was also used to make glass melt easier and make aluminium oxide melt easier in making aluminium. Now lithium is used mainly in batteries.\nIt was apparently given the name \"lithium\" because it was discovered from a mineral, while other common alkali metals were first discovered in plant tissue.\nPreparation.\nIt is made by getting lithium chloride from pools and springs. The lithium chloride is melted and electrolyzed. This makes liquid lithium and chlorine.\nUses.\nAs an element.\nIts main use is in batteries. Lithium is used as an anode in the lithium battery. It has more power than batteries with zinc, like alkaline cells. Lithium ion batteries also have lithium in them, though not as an element. It is also used in heat transfer alloys. Lithium is used to make organolithium compounds. They are used for very strong bases.\nIt is used to make special glasses and ceramics, including the Mount Palomar telescope's 200 inch mirror. Lithium is the lightest known metal and can be alloyed with aluminium, copper, manganese, and cadmium to make strong, lightweight metals for aircraft.\nIn chemical compounds.\nLithium compounds are used in some drugs known as mood stabilizers. Lithium niobate is used in radio transmitters in cell phones. Some lithium compounds are also used in ceramics. Lithium chloride can absorb water from other things. Some lithium compounds are used to make soap and grease. Lithium carbonate is used as a drug to treat manic depression disorder. Lithium carbonate is used for the treatment of bipolar disease and other mental illness conditions.\nOrganic chemistry.\nOrganolithium compounds are used to make polymers and fine chemicals. Many lithium compounds are used as reagents to make organic compounds. Some lithium compounds like lithium aluminium hydride, lithium triethylborohydride, n-butyllithium and tert-butyllithium are commonly used as very strong bases called superbases.\nOther uses.\nLithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares. Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are used as desiccants for gas streams. Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are used to remove carbon dioxide and purify the air in spacecrafts and submarines. Lithium hydroxide, lithium peroxide and lithium perchlorate are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen.\nLithium aluminum hydride can also be used as a solid fuel by itself. Lithium hydride that contains lithium-6 is used in thermonuclear weapons.\nSafety.\nLithium reacts with water, making irritating smoke and heat. It is not as dangerous as the other alkali metals. Lithium hydroxide is very corrosive. Lithium fires must not be put out with water or an ordinary fire extinguisher. A lithium fire can only be put out with a class D fire extinguisher.\nIsotopes.\nThere are 5 isotopes of Lithium having respectively 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 neutrons in the nucleus. The most common isotope in nature is 3Li7 which makes up 92.58% of the total. The second isotope which is widely available is 3Li6 which makes up 7.42% of the total. The other 3 isotopes are very radioactive and exist in very small quantities. The atomic mass of Lithium is 6.939."}
+{"id": "3736", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3736", "title": "Beryllium", "text": "Beryllium is in group 2 of the periodic table, so it is an alkaline earth metal. It is grayish (slightly gray) in color. It has an atomic number of 4 and is symbolized by the letters Be. It is toxic and should not be handled without proper training.\nBeryllium has 4 electrons, 4 protons, and 5 neutrons.\nBeryllium has one of the highest melting points of the light metals: 1560 K (1287\u00a0\u00b0C). It is added to other metals to make stronger alloys. Beryllium-copper alloy is used in tools because it does not make sparks.\nAt standard temperature and pressure, beryllium resists oxidation when exposed to oxygen.\nBeryllium is best known for the chemical compounds it forms. Beryllium combines with aluminium, silicon and oxygen to make a mineral called beryl. Emerald and aquamarine are two varieties of beryl which are used as gemstones in jewelry.\nSince it has a very high stiffness to weight ratio, beryllium is used to make the diaphragms in some high-end speakers.\nUses.\nBeryllium is used to make jet aircrafts, guided missiles, spacecraft, and satellites, including the James Webb telescope. Beryllium can reflect neutrons, and thin foils of beryllium are sometimes used in nuclear weapons as the outer layer of the plutonium pits. Beryllium is also used in fuel rods for CANDU reactors. Beryllium is used to make many dental alloys.\nRarity.\nIt is a relatively rare element in the universe. It usually occurs when larger atomic nuclei have split up. In stars, beryllium is depleted because it is fused and builds larger elements."}
+{"id": "3741", "revid": "1604351", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3741", "title": "Data compression", "text": "Data compression is a set of steps for packing data into a smaller space, while allowing for the original data to be seen again. Compression is a two-way process: a compression algorithm can be used to make a data package smaller, but it can also be run the other way, to decompress the package into its original form. Data compression is useful in computing to save disk space, or to reduce the bandwidth used when sending data (e.g., over the internet). \nLossless compression.\nLossless compression packs data in such a way that the compressed package can be decompressed, and the data can be pulled out exactly the same as it went in. This is very important for computer programs and archives, since even a very small change in a computer program will make it unusable.\nThis type of compression works by reducing how much waste space is in a piece of data. For example, if you receive a data package which contains \"AAAAABBBB\", you could compress that into \"5A4B\", which has the same meaning but takes up less space. This type of compression is called \"run-length encoding\", because you define how long the \"run\" of a character is. In the above example, there are two runs: a run of 5 A's, and another of 4 B's.\nThe problem with run-length encoding is that it only works on long pieces of the same value of data. If you receive a package with \"ABBAABAAB\" inside, that can be compressed into \"1A2B2A1B2A1B\"; but that's longer than the original! In this case, there's another method that can be used: checking how often a particular value comes up in the whole data package. This is often called frequency compression.\nThe most common kind of frequency compression is called Huffman coding, after the scientist who came up with the idea. The basic plan is to give each distinct value in a piece of data a code:- values that crop up all the time get shorter codes, and values that only show up once or twice get longer codes.\nLossy compression.\nFor some types of data, lossy compression can go much further; this is most often the case with media files, like music and images. Lossy compression loses some of the data so that there's less to store. Depending on what information is lost, people do not notice it is missing. As a result, it can simply be removed from the data.\nOf course, this will not work for computer programs and other such data where every piece is important; throwing away pieces of a computer program is generally unhealthy for the program. "}
+{"id": "3742", "revid": "1589884", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3742", "title": "Compiler", "text": "A compiler is a computer program that translates computer code written in one programming language into another programming language. The first language is called the source language, and the code is called source code. The second language is called the target and can usually be understood by computers. In that case, the instructions become machine code.\nIf a compiler can convert the same instruction text into machine code for different computers (like smartphones or video game machines), it is a 'cross-compiler'. If the compiler can make instruction text that is easier for people to read, it is a 'de-compiler'. People who write these instructions are called programmers. Some even made programs that can translate the instructions that describe how a compiler should work, into a compiler. That kind of program is called a compiler-compiler.\nA compiler usually has three steps. It reads the text and makes notes about how the instructions go together. If the instructions don't make sense, it will try to tell the programmer. Then it will use what it knows about the target language to make the instructions fit better. It then writes down the instructions in the target language. If the source instructions are on different pages, it may have to compile several before it can write everything down.\nCompiling the language.\nA compiler has six parts :\nThe first piece, a lexical analyzer, reads a page of instruction text and splits it into words and sentences. It also marks the type for each word. For example, a word may be number, a variable, a verb, a math sign, or an adjective. The output of a lexical analyzer is a list of tokens.\ncodice_1\ncodice_2\nA parser reads in the output of the lexical analyzer, and verifies the syntax of the language. If the input program is syntactically incorrect or has a type error, it generates errors and warnings. This is called semantic analysis. For example, the parser might complain about the example above, if it \"had not\" already seen codice_3 with its type adjective. The parser uses all the information to make a structure typically called an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST).\n`( sentence \n ( write value to unknown\n `( unknown\n `( type, int ),\n `( name, x ) ,\n `( value\n (add\n `( number, 5 ),\n `( seen\n `( type, int ),\n `( name, y ),\n `( value, 0 )\nThe next piece, an optimizer rearranges the tree structure so the target language is optimized. 'Optimized' includes using fewer instructions to perform the same work. This could be important if the final program needs to check a lot of data. (Like seeing how many people, in the whole country, are fifty years old \"and\" buy medicine.) An 'optimized' result might also mean breaking long instructions into smaller ones. Unused and unaccessible code will be removed at this step.\nA programmer usually tries to write instructions in small, related groups. That way, they can keep track of fewer changes in the program. But, that means the code may go on several pages. When a compiler sees that the target program uses several pages to explain the whole recipe, it may use a linker. The linker will put instructions that say where to find the code that's next. Finally, the compiler writes down the instructions in the target language.\nADD 0, 5, spot_1\nLOAD location_y, , spot_2\nADD spot_1, spot_2, spot_3\nSAVE spot_3, , location_x\nProgrammers who write compiler code try to make it as perfect as possible. If the programmer writes incorrect code, the compiler informs of them an error, but if the compiler code itself contains errors, it may be hard to tell where exactly the problem lies.\nVariants.\nAt the end of each compilation step the partial finished product could be stored and then only processed later on. A language like Java uses this successfully, where they lack the final translation step to instructions the processor understands. They only do the final translation step once the Java program is running on a computer. This is either called \"interpreting\" or \"JIT\"ting, depending on the technique used.\nExample.\nFor example, the source code might contain an equation, such as \"x = 5*10 \". The lexical analyzer would separate each number and symbol (such as \"*\" or \"+\") into separate tokens. The parser would note the pattern of tokens, as being an equation. The intermediate-code generator would write a form of coding which defines a storage variable named \"x\" and assigns the numerical product of 5*10 plus 6 and 1. The optimizer would simplify the calculation, of 5*10+6+1, as being just 57. Hence, the target machine-code generator would set a variable named \"x\" and put the value 57 into that storage place in the computer's memory, using the instructions of whichever computer chip is being used."}
+{"id": "3743", "revid": "1689725", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3743", "title": "Eye", "text": "The eye is a round organ for sensing light so organisms can see. It is the first part of the visual system. About 97 percent of animal species have eyes. Image-resolving eyes are present in cnidaria, molluscs, vertebrates, annelids and arthropods.\nIn mammals, two kinds of cells, \"rods\" and \"cones\", allow sight by sending signals through the optic nerve to the brain.\nSome animals can see light that humans cannot see. They can see ultraviolet or infrared light.\nThe lens on the front part of the acts like a camera lens. It can be pulled flatter by muscles inside the eye, or allowed to become rounder. As some people get older, they may not be able to do this perfectly. Many people are born with other small problems or get them later in life. Eyeglasses (or contact lenses) may fix the problem.\nLike different cameras, different eyes have different abilities. They may have higher or lower resolution, the ability to detect small details. They may have different performance in low light; nocturnal animals can see better at night than daytime animals. They may have different ability to distinguish colours.\nParts of the eye.\nThe human eye is composed of several different parts. These parts may or may not be the same in other animals. They are:\nTypes of eye.\nToday, ten different types of eyes are known. Most ways of capturing an image have evolved at least once.\nOne way to categorize eyes is to look at the number of \"chambers\". \"Simple eyes\" are made of only one concave chamber, perhaps with a lens. Compound eyes have many such chambers with their lenses on a convex surface.\nEyes also can be grouped according to how the photoreceptor is made. Photoreceptors are either ciliated, or rhabdomic. and some annelids possess both.\nSimple eyes.\nPit eyes.\nPit eyes are set in a depression in the skin. This reduces the angles at which light can enter. It allows the organism to say where the light is coming from.\nSuch eyes can be found in about 85% of phyla. They probably came before the development of more complex eyes. Pit eyes are small. They are made of up to about hundred cells, covering about 100\u00a0\u00b5m. The directionality can be improved by reducing the size of the opening, and by putting a reflective layer behind the receptor cells.\nPinhole eye.\nThe pinhole eye is an advanced form of pit eye. It has several bits, most notably a small aperture and deep pit. Sometimes, the aperture can be changed. It is only found in the \"Nautilus\". Without a lens to focus the image, it produces a blurry image. Consequently, nautiloids can not discriminate between objects with a separation of less than 11\u00b0. Shrinking the aperture would produce a sharper image, but let in less light.\nSpherical lensed eye.\nThe resolution of pit eyes can be improved a lot by adding a material to make a lens. This will reduce the radius of the blurring, and increase the resolution that can be achieved. The most basic form can still be seen in some gastropods and annelids. These eyes have a lens of one refractive index. It is possible to get a better image with materials that have a high refractive index which decreases towards the edges. This decreases the focal length and allows a sharp image to form on the retina.\nThis eye creates an image that is sharp enough that motion of the eye can cause significant blurring. To minimize the effect of eye motion while the animal moves, most such eyes have stabilizing eye muscles.\nThe ocelli of insects have a simple lens, but their focal point always lies behind the retina.They can never form a sharp image. This limits the function of the eye. Ocelli (pit-type eyes of arthropods) blur the image across the whole retina. They are very good at responding to rapid changes in light intensity across the whole visual field \u2014 this fast response is accelerated even more by the large nerve bundles which rush the information to the brain. Focusing the image would also cause the sun's image to be focused on a few receptors. These could possibly be damaged by the intense light; shielding the receptors would block out some light and reduce their sensitivity.\nThis fast response has led to suggestions that the ocelli of insects are used mainly in flight, because they can be used to detect sudden changes in which way is up (because light, especially UV light which is absorbed by vegetation, usually comes from above).\nRefractive cornea.\nThe eyes of most land-living vertebrates (as well as those of some spiders, and insect larvae) contain a fluid that has a higher refractive index than the air. The cornea is sharply curved and refracts light towards the focus. The lens need not do all of the refracting. This lets the lens adjust the focus more easily, for much higher resolution.\nReflector eyes.\nInstead of using a lens it is also possible to have cells inside the eye that act like mirrors. The image can then be reflected to focus at a central point. This design also means that someone looking into such an eye will see the same image as the organism which has them.\nMany small organisms such as rotifers, copeopods and platyhelminthes use such this design, but their eyes are too small to produce usable images. Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes. The scallop \"Pecten\" has up to 100 millimeter-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell. It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.\nCompound eyes.\nCompound eyes are different from simple eyes. Instead of having one organ that can sense light, they put together many such organs. Some compound eyes have thousands of them. The resulting image is put together in the brain, based on the signals of the many eye units. Each such unit is called \"ommatidium\", several are called \"ommatidia\". The ommatidia are located on a convex surface, each of them points in a slighly different direction. Unlike simple eyes, compound eyes have a very large angle of view. They can detect fast movement, and sometimes the polarization of light. \nCompound eyes are common in arthropods, annelids, and some bivalved molluscs.\nEvolution of the eye.\nThe evolution of eyes started with simplest light-sensitive patches in unicellular organisms. These eye-spots do nothing but detect if the surroundings are light or dark. Most animals have a biochemical 'clock' inside. These simple eye-spots are used to adjust this daily clock, which is called circadian rhythm. Some snails, for example, see no image (picture) at all, but they sense light, which helps them stay out of bright sunlight.\nMore complex eyes have not lost this function. A special type of cells in the eye senses light for a different purpose than seeing. These cells are called \"ganglion\" cells. They are located in the retina. They send their information about light to the brain along a different path (the \"retinohypothalamic tract\"). This information adjusts (synchronizes) the animal's circadian rhythm to nature's light/dark cycle of 24 hours. The system also works for some blind people who cannot see light at all.\nEyes that are a little bit better are shaped like cups, which lets the animal know where the light is coming from.\nMore complex eyes give the full sense of vision, including color, motion, and texture. These eyes have a round shape that makes light rays focus on the back part of the eye, called the \"retina\".\nOther.\nGood fliers like flies or honey bees, or prey-catching insects like praying mantis or dragonflies, have specialized zones of ommatidia organized into a fovea area which gives sharp vision. In this zone the eyes are flattened and the facets are larger. The flattening allows more ommatidia to receive light from a spot. This gives a higher resolution.\nThe body of \"Ophiocoma wendtii\", a type of brittle star, is covered with ommatidia, turning its whole skin into a compound eye. The same is true of many chitons."}
+{"id": "3745", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3745", "title": "Tongue-twister", "text": "A tongue-twister is a phrase that is hard to say. They often use alliteration and homophones. They are commonly employed to help warm up singers and actors\nTongue-twisters can range from simple phrases for beginners to complex sequences that require advanced vocal control. They are popular in language learning, helping non-native speakers improve their pronunciation and familiarity with tricky sounds. Additionally, tongue-twisters are often used in competitions or as games, where participants try to say them without stumbling"}
+{"id": "3749", "revid": "10393279", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3749", "title": "AbiWord", "text": "AbiWord is a free word processor that can be downloaded for free, it is open source and is much smaller in size than a proprietary alternative, Microsoft Word. It is available for FreeBSD, Linux, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and QNX. Its mascot is Abi the ant. It is much smaller than many other commercial word-processors of its time, only using about 15Mb on a computer's hard drive under Microsoft Windows."}
+{"id": "3750", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3750", "title": "Insect", "text": "Insects are a class in the phylum Arthropoda. They are small terrestrial invertebrates which have a hard exoskeleton.\nInsects are the largest group of animals on Earth by far: about 926,400 different species have been described. They are more than half of all known living species. They may be over 90% of animal species on Earth.\nNew species of insects are continually being found. Estimates of the total number of species range from 2 million to 30 million.\nAll adult insects have six legs; and most have wings. Insects were the first animals capable of flight.\nAs they develop from eggs, insects undergo metamorphosis. Insects live all over the planet: almost all are terrestrial (live on land). Few insects live in the oceans or in very cold places, such as Antarctica. The most species live in tropical areas.\nSome people call all insects \"bugs\", but this is not correct. Only some insects are true bugs, which is a particular order of insects. People who study insects are called entomologists.\nInsect bodies.\nInsects have exoskeletons (skeletons on the outside). Their skeletons are made out of thin, hard pieces or plates, like armour, made of chitin. All together, these pieces make a hard layer around the insect's body. The exoskeleton protects the insect.\nThe body of an insect has three main parts: a head, a thorax, and an abdomen. On the head are an insect's compound eyes, its two antennae (they feel and smell things), and its mouth.\nOn the thorax, insects have wings and legs. All insects have six legs (three pairs of jointed legs) and usually four wings (two pairs).\nThe abdomen is the back part of the insect. Inside the abdomen is the stomach, the heart, and the excretory system where body wastes pass out of the insect. Bees also have a stinger at the back of the abdomen.\nPhysiology.\nJust like our muscles connect to our bones to make us walk and stand up, the muscles of an insect connect to the exoskeleton to make it walk and move. Their muscles are on the \"inside\" of their skeleton.\nInsects are cold-blooded, which means that they cannot control their body temperature. This means that insects are not good at surviving the cold, at any rate out in the open. In the winter, many insects go into something called diapause, which is the insect version of hibernation. Some insects, like cockroaches, cannot go into diapause and they will die if it gets too cold outside. This is why cockroaches love living in people's warm houses.\nRespiratory and circulatory systems.\nInsect respiration happens without lungs. There is a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases diffuse or are actively pumped. Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called spiracles. Oxygen gets to tissues that need it through their trachea (element 8 in diagram).\nMany insect larvae live in water. Many of those have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water. Others must rise to the water surface to get air which may be held or trapped in special parts of their body.\nAdult insects use oxygen at a high rate when they fly. They need it for the flight muscles, the most active tissue known in biology. The flight muscles use oxygen at a huge rate: 100 ccs of oxygen for every single cc of tissue per hour. With this system, the greatest diameter a muscle could have (and still consume oxygen at this rate) is about 0.5\u00a0cm. Even with special extra arrangements, insects cannot get larger than about 11\u00a0cm long. The largest insect bodies are about as big as a mouse.\nSome insects also use a molecule called haemocyanin, which does the same job as haemoglobin does in vertebrates (but less efficiently). The insect circulatory system has no veins or arteries. The 'blood' is called haemolymph, and moves around in the space called the haemocoel. The organs sit in the haemocoel and are bathed in the haemolymph. The 'heart' is little more than a single tube which pulses (squeezes).\nHow insects grow.\nInsects start life as an egg. Usually a female (mother) insect lays eggs, but a few species have live birth (the eggs develop inside the mother). The eggs are small; but they can usually be seen with the naked eye.\nAlthough the adults are larger, they do need a magnifying glass or a binocular microscope to see the details. A professional entomologist uses a binocular microscope to identify insects, plus a printed reference work. There are far too many insects for anyone to remember them all, and most entomologists specialise in just one or two orders.\nAfter the eggs hatch, two kinds of development may occur. Some insects have what is called 'incomplete metamorphosis'. This means that a small insect, called a nymph comes out of the egg, and the nymph looks almost the same as the adult insect. As the nymph grows, it does not change the way it looks, but only how big it is. It goes through a number of stages, called 'instars'. Grasshoppers grow in this way.\nOther insects have complete metamorphosis, which means that the small larva which comes out of the egg looks very different from the adult insect. Insects that have complete metamorphosis usually come out of the egg as a larva, which usually looks like a worm. The larva eats food and gets bigger until it turns into a pupa. Butterfly pupae (plural for pupa) are often inside cocoons. Inside the cocoon the insect changes the way it looks and often grows wings. When the cocoon opens, the adult insect comes out. Many insects have complete metamorphosis, for example beetles, butterflies and moths, and flies. The adult stage of development is called the imago.\nEvolutionary history.\nOrigin of insects.\nThe oldest known insect fossil is the Devonian \"Rhyniognatha\", from the 411 million year old Rhynie chert. It may have superficially resembled a modern-day silverfish insect. This species already possessed mandibles of a type associated with winged insects, suggesting that wings may already have evolved at this time. Thus, anatomical records suggest the first insects may have appeared earlier, in the Silurian period. Genomic analysis puts their origin even further back in the Ordovician period.\nIf \"Rhyniognatha\" is not an insect, then \"Rhyniella\" from the same place is the first known insect. Also 411 mya.\nOrigin of wings.\nIn 2008, researchers uncovered what they believe is the world's oldest known full-body impression of a primitive flying insect, a 300 million-year-old specimen from the Carboniferous period.\nThe origin of insect flight is unclear, since the earliest known winged insects appear to have been capable fliers. Some extinct insects had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax, for a total of three pairs. It seems the insects were not a particularly successful group of animals before they evolved wings.\nUpper Carboniferous and Lower Permian insect orders include both living groups and a number of Palaeozoic groups, now extinct. During this era, some giant dragonfly-like forms reached wingspans of making them far larger than any living insect.\nThis gigantism may have been due to higher atmospheric oxygen levels, which allowed increased respiratory efficiency. The lack of flying vertebrates could have been another factor. Many of the early groups became extinct during the PermianTriassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction in the history of the Earth, around 252 million years ago.\nKinds of insects.\nDifferent kinds of insects are put into groups called orders. There are about 29 insect orders. The biggest insect orders are listed below:\nAll these groups except one (Odonata) are strongly connected with plants as a source of food.\nSpiders, scorpions, and similar animals are not insects; they are arachnids. Arachnids are arthropods that have four pairs of legs. Centipedes are also arthropods, but not insects: they are in a subphylum called the Myriapoda.\nTaxonomy.\nThis taxonomy lists some of the better known groups of insects.\nInsects and people.\nSome insects can be pests to people in different ways. Some are parasites, such as lice and bed bugs. Some of these parasite insects spread diseases, for example mosquitoes spread malaria.\nMany insects eat agricultural products (plants meant for people to eat). Locustss are an example of pest insects that eat plants in agriculture.\nSome insects are used by us. Bees make honey. The larvae of some moths make silk, which people use to make clothing. In some parts of the world, people actually eat insects. Eating insects for food is called entomophagy.\nMany bees and flies pollinate plants. This means the insects help the plants make seeds by moving pollen from one flower to another. Some good insects eat pest insects, such as lady beetles (or ladybirds or ladybugs) eating aphids. Many insects eat dead plants and animals.\nPesticides.\nPeople often use poisons called insecticides to kill pest insects. Insecticides do not always work. Sometimes the pest insects become resistant to the insecticides, which means the insecticides do not hurt them anymore. Both the Colorado potato beetle and the diamondback moth are insects that are resistant to many insecticides.\nInsecticides do not only kill pest insects; sometimes many helpful insects are killed too. When helpful insects are killed, such as those that eat pest insects, the pest insects may come back in larger numbers than before because they are not being eaten by helpful insects anymore."}
+{"id": "3752", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3752", "title": "List of operating systems", "text": "This is a list of operating systems for computers.\nHobby OS.\nOperating systems written for a hobby.\nProprietary.\nMicrocontroller, embedded.\nLittle operating systems that run on small devices.\nFictional operating systems.\nOperating systems that have only appeared in fiction or as jokes."}
+{"id": "3755", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3755", "title": "Computer jargon", "text": "Computer jargon means words to do with computers and surrounding topics. Knowing what these words mean can help people know more about computers. Most people use these words to discuss computer ideas, but some people use these words to impress others (also known as buzzwords).\nSome examples of jargon are:"}
+{"id": "3756", "revid": "1478856", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3756", "title": "Million", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3757", "revid": "1530422", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3757", "title": "1000 (number)", "text": "1000 (1,000, one thousand or thousand for short) is the natural number after 999 and before 1001. One thousand thousands is known as a million. In Roman Numerals, 1000 is written as M."}
+{"id": "3759", "revid": "10377634", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3759", "title": "Gross domestic product", "text": "In economics, gross domestic product (GDP) is how much a place produces in an amount of time. GDP can be calculated by adding up its output (total production) inside a country.\nTo find the GDP of a country, one adds up all consumer spending (C), all investment (I), all government spending minus taxes (G), and the value of exports minus imports (\"X \u2013 M\"). This is shown by the equation:formula_1 This measure is often used to find out how healthy a country is; a country with a high value of GDP can be called a large economy. The United States has the largest GDP in the world. Germany has the largest in Europe, Nigeria in Africa and China in Asia.\nWhen a country's GDP is negative for two consecutive quarters it is considered to be in a recession. This is an unhealthy state for the country.\nThere are different ways to calculate GDP. Nominal GDP is the total amount of money spent on all the goods (new and final) in an economy; however, real GDP (adjusting for changes in prices) tries to correct this number for inflation. For example, if the prices rise by 2% (meaning, everything costs 2% more) and the nominal GDP grows by 5%, the real GDP growth is only increased by 3%.\nGDP per capita.\nGDP per capita is the total income of a country divided by the number of people living in that country. It shows how rich people are, on average.\nThere are also different ways of calculating GDP per capita: nominal and purchasing power parity (PPP). Nominal does not take into account the inflation rate and the cost of living of a country, but it's more useful when comparing national economies on the international market. PPP may be more useful when comparing peoples' living standards between countries.\nGross national product.\nThe GDP measure is different from gross national product (GNP) in that GNP = GDP + net income from assets in other countries (net income receipts).\nQ\nNominal GDP.\nWhen the gross domestic product is evaluated at the current market prices, it is called the nominal GDP. It includes changes in prices which makes it different from the real GDP due to inflation or price fluctuations. It can be measured in one of three different ways: \"income approach\" uses the total of all income from businesses and individuals in a single year; the \"expenditure approach\" uses the market value of all goods purchased in a single year; and the \"production approach\" is based on the total production in a single year."}
+{"id": "3760", "revid": "1110", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3760", "title": "GDP", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3762", "revid": "572554", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3762", "title": "Cricket", "text": "Cricket is a sport. It is an outdoor bat-and-ball game played by two teams of eleven players on a large, grassy field. At the centre of the field is a rectangular pitch with a wooden structure called a wicket sited at each end. As in other sports, there are separate men's and women's games, both played internationally.\nIn all levels of cricket, the essence of the game is that the wicket is a target being attacked by a bowler using the ball, and defended by a batter using a bat. The bowler is a member of the fielding team; the batter is a member of the batting team. The objective of the batting team is to score as many runs as possible. The objective of the fielding team is to restrict scoring and, by various means, dismiss the batters. If ten batters are dismissed, the batting team is all out and the teams change roles. Generally, the winning team is the one scoring the most runs, although some matches can result in a draw or, occasionally, a tie.\nProbably created as a children's game in south-east England, cricket is known to have been played in the mid-16th century. It has expanded to become the national summer sport of several English-speaking countries. Matches range in scale from informal weekend afternoon games played on village greens to top-level international contests played by professionals in modern, all-seater stadiums. Globally, the sport has a high level of player participation and is, apart from football, the world's most popular spectator sport.\n\"The Laws of Cricket\".\nLike all other sports, cricket has rules and regulations. These are called \"The Laws of Cricket\", a code which was first written in 1744, and first published in November 1752. There was a significant revision in 1774. \nCopyright of \"The Laws\" is held by Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), founded in 1787, which issued a revised version on 30 May 1788. Although MCC still has responsibility for drafting and publishing revisions, it does so in consultation with the sport's governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), which has over 100 member countries. Following the 2017 revision, there are now 42 Laws headed by a preamble on the \"Spirit of Cricket\".\nThe field.\nThe cricket field is of variable size and shape, though normally round or oval with a diameter of 140 to 160 yards. Professional venues tend to have names including Ground, Oval, Park, or Stadium. There are several famous Ovals, especially The Oval in the Kennington district of south London; Kensington Oval in Bridgetown, Barbados; and the Adelaide Oval. Among the Grounds are the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), and the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG). Sabina Park is a famous venue in Jamaica. The Narendra Modi Stadium in Ahmedabad seats 132,000 and is the world's largest sports stadium.\nThe playing field's perimeter is known as the boundary. It is often defined by a rope encircling the outer edge of the playing area, with spectator seating beyond. During play, a shot by the batter which clears the boundary on the full is worth six runs\u2014this is similar to a home run in baseball. A shot which reaches the boundary after the ball has been in contact with the ground is worth four runs, and that is often called \"scoring a boundary\". One of the most famous books written about cricket is \"Beyond A Boundary\" by the radical Trinidadian writer, C. L. R. James.\nThe pitch.\nMost of the action in a match takes place on the pitch, a specially prepared rectangular area of the field on which the wickets are sited and creases are painted as shown in the diagram below. \nThe pitch is 22 yards long (the length of an agricultural chain) between the wickets and is ten feet wide. It is a flat surface and has very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game progresses. As can be seen in the above photo of Murali bowling to Adam Gilchrist, the pitch is always much paler than the main part of the field.\nPitch conditions have a significant bearing on the match and team tactics are always determined with the state of the pitch, both current and anticipated, as a key factor. Groundsmanship is very important in cricket as considerable care \u2014 mowing, watering, and rolling \u2014 is necessary to prepare and maintain pitch surfaces. In addition, there are rules about covering the pitch during a match when bad weather occurs.\nThe wickets.\nSited at each end of the pitch is a small structure called the wicket. Made entirely of wood (usually polished ash), a wicket consists of three upright stumps placed in a straight line and surmounted by two horizontal bails which are placed across the two gaps. The dimensions of a wicket are 28.5 inches high by 9 inches wide.\nThe creases.\nCreases are painted lines at both ends of the pitch. There are three types of crease, and each has a special purpose. As can be seen in the diagram above, the stumps at each end are aligned in the centre of the bowling crease, which is 8 feet 8 inches long. Parallel with the bowling crease, and four feet forward of it, is the popping crease. This marks the limit of the batter's \"safe territory\", and is where the batter stands when \"taking guard\" while the ball is being bowled. The popping crease and the return creases define the area within which the bowler must complete delivery. As the bowler releases the ball, the back foot must land within the two return creases, and the front foot must land on or behind the popping crease.\nUmpires and scorers.\nA match is controlled on-field by two umpires. One of the umpires stands behind the wicket at the bowler's end, and the other stands in a fielding position called \"square leg\" (see the fielding positions diagram), which is directly in line with the striker's wicket and about fifteen yards from it. The umpires switch positions at the end of each over. In televised matches, particularly those played at international level, there is often a \"third umpire\" who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video evidence.\nOff the field, the match details including runs and dismissals are recorded by two scorers, one from each team.\nEquipment.\nThe key pieces of equipment needed to play a game of cricket are the bat and the ball. At its most basic level, cricket involves a bowler bowling a ball at a target that is defended by a batter, who uses a bat to stop the ball or hit it away. Because cricket is a dangerous game, wearing protective gear is also necessary.\nThe bat.\nA cricket bat is made of wood (usually willow) and takes the shape of a straight blade topped by a cylindrical handle. The blade must not be more than 4\u00bc inches wide and the total length of the bat not more than 38 inches.\nThe ball.\nA cricket ball is a rock-hard leather-seamed spheroid projectile with a circumference limit of nine inches. It can be delivered by the fastest bowlers at speeds of more than 90 mph and so the batters and the wicket-keeper wear protective gear, as do fielders who occupy positions in close proximity to the batter. In Test and first-class cricket, the ball is red; in limited overs matches, it is white.\nProtective gear.\nBatters wear pads (designed to protect the knees and shins), reinforced batting gloves, a safety helmet and a box. Some batters wear additional padding inside their shirts and trousers such as thigh pads, arm pads, rib protectors and shoulder pads.\nThe wicket-keeper wears pads and specially reinforced gauntlets to protect the legs and hands respectively. Close fielders may wear a helmet but are not allowed to wear gloves.\nInnings.\nThe captains.\nEach team is led by its captain (aka the \"skipper\"), who is often the most experienced player. Cricket is an intensely strategic sport and the captain, bearing responsibility for leadership and team tactics, is the most important member of the team, especially when fielding, though other senior players are usually consulted before any tactical decision is made. Among the captain's considerations are the current and expected pitch and weather conditions.\nThe toss.\nBefore play commences, the two team captains meet on the pitch and toss a coin to decide which team shall bat or field first. The toss is regulated by Law 13.4, which states that at least one umpire must be present and that it must be done at least fifteen, but not more than thirty, minutes before play is scheduled to begin. The captain who wins the toss must decide whether to bat or field in the first innings of the match, and immediately announce the decision.\nThe innings.\nA match is divided into phases known as innings (the same spelling is used for both singular and plural) and, depending on the type of match, there may be two or four innings, as defined in Law 13. In each innings, while one team is batting, the other is fielding, and a key member of the fielding team is bowling. Throughout an innings, all eleven members of the fielding team are on the field, but only two batters. When the batting team's innings has been completed, the teams reverse roles for the next innings, the fielding team becoming the batting team and vice-versa. The match ends when all innings have been completed.\nA batter when dismissed is ruled to be \"out\", and the umpire calls this. When a batter is out, they are replaced by one of their team-mates. The innings ends when ten of the eleven batters are out: i.e., the team is \"all out\". One batter remains but cannot play alone, and so is \"not out\". In a first-class match, the innings can end early if the captain of the batting team decides to declare the innings closed for tactical reasons before the batters are all out. In limited overs matches, the innings ends after the prescribed number of six-ball overs have been bowled.\nOvers.\nThe bowler bowls the ball from one end of the pitch to the batter (the striker) defending the wicket at the other end. Every time a bowler bowls the ball, they are said to have completed a delivery or, more simply, a ball. The bowler must complete the delivery with a straight arm, and must ensure that their feet are within bounds set by the creases, as described above.\nWhen the bowler has completed six successive deliveries, the umpire at that end of the pitch calls \"Over!\" and each set of six deliveries by one bowler is thus called an over. If the bowler does not concede any runs in the over, that over is termed a maiden and bowlers are credited with these in their career statistics. On completion of an over, the fielding team changes ends, and the two umpires swap roles. The next over begins with a different bowler operating from the other end, and bowling to the batter who was the non-striker at the end of the previous over. A bowler cannot operate from both ends consecutively but will usually bowl every other over from the same end through several overs until completing a \"spell\" and the captain replaces them with another bowler. It follows that two bowlers are often deployed \"in tandem\". When a bowler completes an over, they stay on the field and become one of the fielders until they bowl again.\nFielding.\nAll eleven players on the fielding side take the field together. One of them is the wicket-keeper, a specialist who operates behind the wicket being defended by the batter on strike. Besides the bowler and the wicket-keeper, the other nine fielders are tactically deployed by the team captain in chosen positions around the field, except as stipulated in Law 28.5 that they are not allowed to stand on the pitch.\nThe fielding positions are not fixed but they are known by specific and sometimes colourful names such as third man, silly mid on, and long leg. The captain determines all the tactics including who should bowl (and how); and is responsible for setting the field, though usually in consultation with the bowler. The fielding team is allowed substitutes in case of injury or other valid reasons for a player's absence, subject to Law 24 which stipulates that a substitute is not allowed for a fielder who leaves for other than \"a wholly acceptable reason\".\nBowling.\nAny of the eleven fielders can bowl but it is extremely rare, though not unknown, for the wicket-keeper to bowl. Generally, the only players in the fielding side who will actually bowl are those recognised for their ability as bowlers, including any all-rounders who are adept at both batting and bowling. Players selected as specialist batters bowl only occasionally.\nBowlers are classified according to their speed or method of delivery. The main types of bowling are fast bowling, swing bowling, seam bowling and spin bowling. The latter is sub-divided into types of spin: off break (off spin), leg break (leg spin) and googly for right-arm spinners; orthodox and unorthodox (unorthodox was historically termed \"chinaman\" because Ellis Achong, who invented the style, was of Chinese descent) for left-armers. The classifications, as with much cricket terminology, can be very confusing. They are often written in abbreviated form: for example, LF is a left arm fast bowler, RM is a right arm medium paced seam bowler, and LBG is a right arm spinner who bowls deliveries that are called a leg break and a googly.\nThe bowler reaches his delivery stride by means of a \"run-up\". A fast bowler needs momentum and takes quite a long run-up, usually running very fast as he does so. Bowlers with a very slow delivery take no more than a couple of steps before bowling. The fastest bowlers can deliver the ball at a speed of over 90 mph and they usually rely on sheer speed to try and defeat the batter, who is forced to react very quickly to a ball that reaches him in an instant. The Australian fast bowler Jeff Thomson, who played in the 1970s, was a classic example of this type of bowler. The generally accepted world record for the fastest recorded delivery of a cricket ball is 100.23 mph by Shoaib Akhtar at Cape Town's Newlands Cricket Ground in February 2003.\nOther fast bowlers rely on a mixture of speed and guile. Some make use of the seam of the ball so that it curves or swings in flight and this type of delivery, called swing bowling, can deceive a batter into mistiming his shot so that the ball touches the edge of the bat and can then be caught behind by the wicket-keeper or by a slip fielder. The great England fast bowler Fred Trueman, who played in the 1950s and 1960s, was a brilliant exponent of the \"outswinger\", which moves away from the batter in flight. Other bowlers use the \"inswinger\", which deviates towards the batter.\nAt the other end of the bowling scale is the spinner who bowls at a relatively slow pace and, with the spin he imparts onto the ball, relies entirely on guile to deceive the batter. A spinner will often buy his wicket by \"tossing one up\" to lure the batter into making an adventurous shot. The batter has to be very wary of such deliveries as they are often flighted or spun so that the ball will not behave quite as he expects, and he could be trapped into getting himself out. Two great spin bowlers have operated in 21st century cricket: Shane Warne of Australia and Muttiah Muralitharan of Sri Lanka. Off spinners and orthodox left armers utilise finger spin in their deliveries; leg spinners and unorthodox left armers utilise wrist spin.\nIn between the pacemen and the spinners are the medium-paced seam bowlers (or seamers) who rely on persistent accuracy to try and contain the rate of scoring and wear down the batter's concentration. These bowlers are classified by arm as LM or RM.\nIt is generally held that the greatest bowler of all time was Sydney Barnes, whose versatility was extraordinary. Barnes was ostensibly a right arm medium pace bowler but he varied his pace from slow to fast medium. Always noted for his control of length and direction, he had a mastery of swing. He used both outswing and inswing to great effect, and he could also produce either a leg break or an off break.\nBatting.\nWhile awaiting delivery of the ball, the striker adopts a stance called \"taking guard\". The striker must quickly decide which shot to play by judging the flight and speed of the ball, taking into account where and how it is expected to hit the pitch, and how it will behave after it has pitched. The striker's partner, the non-striker, stands by the other wicket at the bowler's end of the pitch, as can be seen in the Murali/Gilchrist photo above. The other nine members of the batting team are off the field in the pavilion. If the striker plays a scoring shot and decides to run, the non-striker must be ready to run too.\nDepending on the quality of the delivery received, the striker may play defensively without attempting to score a run. If an offensive shot is played to hit the ball away from the pitch and clear of the fielders, then the two batters have the option to run to the other end of the pitch without one of them being run out. Completing a run is the means of scoring in cricket. Each run is added to the team total and to the striker's personal total.\nA skilled batter can use a wide array of strokes (also called shots) in both defensive and attacking mode. Cricket is very fond of naming things, as with the field placings, and each shot or stroke in the batter's repertoire has a name too: e.g., \"cut\", \"drive\", \"hook\", \"pull\", etc. The idea is to hit the ball to best effect with the flat surface of the bat's blade. Batters do not always seek to hit the ball as hard as possible and a good player can score runs just by making a deft stroke with a turn of the wrists or by simply blocking the ball but directing it away from fielders so that there is time to take a run.\nA batter does not have to play a shot and can \"leave\" the ball to go through to the wicket-keeper, providing it will not hit the wicket. Equally, the batters do not have to attempt a run when the ball has been hit with the bat, and some batters will tactically play defensively and without scoring, known as \"stonewalling\", for long periods of time. The striker can deliberately use a leg to block the ball, and thereby \"pad it away\", but this is risky because of the leg before wicket (lbw) rule.\nIf a batter retires (usually due to injury) and cannot return, the retirement does not count as a dismissal because the batter was \"not out\". In effect, however, it is a dismissal because the innings is over. Substitute batters are not allowed, but the rules do allow a \"runner\" (a third batter) to come on for running purposes only if one of the batters is injured and, although able to take strike, cannot run. There are special rules concerning the deployment of runners.\nThe batters do not change ends at the end of an over and so, like the umpires, their roles are interchangeable; the one who was the striker when the previous over ended is now the non-striker, and \"vice-versa\".\nRuns.\nOne run is commonly called a single. Hits worth one to three runs are common, but the size of the field is such that it is usually difficult to run four or more. To compensate for this, hits that reach the boundary of the field are automatically awarded four runs, if the ball makes contact with the ground \"en route\" to the boundary, or six runs if the ball clears the boundary on the full.\nHits for five are unusual and generally rely on the help of an overthrow by a fielder returning the ball to the bowler or wicket-keeper. If an odd number of runs is scored by the striker, the two batters have changed ends and the one who was non-striker is now the striker for the next delivery. Only the striker can score individual runs but all runs are added to the team's total.\nIf a batter scores a \"half-century\" of fifty runs, it is considered a good performance that will earn a round of applause. Scoring one hundred runs, referred to as a \"century\", is a noted achievement. Scores of 200 and 300 are not uncommon and these are called \"double-centuries\" and \"triple-centuries\" respectively. Failure to score at all is something no batter wants. A score of zero is called a \"duck\" and, if it happens in both innings of the same game, the batter is said to have \"bagged a pair\" (i.e., of spectacles \u2013 two zeroes).\nWhile two batters are \"in\" together, they are sharing a partnership, and match records always note how many runs are scored while a partnership lasts. If, for example, the first four batters are out and it is the fifth and sixth batters in the batting order who are in together, and they add 100 runs to the team total before one of them is out, the record will show that they shared a \"century partnership for the fifth wicket\".\nExtras.\nAdditional runs can be gained by the batting team as extras (\"aka\" sundries) by courtesy of the fielding side. This is achieved in four ways:\nWhen the bowler has bowled a no ball or a wide, the fielding team team incurs an additional penalty because that delivery has to be bowled again, and hence the batting side has the opportunity to score more runs from this extra ball. The batters have to run, unless the ball goes to the boundary for four, to claim byes and leg byes but these only count towards the team total, and to the extras, not to the striker's individual total for which runs must be scored off the bat. For a leg bye to count, the umpire must be satisfied that the batter was trying to play a shot, or was trying to avoid being struck by the ball.\nDismissals.\nThere are several ways in which a batter can be dismissed and some are so unusual that only a few instances of them exist in the whole history of the game. The most common forms of dismissal are bowled, caught, leg before wicket (lbw), run out, and stumped. These are respectively denoted on scorecards as \"b\", \"c\", \"lbw\", \"run out\" and \"st\". Apart from a run out, the dismissal is always credited to the bowler as well as, where appropriate, the fielder or wicket-keeper. The unusual types of dismissal are hit wicket, hit the ball twice, obstructed the field, and timed out.\nAppeals.\nBefore the umpire will award some dismissals and declare the batter to be out, a member of the fielding side (generally the bowler) must appeal. This is invariably done by asking (or shouting) the term \"Owzat?\" which means, simply enough, \"how's that?\" If the umpire agrees with the appeal, they will raise a forefinger and say \"Out!\" Otherwise, they will shake their head and say \"Not out\".\nThere have been many cases of umpires not being able to rule a batter out because the fielders did not appeal, even though the umpire was in no doubt about the dismissal. Appeals are particularly loud when the circumstances of the claimed dismissal are unclear, as is always the case with lbw and often with run outs and stumpings. It is usually the striker who is out when a dismissal occurs but the non-striker can be dismissed by being run out.\nThe cricket ground.\nCare and maintenance of the pitch and turf are very important in cricket, and this is the responsibility of the groundsman whose duties may extend towards the entire ground or stadium, not just the playing area. Assisting the groundsman are the groundstaff who are club employees, mainly junior players.\nOriginally, cricket was played on whatever surface was available, providing the grass had been cropped short enough by sheep. Pitch preparation was limited to removing stones and stamping on divots. Through the eighteenth and well into the nineteenth century, preparation was rudimentary at best and the pitches were completely exposed to the elements.\nHeavy rollers for flattening turf were first used at Lord's in 1870 and it is generally agreed that this was the innovation that began the improvement in pitches. Later still, in 1895, groundsmen began using marl, a sort of limestone clay that binds the soil (it is also used as fertiliser) and ensures more permanence in the surface. As the twentieth century began, the rough tracks of the past began to disappear.\nApart from rollers, one of the most important pieces of equipment used by the groundstaff is the pitch cover which can best be described as a long, low bogie that has a roof-shaped upper section to which drainage hoses are attached. This is wheeled out onto the field whenever rain stops play and is placed over the pitch and surrounded by huge pieces of plastic sheeting which effectively cover the whole of the infield area including the bowlers' run-ups. The field can still become very wet despite all of this protection and it is not unusual to see bowlers pouring sawdust into wet patches where they tread during run-up.\nThe groundstaff are also responsible for maintaining and positioning the sightscreens, which are hoardings just off the field and directly behind each wicket. They provide a clear background for the batter to sight the ball in the bowler's hand and so see it clearly through delivery. A white sightscreen is used in daytime when a red ball is in use and a black screen in a night match when a white ball is used. Many grounds have practice pitches in their outfields, well away from the playing pitches, and these are enclosed on three sides by nets so that the ball is contained in the practice area unless the batter plays a straight hit past the bowler.\nOther features of the cricket ground are the pavilion and the scoreboard. The players' dressing rooms are located inside the pavilion which is the club's headquarters. Some very large pavilions, like the one at Lord's, can serve as grandstands. Scoreboards are erected as an information aid for spectators and frequently form the frontage of a building. The match score is updated after each delivery and the board also provides information about the current batters and bowlers. A basic scoreboard is operated manually but international stadiums often have electronically operated boards.\nNow, cricket is played in high-class stadiums. The Narendra Modi Stadium in Ahmedabad seats 132,000 and is the world's largest sports stadium.\nOrigin and development of cricket.\nAccording to John Major in \"More Than A Game\", cricket is \"a club striking a ball (like) the ancient games of club-ball, stool-ball, trap-ball, stob-ball\". As he says, each of these have at times been described as early cricket. It is generally believed that cricket began as a children's game in the south-eastern counties of England sometime before the sixteenth century.\nTypes of match and competition.\nCricket is a multi-faceted sport. \"The Laws\" allow for many variations of contest and competition according to duration, location, timing, playing standards, qualification and other factors. In very broad terms, cricket can be divided into matches in which the teams have two innings apiece and those in which they have a single innings each. The former has a duration of three to five days (in earlier times there were timeless matches too); the best-known form of the latter, known as limited overs cricket (or one-day cricket) because each team bowls a limit of typically 50 overs, has a planned duration of one day only (a match can be extended if necessary due to bad weather, etc.). Historically, a form of cricket known as single wicket was extremely popular and many of these contests in the 18th and 19th centuries qualify as top-class matches. Single wicket has rarely been played since limited overs cricket began.\nTest cricket.\nTest cricket is the highest standard of cricket. A Test match is an international fixture, invariably part of a series of three to five games, between two international teams that have full member status within the International Cricket Council (ICC). The teams have two innings each, and the match lasts for up to five days with a scheduled six hours of play on each day (this varies if there are interruptions due to the weather, or if an agreed number of overs is not completed within the six hours).\nMen's Test cricket began with Australia versus England in 1877, although the early Tests were in fact classified as such retrospectively. Women's Test cricket began in 1934, again with Australia Women hosting England Women.\nSubsequently, ten other countries have achieved men's Test status: South Africa (1889), West Indies (1928), New Zealand (1929), India (1932), Pakistan (1952), Sri Lanka (1982), Zimbabwe (1992), Bangladesh (2000), Afghanistan (2017), and Ireland (2017). The West Indies is a federation whose team is made up of players from nations including Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago, the Leewards and the Windwards. England is actually England and Wales combined (Scotland is separate, although many Scots have played for England); similarly, Ireland is an all-Ireland combination. In women's cricket, the teams that have played Test matches are Australia Women, England Women, India Women, Netherlands Women, New Zealand Women, South Africa Women and West Indies Women.\nFirst-class cricket.\nTest cricket is a form of first-class cricket. This term, which has an official definition, is generally used in reference to the highest level of domestic cricket, especially in the Test-playing nations. National championships, such as the English and Welsh County Championship, are first-class competitions. A first-class match has a duration of three to five days, the teams having two innings each.\nThe draw is a possible result in first-class matches and this happens if playing time expires while the losing team is still batting (in other words, if the team batting last have not reached their target total and are not all out when time is up). Another feature of first-class matches is the follow-on, whereby the team batting second can be asked by the fielding captain to bat again in the third innings if they have been dismissed for a total that is over 150 less (200 less in a Test) than the first innings score of their opponents. This, in turn, can lead to an innings defeat if the team following on are all out for another low score and the combined totals of their two innings is less than that scored by their opponents in one innings.\nLimited overs.\nA One Day International (ODI), also called a Limited Overs International (LOI), is the highest standard of limited overs cricket. In men's cricket, as well as the countries that play Test matches, this class includes those that have ICC associate member status, although they rarely play against the Test teams. Prominent associate members are Bermuda, Canada, Kenya, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, Scotland, and the United States. The ICC Women's Cricket World Cup was inaugurated in 1973, and the ICC Men's Cricket World Cup in 1975. Women's teams playing in LOIs, in addition to the seven Test countries, are Bangladesh Women, Pakistan Women, and Sri Lanka Women.\nLimited overs matches are scheduled for a single day but they can be extended if necessary due to bad weather. Each team has one innings and the overs limit is usually fifty per side. There are various competitions in domestic cricket, beginning in England with the Gillette Cup knockout in 1963. There is no draw result except in the form of a tie, when the scores are level, or a no result due to rain or other factors.\nTwenty20.\nTwenty20 (T20) is a variant of limited overs in which each team has twenty overs. The match lasts two to three hours and so can be fitted into an evening. It was introduced into English cricket in 2003 and has become extremely popular in India where the Indian Premier League (IPL) is contested. The Twenty20 International (T20I) was soon introduced, and there is an ICC Men's World Twenty20 Championship, first held in 2007, and an ICC Women's World Twenty20 Championship, first held in 2009.\nNational championships.\nThese are held in each country and the matches are the main instances of first-class cricket. For example, England and Wales have the County Championship which has tentative origins stretching back to the 1720s, and was formally organised as an official competition in 1890. Since 2000, it involves 18 county teams who are split into two divisions. Each team plays the other eight in its division, both home and away, in double innings fixtures with a duration of up to four days. The championship teams are all run by county clubs, of which the oldest was founded in 1839 to manage the Sussex team. The most successful team is Yorkshire, whose county club was founded in 1863. They have won the title outright on 32 occasions, most recently in 2014 and 2015.\nAll the other Test countries have a similar setup. Australia's national championship involves the various state sides playing for the Sheffield Shield; in India, the championship is the Ranji Trophy; in South Africa, the CSA 4-Day Series; and so on. Women's national championships take place in a number of countries; for example, the one in England is a 50-over competition involving sixteen county teams.\nMinor cricket.\nBelow the national championship level in each country there are various leagues, often organised on a state, county or regional basis, that include clubs which are classed as minor although in many cases the playing standards are anything but minor. Again using England as an example, the main minor competition is the Minor Counties Championship which began in 1895, and involves 20 county teams that have not qualified for the County Championship, although it is possible for a minor county to achieve this qualification. The last to do so was Durham in 1992. The most successful minor counties team is Staffordshire, whose most famous player was the world-class bowler Sydney Barnes. \nBelow the minor counties level are numerous regional leagues which involve town and village clubs whose players are generally local residents. These tend to play at weekends only. Some of the leagues are notable for high standards, especially as professionals have frequently been employed. For example, the great Gary Sobers played for Radcliffe Cricket Club in the Central Lancashire League for several seasons around 1960. Other notable leagues in England are the Lancashire League and the Bradford League.\nSchools cricket has always been very important for giving youngsters an introduction to the skills of the sport, and this has always been most effective where good quality coaching has been available.\nOlympics.\nSo far, the only time cricket has been played in the Olympic Games was in 1900 when just two teams, nominally Great Britain and France, took part. Neither was nationally representative but the \"British\" team won the only match staged. Subsequently, cricket showed no interest in the Olympics until the 2010s when the ICC began a dialogue with the International Olympic Committee.\nDetails are yet to be finalised but it has been announced that men's and women's Twenty20 competitions will form part of the 2028 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.\nOther types of cricket.\nIn domestic competitions, limited-overs games of differing lengths are played. There are also numerous informal variations of the sport played throughout the world that include beach cricket, French cricket, Indoor cricket, Kwik cricket, and all sorts of card games and board games that have been inspired by cricket."}
+{"id": "3763", "revid": "1649829", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3763", "title": "Track and field athletics", "text": "Track and field is part of the sport of athletics. Athletics is a collection of sport events that includes running, jumping and \"throwing\". Track and field events take place in a sports stadium, either on the running track, or on the field inside the running track. These tracks are generally made up of synthetic rubber \u2013 rubber particles bound with latex or polyurethane. Other athletics events that are not track and field, include cross country running, road running, marathon running, and race-walking - these events take place outside a sports stadium.\nAthletics is a very common sporting event over the world. Athletics is a combination of different sports, generally running, jumping and throwing events. Running events include marathons, hurdle races, long distance and short-distance events. Some jumping events are high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault. Throwing events involve javelin throw, discus throw, hammer throw and shot put.\nThere are also events that combine parts of running, jumping, and throwing. One of these is the \"decathlon\", which includes two short-distance races, a mile run, a hurdles race, javelin, discus, shot-put, high jump and pole vault.\nAll participants are timed or have a distance measured and this is their result. Participants train hard for an event and always aim to better their results.\nAthletics is a sport that people take part in all over the world. It is a sport that is most common between young children up to younger adults. Athletics can be played for enjoyment, but it can also be a competitive sport. Athletics is also an event in the Olympic games."}
+{"id": "3765", "revid": "1391867", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3765", "title": "Badminton", "text": "Badminton is a sport for two or four( \"singles\" or \"doubles\") people. The game is either one player against one player or a team of two players against another team of two players. Players use rackets to hit a shuttlecock over a net but if it goes too far it will be an out. It is often enjoyed in various settings, from casual backyard matches to intense professional tournaments. \nThe aim of the game is to hit the shuttlecock over the net in a way that the other player or pair cannot hit it back properly before it hits the floor. Every time this is done, the player or pair gets one point. They also get to serve. The first player or pair to reach 21 points wins a set. \nThe winner of the match is the first to win 2 sets.\nHistory.\nBadminton traces its history to a game called George Cajoles, which was played in Pune, India in the 19th century by the British military officers stationed there. This game was taken by retired officers back to England where it developed and quickly grew in popularity. \nIn 1877, the first set of written rules were arranged by the newly formed Bath Badminton Club. The All England Open Badminton Championships, the first badminton competition in the world, was held in 1899.\nBadminton has been an Olympic sport since 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.\nAlthough badminton originated in England, it is mainly played in countries of Asia such as China, Nepal, Indonesia, India, and the Republic of Korea that now dominates this sport.\nThe first Indian to win the All England Badminton Championship was Prakash Padukone in the year 1980."}
+{"id": "3768", "revid": "3", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3768", "title": "Computer Science", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3770", "revid": "314538", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3770", "title": "Chemical warfare", "text": "Chemical warfare means using poisonous chemical compounds to injure or kill people in a war.\nChemical warfare has been used since the Stone Age. Since 1899, several international laws have made it illegal to use chemical weapons. Still, chemical weapons have been used in wars since then.\nAbout 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled (saved up) as chemical warfare agents during the 20th century. The Chemical Weapons Convention says that all of these chemicals should be destroyed.\nDefinition.\nChemical weapons are different than regular weapons (like bombs) or nuclear weapons because they do not explode. Some chemical weapons are meant to kill people by poisoning them. Other chemical weapons are meant to \"incapacitate\" people (make them unable to fight back). They do this by causing pain, injuries, or sickness.\nChemical vs. biological warfare.\nChemical warfare does not include using living organisms (like anthrax bacteria) to make people sick. That is called biological warfare.\nHowever, some living organisms make toxins (poisons). These toxins are not alive. For example, botulinum toxin is made by a bacteria, and ricin is made by the castor oil plant. Because botulinum toxin and ricin are not alive, using them to make people sick is called chemical warfare. \nThis is explained in the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). The convention also says that any toxic chemical is a chemical weapon unless it is used for legal reasons.\nChemical Weapons Convention.\nThe Chemical Weapons Convention lists three different groups of chemicals. These are chemicals that are poisonous enough to be used as chemical weapons, or chemicals that may be used to make chemical weapons.\nSchedule 1 Substances (Chemicals).\nThese chemicals can be used for nothing but chemical weapons (or for very few other things). Nerve agents, ricin, lewisite, and mustard gas are all Schedule 1 substances. \nAccording to the Chemical Weapons Convention, Schedule 1 chemicals may only be made or used for a few things:\nIf a country makes over 100 grams of any of these chemicals, they must report it to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). A country may have a stockpile of no more than one ton of these chemicals.\nSchedule 2 Substances.\nThese chemicals have some specific uses other than chemical warfare, but not many. For example, dimethyl methylphosphonate can be used to make sarin, a nerve agent. But it is also used as a flame retardant. \nAnother example is Thiodiglycol, which can be used to make mustard gas. But it is also widely used as to make inks.\nSchedule 3 Substances.\nThese chemicals have many uses other than chemical warfare. One example is phosgene. It can be used as a chemical weapon, but it is also an important chemical used to make plastics. \nAnother example is chloropicrin, which has also been used as a chemical weapon, but is also used as a fumigant (for example, to kill insects in a house). \nThe OPCW must be told of, and may inspect, any company that makes more than 30 tons of these chemicals in a year.\nHistory.\nAlthough very basic chemical warfare has been used in many parts of the world for thousands of years, \"modern\" chemical warfare began during World War I.\nSince then, countries have tried to research and make chemical weapons. They have had four main goals:\nAncient history.\nChemical warfare was first used during the Stone Age. Stone Age people used poisoned arrows and spear-tips. These were dipped in poisons, like venom from snakes or scorpions. Sometimes they used poisonous plants.\nThe Ancient Chinese used different forms of poisonous smokes, when they besieged a city to try to take it over.\nThe Ancient Greeks used a form of burning wood, pitch from plants, and sulphur.\nWorld War I.\nPoison gas was first used in World War I (WWI). France was the first country to make it, but Germany was the first to use it in battle. On March 15th, 1915, they used tear gas against French soldiers. They simply opened containers of chlorine upwind of enemy soldiers, so that the wind would carry the chlorine gas to their enemies. Soon after this, the French started using chemical weapons too. \nTypes.\nThere were three types of gas used in WWI. The first was chlorine gas (tear gas). It makes people cough, have trouble breathing, and go blind until the tear gas wears off.\nThe second type of gas was phosgene, a very deadly chemical weapon. It caused people to cough and choke, much worse than tear gas. Historians think about 100,000 people died in World War I from chemical weapons. They also think that 85% of these people (85,000 people) were killed by phosgene.\nMustard gas was the third type of gas used in WWI. It was almost impossible for soldiers to protect themselves against it. It caused terrible, painful sores on the outside and inside of the body.\nDelivery.\nAt first, the armies used very basic ways of spreading poison gases. Even so, many soldiers could be hurt or killed in gas attacks. This was partly because World War I was fought using trench warfare. This meant groups of soldiers were together in the same place at the same time, and escaping from poisonous gases was very hard.\nThe French army began filling artillery projectiles with phosgene and fired them at the Germans. This was a much more effective way of using chemical weapons. It would become the most common way of delivering chemical weapons during World War I.\nModern use.\nChemical weapons were not used very much in World War II, except by the Japanese army during the invasion of China. This was because everybody was afraid that the other side would use weapons like theirs. Also, chemical weapons were not easy to use. They took time to use, and this made it harder for soldiers to move quickly. Also, the raw materials needed to make chemical weapons were not easy to get. This was because World War II was fought in areas which were not connected well by railroads.\nDuring the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq used chemical weapons (Iran did not). Many people believe that Iraq used chemical weapons against the Kurdish people.\nIt has been reported that many other countries, like the People's Republic of China, Cuba, Egypt, Iran, Israel, North Korea, Pakistan, Sudan, Syria, Taiwan, and Serbia and Montenegro, have chemical weapons.\nLaws about chemical weapons.\nAccording to international law, it is wrong to use chemical weapons. Since 1899, there have been many rules that make it illegal to make, import, and use chemical weapons.\nThe first international law to make chemical warfare illegal was the Hague Convention in 1899.\nAfter World War I, the Geneva Protocol of 1925 made it illegal to use chemical or biological weapons in any interstate wars. It does not apply to stockpiling or transferring chemical weapons, nor does it apply to armed conflicts within a single country.\nIn 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was created. As of the end of 2015, 192 countries had agreed to follow the CWC. According to the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, as of October 2015, 90% of the world's chemical weapons stockpiles had been destroyed.\nChemical agents.\nThe main types of agents used in chemical warfare are:\nIf people use chemicals (like Agent Orange or glyphosate) to destroy plants, sometimes human beings suffer side effects. But this is not chemical warfare. Chemical warfare covers only direct attacks on human life."}
+{"id": "3772", "revid": "1677439", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3772", "title": "Iran", "text": "Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It shares borders with Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, Kuwait And Turkmenistan. Iran is divided into five regions with 31 provinces. Tehran is the capital and largest city.\nOverview.\nTehran is the capital and largest city of Iran. Iran is the eighteenth largest country in the world. It has more than 84.9 million people. Iran has been a member of the United Nations since 1945. It is a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). It is an Islamic republic. Iran is a powerful country in the region. It has a lot of natural gas and oil, which is important for its economy. It's also a significant place because it's where Shia Islam is most important.\nThe country's economy is big, and it's a member of many important groups like the United Nations. Iran has a long history and a rich culture. That's why it has many special places that are recognized by the United Nations. It's also famous for its cultural traditions, like music and dance. In 2019, many people visited Iran, making it one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in the world.\nHistory.\nIn the past, Iran was called \"Persia\" by people outside of the country. The people that lived there called the country \"Iran\". The official name was Persia, The name Persia was used when dealing with other countries and in government papers.\nIn 1935, Reza Sh\u0101h Pahlavi was Shah of Iran. He officially asked foreigners to call the country \"Iran\". This was done to show that Iran belongs to all the non-Persian Iranians as well as to Persian Iranians. The name Iran means \"land of the Aryans\". It is used in the ancient book of the Zoroastrians, the Avesta. In the 19th and early 20th century, the name \"Aryan\" was used by Europeans to mean \"all Indo-Europeans\". The \"Aryan Race\" was a term that Hitler used to describe his \"Superior\" or \"perfect\" race, but it first meant Iranians. \"Aryan\" means \"noble\" in Iranian languages.\nPersian Empire.\nAround 500 BC, the area that is now Iran was the center of the Achaemenid Empire. The Greek city states fought against the Persian armies led by Darius the Great and Xerxes. Then Alexander the Great took the country by fighting the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia. He ruled until he died,then the Greek Seleucids ruled until they were defeated by the Parthian Empire which later fought the Roman Empire.\nAfter the Parthians, the Sassanian dynasty (224 \u2013 651) took over. Other people took Persia by conquest, like the Arabs (7th century), Turks (10th century) and Mongols (13th century). However, Iran has always had a different and distinct native Iranian culture which has continued to survive. After the Muslim Arabs conquered the Iranians, Persian women were enslaved as domestic servants while Persian men were forced to build and farm and engage in hard labour. The Arab Abbasid Harun caliph had Persian concubines like Marajil al-Badghisiyya whom the later Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun descended from in the maternal line. \nAfter World War II.\nThe Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) worked in Iran to create 1953 riots which led to the removal of Prime Minister Mosaddegh. The United States and the United Kingdom then made the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi the most powerful person in Iran, again. The Shah left Iran in 1979 in the face of a revolt. The Iranian government was changed to an Islamic Republic by Islamic Revolution. Soon afterwards, the Iranian Students Movement (Tahkim Vahdat), with the backing of the new government, took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran. They held most of the diplomats hostage for 444 days.\nRelations between the two countries have not been good since. For example, the United States claims that Iran supports terrorist groups against Israel. Iran does not see Israel as a country. Iran, along with many Arab League countries, believes that Israel does not have the right to co-exist. However, Iran has collaborated with the United Nations at times. These deals have been about energy or about fighting terrorism. Iran fought the Iran\u2013Iraq War in the 1990s-1980s. Many foreign countries supported Iraqi people\u2019s regime.\nNow, the West and United Nations is trying to prevent Iran from becoming nuclear technology country, even though Iran is a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)\u2019s has reported many times that there is no evidence that Iran is developing nuclear weapons. However, it also says that it can not say for sure that Iran is not doing so in secret.\nA December 2007 CIA report on nuclear activity in Iran said that Iran's secret program to get nuclear weapons technology was stopped in 2003. It said that Iran will probably not be able to build a nuclear weapon soon. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action is a political strategy to deal with this issue.\nEconomy.\nIran has the natural resource of oil. It is a member of OPEC. Oil is one of its main exports. Rice, handicrafts, carpets and crocus are important local products. Iran is the world's largest exporter and producer of caviar. Iran is also one of the world's biggest exporters of pistachio nuts. Iran has factories that produce industrial products. Iran is also involved in the field of biomedical sciences. Rial is the money used in Iran.\nReligions.\nAbout 90% of Iranian people are Muslim. The state religion is Shia Islam. It has been the state religion since the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century. This is the religion of about 75% of Iranians. They belong to the Twelver branch. About 9% of Iranians Muslim belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. The 9% of Iranians who are not Muslim are Bah\u00e1'\u00eds, Mandeans, Zoroastrians, Christians and Jews. It is thought that there are between 300,000 and 310,000 Persian (Iranian) Jews."}
+{"id": "3773", "revid": "1639749", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3773", "title": "Gautama Buddha", "text": "Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563 BC - c. 483 BC) was an ancient Indian Philosopher and the founder of Buddhism. He is better known by the title the Buddha which means \"Fully Awakened One\". \nHe is also called Shakyamuni Buddha. This is because he was the sage of the \u015a\u0101kyan clan. \nEarly years.\nHe was born as a prince in Lumbini in a region of what is now the country Nepal in a Shakya Kingdom. About 2600 years ago, a clan called the Shakyas ruled the city of Kapilavastu. His father was a ruler named Shuddhodana, his mother was named Maya. Maya died when Siddhartha was about 7 days old. His father raised him in a very peaceful way. There were home tutors for him but he was not interested in the outward things that took place at that time. Siddhartha lived in luxury. His father kept trouble and hard work away from him. A seer said that if Siddhartha stayed inside his palace his whole life, he would become a great king. However, if he left the palace, then he would become a great religious leader. The king did not want his son to become a religious leader. He kept Siddhartha in the palace for his entire childhood.\nWhen Siddhartha turned 16 years old, his father found a woman for him to marry. Siddhartha married a woman named Yashodhara. They had a son named Rahula. Siddhartha had everything he could want, but he was not happy. He wanted to learn about life outside his palace.\nLegend says that he got out of the castle against the orders of his father. He saw the \"Four Great Sights\": They were an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a holy man with no home. \nSiddhartha left his family, his land and everything else at the age of 29. He left his kingdom to travel in the rest of the Indian subcontinent. He wanted to be a mendicant (a wandering ascetic). In time, he became a religious leader for the people.\nSeeking.\nMany holy men in ancient India at this time were \"ascetics\". They hurt their bodies for religious reasons. They abstain from certain pleasures so they can get rid of desire. They practiced self-denial and made themselves suffer very much. They believed this would free the \u0101tman (soul) from pain and sadness. There were also many types of ascetic mendicants (wanderers). Siddhartha tried these ascetic practices and meditation techniques, and eventually became better than his teachers. He still found no answer, so he left his teachers and friends to discover another way. He decided to eat only six grains of rice a day. He tried holding his breath. His body became very thin, like skin and bones, and he nearly died. Still, he had no answer.\nSiddhartha began to think again about this path. He recalled sitting under a roseapple tree as a boy, and reaching a profound happy peaceful state. He thought this memory might point to a better way than hurting himself. He accepted a meal of milk-rice so he would have strength to make focussed effort. He found a fig tree (now called the \"Bodhi tree\") and decided to meditate beneath it. He promised himself that he would not leave this spot until he had found \"enlightenment\". He meditated under the tree (some say for 49 days). His mind is said to have become pure, and then--after a total of six years practicing--he became enlightened. He was now the Buddha the Fully Awakened\nHis life as a Buddha.\nWhen the Buddha became \"enlightened\", he found the answer to \"suffering\", and he knew how to defeat \"suffering\". This answer was called the Four Noble Truths. He was not sure if he should teach his new ideas or not. He asked himself if the world was ready for such a deep teaching. But in the end, he decided to travel to a town called Sarnath to teach the people his new way. He taught about the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The people listened to him.\nWhen he taught, he did not pretend to be a god. He said he was just a man who had found the meaning of life (enlightenment), and that any person can also find the meaning of life. For the rest of his life, he walked all over what is now Southern Nepal and parts of India to teach people what he believed. He started a \"Sangha\", which is a group of Buddhist monks and nuns. Many people became enlightened because of him. At the age of 80, after 45 years teaching the Four Noble Truths, Gautama Buddha died.\nThe life teachings.\nThe teachings of the Buddha are known as \"Buddhism\". Buddhism is mostly about ending the feeling of pain that all people feel inside. Gautama Buddha taught that old age, sickness, death and suffering is a part of everyone's life. He taught that pain is caused by craving. And he showed that there is a way to end craving and end suffering by doing good things, not doing bad things, and training one's mind. When a person is able to perfect these qualities, they will gain \"enlightenment\".\nBuddhism teaches non-harm and balance \u2013 not going too far one way or the other. The Buddha taught people to meditate while sitting in the lotus position or when standing, sitting, walking, or lying down. The Buddha urged his followers to remember the Teachings, and ask questions. Some Buddhists chant (which was a way to remember and preserve the Teachings). Buddhists sometimes do these things to understand the human heart and mind. Sometimes they do these things to understand the way the world works. Sometimes they do these things to find peace.\nThe Buddha taught that people should not look to gods to save them or bring them enlightenment. The gods may have power over world events and they might help people, or they might not. But Buddha believed that it is up to each person to become enlightened."}
+{"id": "3775", "revid": "330", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3775", "title": "Siddhartha Gautama", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3777", "revid": "873387", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3777", "title": "North", "text": "North is one of the 4 main directions on a compass. North is usually up on most maps. For Example: The United States is north of the Mexico, which is itself north of Brazil. The North Pole is the farthest north you can go. The North of the world is considered to be the top. "}
+{"id": "3779", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3779", "title": "List of football clubs in Portugal", "text": "These are some Portuguese football teams."}
+{"id": "3787", "revid": "1243600", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3787", "title": "GNOME Web", "text": "GNOME Web (sometimes called Epiphany) is a web browser for GNOME. The browser uses the WebKit browser engine to load web pages but supports extensions from Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome and uses Firefox Sync's API to allow syncing between multiple browsers. This also allows the browser to sync its bookmarks and reading list with Firefox and its mobile app.\nGNOME Web was originally made from Galeon by Marco Pesenti Gritti (also the creator of Galeon) with the aim of making a web browser with a very simple user experience. Because of that, GNOME Webdoes not have its own themes, instead, it uses GNOME\u2019s settings that are set in the GNOME Control Center. It also used to be Firefox based but switched to WebKit in September of 2009."}
+{"id": "3788", "revid": "1609553", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3788", "title": "Video game console", "text": "A video game console is a machine that is used to play video games. Video game consoles usually connect to a television. \nSpecial controllers are attached to the console to control the game. Some video game consoles are handheld. They can be carried around and have their own screens. The Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable are examples of handheld consoles. Some video game consoles can also run general software, such as Linux."}
+{"id": "3789", "revid": "10393477", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3789", "title": "PlayStation (console)", "text": "The PlayStation (often known as the PS1 or the PSX) is a video game console made by Sony released in December 1994. At the time, it was competing against the Nintendo 64 and the Sega Saturn. PlayStation games were stored on CDs. The controllers that were first released with the console had no analog joysticks on them, but analog joysticks and a vibration feature were added to later controllers. \nA slimmer version of the console called the \"PS One\" was released in 2000. It was white instead of grey. \nIt was succeeded by the PlayStation 2 in March 2000 and was discontinued on March 23, 2006 (eight months before the PlayStation 3 was released).\nHistory.\nThe PlayStation was created by Ken Kutaragi, a Sony executive who managed a engineering division and was later nicknamed \"the Father of the PlayStation\". \nThe PlayStation was released in 1994 in Japan and 1995 in North America and Europe\nSales.\nThe PlayStation and the PSOne have sold over 120 million consoles.\nPeripherals.\nPocketStation.\nThe PocketStation was a very small games console released as a peripheral (an extra accessory) for the PlayStation. It had a clock, an LCD display and four buttons. It could be used as a memory card. It wasn't released in the United States, because it did not sell well."}
+{"id": "3790", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3790", "title": "Election", "text": "An election is a way people can choose their candidate or their preferences in a representative democracy or other form of government. \nMost democratic countries hold elections for their national legislature every few years. The elections select representatives for the local areas. These are called Members of Parliament in the British parliamentary system. Parliamentary systems may have a head of government and a head of state, but sometimes the two posts are held by the same person. They may be directly elected or elected by national legislature.\nThe legislature chooses the government, usually by majority vote in the legislature. Some democracies elect a president, who then selects the government. Most democratic countries also have regional, provincial or state elections and local elections.\nThere are different ways to organize an election. Voters might vote for an individual, or they might vote for a political party. This is because different countries use different voting systems. \nAs a foundation of democracy, voting in elections happens in most countries around the world. Whilst the process of electing an individual as a representative in a government can be simple, many election candidates spend large amounts of money on their campaigns. Higher household incomes, inflation and population growth have contributed to this trend of higher election spend.\nEvery country around the world has different rules and regulations for voting in elections. The biggest differences amongst most major countries is the age in which an individual may vote and whether voting in an election is compulsory or not. People who are not citizens may not be allowed to vote. Argentina, Brazil and Austria are among the few countries where the legal voting age is 16. \nCountries that are not democracies can also hold elections. This is usually done to let the people choose a local representative (like a mayor). Also many countries call themselves democracies, but behind the scenes have a more autocratic form of government.\nVatican City is a theocracy: The pope (and a few high-ranking clerics) run the state. When the pope dies, or steps down, the cardinals select a new pope, through an election. When they are done, they will announce the result in a speech, called Habemus Papam (Latin: We have a pope)\nElections keep a democratic country functioning, as they give people the right to select their own government. However, there are ways a government can \"fix\" elections. Opposition candidates are permitted in former USSR countries, but they may be prevented from using broadcasting, social media, or the newspapers. This means that the ruling president is not challenged. Elections which are fixed are sometimes called sham elections or show elections.\nCountries where the candidates are elected with a very high approval rating usually use elections to hide a more autocratic form of government. When Saddam Hussein was elected president of Iraq in 1995, he got 99.96% approval. There were about 8.4 million valid votes, 3,052 people voted against him. 99.47% of all people allowed to vote did so (this is called voting turnout). Another example: Kim Jong-un was elected the leader of North Korea, in 2014, with 100% of the vote.\nPsephology is the study of elections."}
+{"id": "3793", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3793", "title": "Medicine", "text": "Medicine is the science that treats and prevents diseases in humans. Medical workers treat injuries, infections, and sickness. Medicine also helps people with disease prevention and the best ways to not get sick from bacteria or viruses. Medical doctors also help unhealthy (bad habits, overweight, underweight) people return to a healthy condition.\nPeople who practice \"medicine\" are most often called medical doctors or physicians. Often doctors work closely with nurses and many other types of health care workers.\nMany doctors specialize in one kind of medical work. For example, pediatrics is the medical specialty about the health of children.\nClinical practice.\nIn the Western world, scientists rely on modern medicine, while in developing countries, they rely on traditional medicine.\nSpecialties in medicine.\nAnaesthesiology.\nAn anesthetist (British spelling: anaesthetist) is a doctor trained to provide sedation during surgeries. This is important for surgeries and certain medical procedures. \nAnesthetists also provide pre-operative assessments, ensuring the patient is safe during any operation, and successfully wakes them from anaesthesia when the procedure is complete. \nAnesthetists assess medical conditions and suitability for anaesthesia. They screen for risk factors prior to surgery and try to optimize the operative environment for the patient and the surgeon. This means that if the patient has allergies (for example a latex allergy), none will be present in the operating room. They also monitor for and respond to emergencies during surgery. They are the doctors who prevent or treat pain in different situations. These situations include: giving injections into the blood vessels or fat, epidurals (pain medications injected into the spine) during labor and delivery in pregnancy; provide spinal blocks; local nerve blocks; and general anaesthesia for procedures. \nThey are the doctors who are especially trained in intubation and ventilation, which is helping the patient breath when they are paralyzed and asleep during surgery. Hence, due to their skill in intubation, they can be first line responders for emergencies. They help people who are having trouble breathing or when their airway has become obstructed (like apnea). The anesthetist is the person responsible for giving injections in such emergencies also. \nAnaesthesiology is the practise of studying anesthesia.\nCardiology.\nA cardiologist is a doctor with special training about the heart. The doctor in this field ensures the heart is healthy and functions properly. \nThe heart is a vital organ whose role is to pump blood around the body via the arteries, and back to the heart by veins. The purpose of blood is to deliver oxygen to the tissues and take out carbon dioxide. Without the heart functioning well, tissues and organs would die and not function properly. \nCardiologists treat heart attacks, sudden cardiac arrests, arrhythmias (rhythm issues related to a faulty electrical system of the heart), heart failure (where the heart fails to pump blood forward properly) and many other heart related illnesses. They specialize in life saving procedures like cardiac stents and cardiac ablation. There is a subspecialty within cardiology called \"Interventional cardiology.\" These are cardiologists who specialize in interventions or procedures to save the function of the heart, such as cardiac stenting or angiography.\nCardiology is the study of the heart.\nCardiovascular surgery.\nThis specialty consists of well trained doctors who practice cardiac surgery. They are best known for their role in cardiac bypass surgeries. In cardiac bypass, the surgeon restores blood flow to the area of the heart that was deficient due to a blocked coronary artery. This is usually done by taking a vein, most commonly the saphenous vein from the leg, to create a pathway of blood flow to the heart region that needs it.\nDermatology.\nA dermatologist is a doctor that studies different conditions of the skin and also allergies. This can include allergy-related conditions, acne, inflammatory conditions of the skin, and skin cancer. They prescribe medications to put on the skin, such as lotions and creams, or pills to treat these different conditions. In a clinical setting they might also test the skin for single or multiple different contact allergies for allergies such as pollen, animals, or latex.\nDermatology is the study of the skin. \nEmergency medicine.\nEmergency room doctors (also known as E.R. Doctors) are in charge of sudden important or life-threatening emergencies. In addition to dealing with heart attacks, strokes, traumas, or other issues that require immediate medical attention or surgeries, they also deal with a wide range of other health conditions, such as mental health suicide attempts and drug overdoses. \nTheir training is broad and diverse, as anyone can walk through the door seeking help. They see patients of all ages and walks of life. However, unlike a general practitioner or family doctor, their immediate goal is to make sure the patient is stable and exclude any serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions.\nFamily medicine.\nA family doctor, otherwise known as general practitioner, is trained to provide medical service to people of all ages, demographics, and walks of life. Their training is diverse to deal with a variety of conditions including all non surgical specialties. They also follow the patient from birth to death and are trained to treat an individual as a whole, in the context of their social setting, their family situation and mental health and so on. Unlike specialists who mainly deal with problems of one organ or system, family doctors deal with all parts of the body and combine this new information for the patient's general health. They gain a perspective of the person's health as a whole. They can refer to specialists for issues that require more detailed or specialized treatments as part of their treatment options.\nGastroenterology.\nGastroenterologists are doctors who specialize in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and upper abdominal organs. The GI tract is consists of the esophagus all the way down to the anus. The upper abdominal organs include the liver, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen. In addition to dealing with medical conditions associated with these organs, doctors in this speciality also perform endoscopies. This is where a camera is placed to visualize the esophagus and stomach (upper endoscopy) or the colon (lower endoscopy or colonoscopy). \nGastroenterologists that specialize in the liver is called a Hepatologist. They are responsible for treating patients with liver failure or cirrhosis. They also treat patients with viral Hepatitis (A,B,C) and many other forms of liver disease.\nGastroenterology is the study of the gastric system (digestive system).\nInfectious disease.\nInfectious disease specialist M.Ds are doctors that study and treat difficult or rare infections, such as rare tropical diseases, antibiotic resistant bacterial infections, dangerous viruses and other highly contagious diseases.\nInternal medicine.\nDoctors in this specialty are trained to recognize and treat a variety of different conditions involving the internal organs. They have wide knowledge in a number of specialties including, but not limited to: Respirology, Nephrology, Gastroenterology, Cardiology. \nDoctors who practice broadly in this field are known as General Internists (or General Internal Medicine doctors). Internists can go to receive further training beyond residency in a particular field. For example, Gastroenterologists are internists that have chosen to specialize in GI medicine. \nInternal medicine doctors are in charge of inpatient units when patients are admitted for a general reason. Unlike family doctors and emergency doctors, although their training is diverse and they have broad knowledge in many organ systems, they do not treat or manage children, babies, or pregnant women. (Those patients are instead cared for by Pediatricians and Obstetrics/gynecology, respectively.)\nGynecology and obstetrics.\nDoctors in this field, certified as an OB/GYN or Obs/Gyn, specialize in women's health covering conditions of the female reproductive organs, and pregnancy care and delivery. \nSome matters they cover include contraceptive medicine, fertility workup and treatments, prolapse and incontinence, sexual health, ovarian tumors/ cysts, gynecological oncology. They are also surgeons in their fields, capable of performing numerous gynecological surgeries. \nOB/GYNs also practice obstetrical medicine, specializing in maternal fetal care and deliveries, complications related to deliveries, assisted deliveries (such as vacuum and forceps deliveries) and caesarian sections.\nMedical genetics.\nA medical geneticist is a type of doctor who might see adults, children, or newborns, to determine if a medical condition is caused by a genetic condition (a change in DNA or genes). \nMedical genetics has different subspecialties for the different types of conditions that are treated. These subspecialties include cancer genetics (counseling for cancer conditions passed down through families), reproductive genetics (counseling for parents who have trouble getting pregnant, or who are tested before planning a pregnancy and found to have genes that may cause a genetic condition in a child such as cystic fibrosis, the commonest genetic condition), or metabolic genetics (counseling and medical treatment for children and adults born with problems in using fats, proteins, or carbohydrates from food to make energy).\nNephrology.\nNephrologists are MDs who specialize in health and diseases and conditions related to the kidneys.\nNephrology is the study of the kidneys.\nNeurology.\nNeurologists are MDs who study and treat the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord and brain (Central nervous system or CNS), and its branches (peripheral nervous system). Treatment may include medications or surgery.\nOncology.\nOncology is the field of medicine that studies and treats cancer. \nA person that studies cancer is called an Oncologist. \nOphthalmology.\nThis medical specialty consists of doctors who recognize and treat medical conditions associated with the eyes. Treatment may include medications or surgery.\nSome common complaints they see include red eyes (conjunctivitis), eye pain, visual changes and trauma (damage by an object or person). Ophthalmologists deal with many eye diseases including conjunctivitis, iritis, blepharitis, hordeolum, chalazion, glaucoma, cataracts, and so on. Everyone needs medical help with their eyes eventually, and by old age (65 or older) they will have worn down enough to get cataracts.\nOrthopedics.\nOrthopedists are doctors specialising in the treatment of bones. They treat broken or fractured bones, musculo-skeletal problems and others such as osteoporosis.\nOtolaryngology.\nThese are doctors with special training to treat the ears, nose and throat. These are the doctors who will very commonly remove an organ called the tonsils from a patient.\nPathology.\nPathologists study the reasons things go wrong with the body. They examine tissue samples, look for cancer cell types under a microscope, evaluate DNA samples and many other specimens with advanced laboratory techniques.\nPsychiatry.\nPsychiatrists are MDs who study and treat behavioral and thinking disorders.\nPulmonary.\nThis medical area, commonly known as chest medicine or respiratory medicine, deals with the respiratory system. It commonly involves patients who require intensive care including life support and mechanical ventilation. \nDoctors of this field usually are knowledgeable in diseases and conditions of the chest, such as pneumonia or asthma. Doctors in this field tend to perform minor procedures in surgery of the respiratory tract. Pulmonary specialists often practice critical care medicine. They also manage complicated chest infections.\nThe study of the lungs is called pulmonology.\nRadiology.\nRadiologists are physicians who read and explain medical images such as x-ray pictures, CT scans, MRIs, Ultrasound images and other diagnostic movies and pictures. They also direct radiation treatments for cancer patients and others.\nRheumatology.\nRheumatologists are doctors that treat autoimmune diseases. These types of diseases occur because the body sees parts of the body and cells as \"foreign\" (not part of the body); the immune system (the part of the body the fights infections) attacks the body and causes problems like pain and difficulty with movement. Rheumatologists also treat certain types of chronic pain conditions.\nUrology.\nUrologists are doctors who study and treat the urogenital system (and urinary tract. Includes the bladder down to the urethra or utherer)."}
+{"id": "3794", "revid": "1668431", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3794", "title": "Transport", "text": "Transport, or transportation, is moving people or things from one place to another place. Transport can be divided into \"infrastructure\", \"vehicles\" and \"operations\".\n\"Infrastructure\" includes cableways, roads, railways, airports, canals and pipelines. The infrastructure is the network where things are carried. Infrastructure also includes airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports (docks). Infrastructure is usually built by governments and paid for by taxes from the citizens of a country or region. Infrastructure such as roads and railways are designed by civil engineers and urban planners.\n\"Vehicles\" or vessels travel on the infrastructure. Vehicles include cable cars, cars, trucks, trains, spaceships and airplanes. Vehicles are usually designed by mechanical engineers. Vessels include boats, ferries, and barges which travel on canals and use docks and seaports. In the same way that trains use train stations, airplanes use airports. In the same way that trains use railway lines (train tracks), airplanes use flight paths and then fly in the sky.\n\"Operations\" control the system. Operations include traffic signals, railway signals and air traffic control. Operations also include the government policies (a policy is a plan of action to guide decisions and actions) and regulations (a set or group of laws and rules) used to control the system, such as tolls, fuel taxes, and traffic laws.\nTransport and communications.\nTransport and communication can be used instead of each other (someone could telephone a person rather than visit them). Transport traffic also needs communication. For example, air traffic control lets more airplanes fly. So, an increase of either transport or communication usually leads to an increase in the other one.\nTransport, energy, and the environment.\nTransport uses a lot of energy. Trams, trolleybuses and trains use electricity and cycling is human-powered. Most transport uses hydrocarbons (oil and gas). This can create pollution. Environmental regulations (laws) and low-pollution fuels (for example liquified natural gas) can reduce pollution. But as more vehicles are used, more pollution is created. Ethanol and biodiesel pollute less than petroleum.\nKinds of transportation.\nTransport can be by cable, land, water or air:"}
+{"id": "3795", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3795", "title": "Road", "text": " A road is a piece of land which connects two or more places. Usually, a road has been made easy to travel on. For example, by removing trees and stones so the ground is more level. Although, many roads are made of gravel and dirt, some are paved with concrete or bricks or stones.\nPeople have been making roads for a long time. Roman roads in Britain and the Inca road system are famous. Transport by boats on waterways was usually easier and faster than transport by road. In the industrial revolution, the railway was invented. A railway is a special type of road, using railway tracks. Roads are now usually made for wheeled vehicles, like cars, to travel on.\nWhen traffic jams becomes a frequent problem, the road may be made wider or other roads built.\nRoad building and care is usually paid for by taxes. Some roads are toll roads, where people pay to use the road."}
+{"id": "3796", "revid": "693482", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3796", "title": "2004", "text": "2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3797", "revid": "68157", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3797", "title": "Hawaiian Islands", "text": "From west to east, Hawaii is made up of the following Hawaiian Islands:\nThe chain of islands stretches 2,400 km (1500 miles) in a southeasterly direction to the southern tip of the Island of Hawaii The hot-spot which formed them moved South-East in the Pacific Ocean. The hot-spot in the Earth's crust moved to where it is now, near the island of Hawaii, or, rather, the hot spot stayed where it was, and the plates of the Earth's crust moved, so creating the islands.\nHawaii has been a U.S. state since 1959.\nThe Hawaiian islands, plus former islands now below sea level (guyots), make up the Hawaiian\u2013Emperor seamount chain."}
+{"id": "3798", "revid": "10421850", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3798", "title": "Mauna Kea", "text": "Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano on Hawaii Island, in the state of Hawaii, United States. It is the highest point in Hawaii at 4,205 meters. If measured from top to bottom, below sea level, it is 10,200 meters high and would be the tallest mountain in the world. It is around 1,000,000 years old. Mauna Kea means 'white mountain' because in winter it often has snow at the summit. \nAstronomy.\nMauna Kea is an important site for astronomy. Many different countries or institutions have an observatory there, including the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. The W. M. Keck Observatory with its 10-meter mirror is one of the most powerful in the world. Mauna Kea is an important site, especially for infrared astronomy, because of its height and clear skies.\nHigh altitude is important because atmosphere causes an effect called seeing, which limits the quality of images by blurring them. At high altitude, there is less atmosphere between the observatories and space and this lessens the effect."}
+{"id": "3799", "revid": "10421849", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3799", "title": "Mauna Loa", "text": " \nMauna Loa is an active volcano on Hawaii Island, in the state of Hawaii, United States. It is considered to be the largest subaerial (from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean) volcano in the world and the tallest volcano in Hawaii.\nName.\n\"Mauna Loa\" is Hawaiian for \"long mountain\".\nSize.\nThe volcano is at least in volume and over 4 kilometers above sea level. Measured from its base on the ocean floor, it reaches above 8 kilometers, making it the tallest mountain on Earth, but not the highest. That distinction is reserved for Mount Everest. \nMeasured from sea level Mauna Loa is 4,169 meters high. It is also one of the largest volcanoes measuring 96 kilometers long and 48 kilometers wide. \nThe world's biggest volcano is named Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is part of the five volcanoes on Hawaii Island. The most recent time this volcano erupted was in 2022. It erupted 33 times in the last 170 years. Like all the other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate which moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's mantle. It is a shield volcano. The largest recent eruption from Mauna Loa left a lava trail 51 kilometers long."}
+{"id": "3800", "revid": "1602465", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3800", "title": "Kilauea", "text": "K\u012blauea is an active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. It is a shield volcano. The volcano is 1,277 meters high. K\u012blauea is a large lake of lava. The crater of K\u012blauea is named Pu'u'O'o. The first eruption of K\u012blauea is estimated as 300 to 600 thousand years ago. Its first recorded eruptions were in 1823. Its most recent eruption was April 7 2025. It is still erupting now. The Hawaiian name \"K\u012blauea\" means \"spewing\" or \"much spreading\". It refers to the constant flow of lava. K\u012blauea lies on the curve of volcanoes on the island of Hawaii that includes Mauna Loa and Kohala. The volcano of K\u012blauea is one of the youngest and also is said to be the home of an ancient volcano goddess Pele. The oldest dated rocks are said to be about 23,000 years old. It has its own magma plumbing under the Earth that goes down under the Earths crust by 60\u00a0km. K\u012blauea has a basalt-based lava rock type hot-spot.\nMay 2018 eruption.\nIn May 2018, the volcano erupted causing damage in nearby homes and streets. It also destroyed a freshwater crater lake called Green Lake."}
+{"id": "3802", "revid": "2", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3802", "title": "Hawaiian islands", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3805", "revid": "21928", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3805", "title": "Fried", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3809", "revid": "1674557", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3809", "title": "Van", "text": "A van is a type of road vehicle used for transporting goods or people. There is some variation in the scope of the word across the different English-speaking countries, Depending on the type of van, it can be bigger or smaller than a pickup truck and SUV, and longer and higher than a car but relatively smaller than a truck/lorry or a bus. The smallest vans, microvans, are used for transporting either goods or people in tiny quantities. Mini MPVs, compact MPVs, and MPVs are all small vans usually used for transporting people in small quantities. Larger vans with passenger seats are used for institutional purposes, such as transporting students. Larger vans with only front seats are often used for business purposes, to carry goods and equipment. Specially equipped vans are used by television stations as mobile studios. Postal services and courier companies use large step vans to deliver packages.\nWord origin and usage.\nVan meaning a type of vehicle arose as a contraction of the word caravan. The earliest records of a van as a vehicle in English are in the mid-19th century, meaning a covered wagon for transporting goods; the earliest reported record of such was in 1829. The word caravan with the same meaning has been used since the 1670s. A caravan, meaning one wagon, had arisen as an extension, or corruption, of a caravan meaning a convoy of multiple wagons.\nThe word \"van\" has slightly different, but overlapping, meanings in different forms of English. While the word now applies everywhere to boxy cargo vans, other applications are found to a greater or lesser extent in different English-speaking countries; some examples follow:\nAustralia.\nIn Australian English, the term \"van\" is commonly used to describe a minivan, a passenger minibus, or an Australian panel van as manufactured by companies such as Holden and Ford at various times.\nA full-size van used for commercial purposes is also known as a \"van\" in Australia; however, a passenger vehicle with more than seven or eight seats is more likely to be called a \"minibus\".\nThe term \"van\" can also sometimes be used interchangeably with what Australians usually call a \"caravan\", which in the U.S. is referred to as a \"travel trailer\".\nThe British term \"people mover\" is also used in Australian English to describe a passenger van. The American usage of \"van\" which describes a cargo box trailer or semi-trailer is used rarely, if ever, in Australia.\nIndia.\nIn India, the van is one of the most common modes of transportation and is often used for taking children to and from schools, usually when parents, especially working parents, are too busy to pick their children up from school or when school buses are full and unable to accommodate other children. Vans are also used for commercial purposes and office cabs. Some of the popular vans include Maruti Suzuki Omni and the Maruti Suzuki Eeco.\nJapan.\nEarly Japanese vans include the Kurogane Baby, Mazda Bongo, and the Toyota LiteAce. The Japanese also produced many vans based on the American flat nose model, but also minivans which for the American market have generally evolved to the long-wheelbase front-wheel drive form. The Nissan Prairie and Mitsubishi Chariot as well as microvans that fulfill kei car regulations, are popular for small businesses. The term is also used to describe full-fledged station wagons (passenger car front sheet metal, flat-folding back seats, windows all around) and even hatchbacks with basic trim packages intended for commercial use. These are referred to as \"light vans\" (), with \"light\" referring to the glazing rather than the weight of the vehicle.\nUnited Kingdom.\nIn British English, the word van refers to vehicles that carry goods only, either on roads or on rails. What would be called a \"minivan\" in American English is called a \"people-carrier\", \"MPV\" or multi-purpose vehicle, and larger passenger vehicles are called \"minibuses\". The \"Telegraph\" newspaper introduced the idea of the \"White Van Man\", a typical working-class man or small business owner who would have a white Ford Transit, Mercedes-Benz Sprinter, or similar panel van. Today the phrase \"man and van\" or \"man with a van\" refers to light removal firms normally operated by a sole business owner transporting anything from the contents of a whole house to just a few boxes. The word \"van\" also refers to railway covered goods wagons, called \"boxcars\" in the United States.\nUnited States.\nIn the United States, a \"van\" can also refer to a box-shaped trailer or semi-trailer used to carry goods. In this case, there is a differentiation between a \"dry van\", used to carry most goods, and a refrigerated van, or \"reefer\", used for cold goods. A railway car used to carry baggage is also called a \"van\".\nA vehicle referred to in the US as a \"full-size van\" is usually a large, boxy vehicle that has a platform and powertrain similar to their light truck counterparts. These vans may be sold with the space behind the front seats empty for transporting goods (cargo van), furnished for passenger use by either the manufacturer (wagon), or another company for more personal comforts (conversion van). Full-size vans often have short hoods, with the engine placed under the passenger cabin.\nA cutaway van chassis is a variation of the full-size van that was developed for use by second stage manufacturers. Such a unit has a van front end and driver controls in a cab body that extends to a point behind the front seats, where the rest of the van body is cut off (leading to the terminology \"cutaway\"). From that point aft, only the chassis frame rails and running gear extend to the rear when the unit is shipped as an \"incomplete vehicle\". A second-stage manufacturer, commonly known as a bodybuilder, will complete the vehicle for uses such as recreational vehicles, small school buses, minibusses, type III ambulances, and delivery trucks. A large proportion of cutaway van chassis are equipped with dual rear wheels. Second-stage manufacturers sometimes add third weight-bearing single wheel \"tag axles\" for their larger minibus models.\nThe term \"van\" in the US may also refer to a minivan. Minivans are usually distinguished by their smaller size and front wheel drive powertrain, although some are equipped with four-wheel drive. Minivans typically offer seven- or eight-passenger seating capacity, and better fuel economy than full-sized vans, at the expense of power, cargo space, and towing capacity. Minivans are often equipped with sliding doors.\nHistory.\nThe precursor to American vans would be the sedan deliveries of the 1930s to late-1950s. The first generation of American vans were the 1960s compact vans, which were patterned in size after the Volkswagen Bus. The Corvair-based entry even imitated the rear-mounted, air-cooled engine design. The Ford Falcon-based first-generation Econoline had a flat nose, with the engine mounted between and behind the front seats. The Dodge A100 had a similar layout and could accommodate a V8 engine. Chevrolet also switched to this layout. The Ford, Dodge, and Corvair vans were also produced as pickup trucks.\nThe \"standard\" or \"full size\" vans appeared with Ford's innovation of moving the engine forward under a short hood and using pickup truck components. The engine cockpit housing is often called a \"dog house\". Over time, they evolved longer noses and sleeker shapes. The Dodge Sportsman was available with an extension to the rear of its long-wheelbase model to create a 15-passenger van. Vehicles have been sold as both cargo and passenger models, as well as in cutaway van chassis versions for second stage manufacturers to make box vans, ambulances, campers, and other vehicles. Second-stage manufacturers also modify the original manufacturer's body to create custom vans.\nUse.\nIn urban areas of the United States, full-size vans have been used as \"commuter vans\" since 1971, when Dodge introduced a van that could transport up to 15 passengers. Commuter vans are used as an alternative to carpooling and other ride-sharing arrangements.\nMany mobile businesses use a van to carry almost their entire business to various places where they work. For example, those who come to homes or places of business to perform various services, installations, or repairs. Vans are also used to shuttle people and their luggage between hotels and airports, to transport commuters between parking lots and their places of work, and along established routes as minibusses. Vans are also used to transport elderly and mobility-impaired worshipers to and from church services or to transport youth groups for outings to amusement parks, picnics, and visiting other churches. Vans are also used by schools to drive sports teams to intramural games. Vans have been used by touring music groups to haul equipment and people to music venues around the country.\nFull-size van.\n\"Full-size van\" is a marketing term used in North America for a van larger than a minivan, that is characterized by a large, boxy appearance, a short hood, and heavy cargo and passenger-hauling capability. \nThe first full-size van was the 1969 Ford Econoline, which used components from the Ford F-Series pickups. General Motors and the Dodge Ram Van followed with designs with the engines placed further forward, and succeeding generations of the Econoline introduced longer hoods.\nStep van.\nAnother type of van specific to North America is the \"step van,\" named because of the design to facilitate users to step in and out of the vehicle. Widely used by delivery services, courier companies, and the parcel division of the US Postal Service and Canada Post, they are often seen driven with the door open. Step vans have more boxy shapes, wider bodies, and higher rooftops than other vans, and are rarely employed for carrying passengers. \nMinivan.\nThe Minivan is a van which is smaller in size in length and height than a full-size van. Minivans are often used for personal use, as well as commercial passenger operations such as taxis and shuttles, and cargo operations like delivery of mail and packages. They offer more cargo space than traditional sedans and SUVs. Their lower center of gravity is also useful in handling and rollover prevention.\nRollover safety.\nA van is taller than a typical passenger car, resulting in a higher center of gravity. The suspension is also higher to accommodate the weight of 15 passengers, who can weigh over one ton alone. In the United States, it is common for only the front seat passengers to use their safety belts. The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has determined that belted passengers are about four times more likely to survive in rollover crashes.\nSafety can be improved by understanding the unique characteristics of 12- and 15-passenger vans and by following guidelines developed for their drivers, according to the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).\nSafety equipment.\nMany commercial vans are fitted with cargo barriers behind the front seats (or rear seats, if fitted) to prevent injuries caused by unsecured cargo in the event of sudden deceleration, collision, or a rollover. Cargo barriers in vans are sometimes fitted with doors permitting the driver to pass through to the cargo compartment of the vehicle."}
+{"id": "3810", "revid": "467400", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3810", "title": "Luggage", "text": "People use luggage to carry their possessions when travelling. In the United States luggage is often called baggage."}
+{"id": "3811", "revid": "7473732", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3811", "title": "Pan", "text": "Pan can mean:"}
+{"id": "3813", "revid": "8481920", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3813", "title": "Pantograph", "text": "A pantograph is a machine. It is used in drawing or planning. It makes it easy to copy diagrams. \nThe device that an electric train uses to get its electricity is also called a pantograph, because it looks a bit like the drawing instrument."}
+{"id": "3814", "revid": "1145182", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3814", "title": "Paperback", "text": "A paperback is a type of book. It has a cover of thick paper or thin cardboard. Paperback book covers can bend and be folded. The covers are laminated (have layers), and some of the methods are more durable (lasting) than others. Another name for paperback is \"soft cover\". \nPaperback books may be glued or held by sewing. If the pages are held only by adhesive, the book will eventually come apart. The quality of the paper also varies. It is generally less white than bound hardback books because it is less bleached.\nUsually, paperback books cost less money than hardback books. In the middle 20th century a \"mass market\" type of paperback became commonplace, having a standard size, fitting a standard display rack, and glued. "}
+{"id": "3815", "revid": "294863", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3815", "title": "Palette", "text": "A palette is used for mixing colours.They are usually made out of plastic or wood but can be made out of other materials. An artist often uses one of these and is in fact an essential item in art, when painting."}
+{"id": "3816", "revid": "1386969", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3816", "title": "Glow-worm", "text": "A glow-worm is an insect. Other names for it are \"fireworm\", \"lightning worm\" and \"lightworm\".\nThere are several insects given this name. Most are beetles, but one is a fly, \"Arachnocampa\". They are nocturnal, active during the night. They have special organs that can produce light. This is used to find mates. The patterns in which the beetles flash is unique to each species.\nThe major families are"}
+{"id": "3817", "revid": "68157", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3817", "title": "Palette knife", "text": "A palette knife is not actually a knife. It has a very flexible steel blade and no sharpened cutting edge. It is a tool.\nUses.\nA palette knife is used for mixing paint colors. It may be used for mixing and applying a whole range of semi-fluid mixtures."}
+{"id": "3819", "revid": "1509370", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3819", "title": "Foolscap", "text": "Foolscap is paper cut to the size of , sometimes . This was a traditional paper size used in Europe and the British Commonwealth, before the adoption of the international standard A4 paper, the most common standard size in the world. Foolscap was so called because, in the 18th century, folio-sized paper had the watermark of a fool's cap on it. Basically, it is taller than A4. \nIn North America, foolscap is lined, legal-size paper. In some South American countries it is called \"oficio\", because it is or was used for official documents.\nPaper of the size is now very rarely used, being superseded by A4 (297 x 210). However, some ring binders, lever arch files, suspended files, and other filing related things still use the size."}
+{"id": "3821", "revid": "9596211", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3821", "title": "Polymer", "text": "A polymer is a molecule, made from joining many small molecules called monomers. The word \"polymer\" can be broken down into \"poly\" (meaning \"many\" in Greek) and \"mer\" (meaning \"unit\"). This shows how the chemical composition of a polymer consists of many smaller units (monomers) bonded together into a larger molecule. A chemical reaction bonding monomers together to make a polymer is called polymerization.\nSome polymers are natural and made by organisms. Proteins have polypeptide molecules, which are natural polymers made from various amino acid monomer units. Nucleic acids are huge natural polymers made up of millions of nucleotide units. Cellulose and starch (two types of carbohydrate) are also natural polymers made up of glucopyranose monomer bonded together in different ways. Rubber is a mixture of polymers. Plastics are man-made polymers. Many fibers are made of polymers.\nIf the \"units\" called monomers in a polymer are all the same, then the polymer is called a \"homopolymer\". Homopolymers are named by adding the prefix poly- before the monomer name from which the polymer is made. For example, a polymer made by bonding styrene monomer molecules together is called polystyrene.\nIf the monomers are not all the same, the polymer is called a \"copolymer\" or a \"heteropolymer\".\nMany polymer molecules are like \"chains\" where the monomer units are the links. Polymer molecules can be straight-chain, have \"branching\" from the main chain, or \"cross-linking\" between chains. As an example of cross-linking, sulfhydryl (-S-H) groups in two cysteine amino acid units in polypeptide chains can bond together to make a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) joining the chains together.\nIn the same way how large hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil can be broken down in smaller molecules e.g. ethylene by applying heat (a process called cracking), the monomer ethylene can then be turned into the polymer polyethylene by applying pressure and adding catalysts. Polyethelene is the basis of many plastic objects."}
+{"id": "3823", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3823", "title": "Medium", "text": "Medium might mean:"}
+{"id": "3825", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3825", "title": "Phrase", "text": "A phrase is a group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject, verb and a predicate.\nEnglish has five different kinds of phrases, one for each of the main parts of speech. In a phrase, the main word or the word that is that is the subject of the phrase is called the head. In the following examples, it is printed in bold. The other words in the phrase do the work of changing, or modifyingm the head.\nIn a noun phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about a noun.\nIn an adjective phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an adjective.\nIn a verb phrase, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English, the verb phrase is very complex, but a good description of its many forms can be found here.\nIn an adverb phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an adverb.\nIn a prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase (preposition = pre-position)."}
+{"id": "3826", "revid": "10043252", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3826", "title": "Preposition", "text": "Prepositions often describe the position of something, the time when something happens or the way in which something is done. The prepositions \"of\", \"to\" and \"for\" have other functions. \nPrepositions may sometimes be used to end sentences. For example, \"What did you put that there for?\" (better English is the alternative: \"Why did you put that there?\") Example 2: \"A pen is a device to write with\" (better English is \"A pen is a writing device\"). In general, because they are links, prepositions belong in the middle of sentences, rather than at the end.\nThe table below shows some examples of how prepositions are used in sentences."}
+{"id": "3827", "revid": "209999", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3827", "title": "Possess", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3828", "revid": "1467751", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3828", "title": "Pronoun", "text": "A pronoun is traditionally a part of speech in grammar, but many modern linguists call it a type of noun. In English, pronouns are words such as \"me, she, his, them, herself, each other, it, what\". \nPronouns are often used to take the place of a noun, to avoid repeating the noun. For example, instead of saying \nit is easier to say \nWhen a pronoun replaces a noun, the noun is called the antecedent. For example, in the sentence: \"The dog that was walking down the street\", the relative pronoun is the word that referring back to the antecedent, the word 'dog'. In the sentence \"The spy who loved me\", the relative pronoun is the word 'who' and its antecedent is the word 'spy'.\nDifferences and similarities to nouns.\nPronouns are different from common nouns because pronouns normally do not come after \"article\"s or other \"determiner\"s. For example, people do not say \"the it\". Pronouns rarely come after adjectives. They are also different because many of them change depending on how they are used. For example, \"we\" is a 'subject' in grammar, but the word changes to \"us\" when used as an object.\nPronouns are the same as nouns because they both change for number (singular & plural), case (subject, object, possessive, etc.), and gender (male, female, animate, inanimate, etc.) Nouns and pronouns can be used in almost all the same places in sentences, and they name the same kinds of things: people, objects, etc. Even though they can not normally come after determiners, or adjectives, neither can proper nouns.\nKinds of pronouns.\nThere are different kinds of pronouns: personal, reciprocal, interrogative, and relative.\nPersonal pronouns in English.\nThis table shows all the personal pronouns in English that are commonly used today.\nA subject pronoun can replace a noun that is the subject of a sentence. Refer to the table above; the subject pronouns are: I, You, He, She, It, We, They. An object pronoun can replace a noun that is the object of a sentence. A possessive pronoun shows who or what a noun belongs to. \nAnother type of personal pronoun is called the 'reflexive pronoun'. Reflexive pronouns are the words ending in '-self' or '-selves', such as: \"myself, itself, themselves\". One of the primary functions of reflexive pronouns is for situations in which a single agent is both the doer of the action and the receiver of the action. For example, if I cut my finger, we don't typically say \"I cut me.\" in English; we use the reflexive pronoun and say \"I cut myself.\" \n\"It\" and its other forms \"its\", and \"itself\" only refer to objects, not people. \"They\" and its other forms \"them\", \"their\", and \"theirs\" can be used as a singular, for a person whose gender is unknown at the time, or for a person who does not identify with either the \"she/her\" or \"he/him\" pronouns. For example: \"The patient will be told how much \"they\" will be required to pay.\" "}
+{"id": "3829", "revid": "15149", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3829", "title": "Adverb", "text": "An adverb is a word used to tell more about a verb, and it almost always answers the questions \"how?\", \"when?\", \"where?\", \"how often?\", and \"in what way?\". Words like \"slowly\", \"loudly\", \"carefully\", \"quickly\", \"quietly\" or \"sadly\" are all adverbs. Adverbs usually, but not always, end in \"-ly\".\nExamples of adverbs in a sentence (with the adverb in italics):\nAn adverb can also modify (describe) an adjective or another adverb\nExamples:\nIn the first two examples the word 'well' is an adverb. In the last example, it is an adjective. This is one example in which the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb but not in the same sentence. \nAs a rule, the same word can play different roles but not in the same sentence. It all depends on what the word is doing in the sentence. It could be a noun, an adjective, an adverb, a verb, etc. Example: take the word 'cool'. In the sentence, \"he walks cool\", the word 'cool' is an adverb. In the sentence, \"cool the hot dish\", the word 'cool' is a verb. In the sentence, \"it is a cool evening\", the word 'cool' is an adjective. In the first example, \"he walks cool\", the word 'cool' really means 'coolly' as in \"play it cool\" (do not get excited; be calm).\nAdverb form.\nMost adverbs are formed by adding ly to the end of an adjective. To see 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here ---> : adjective"}
+{"id": "3837", "revid": "9852355", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3837", "title": "Sunday", "text": "Sunday is one of the seven days of the week. It is part of the weekend, along with Saturday. Sunday is the Sabbath or day of worship for most Christians (for example, Easter is celebrated on Sunday). Sunday is the beginning of the week in the United States, but is the end of the week in the United Kingdom."}
+{"id": "3838", "revid": "1572824", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3838", "title": "Ottawa", "text": "Ottawa is the capital of Canada and is part of the province of Ontario. It is south of the Ottawa River. In 2004, there were about 808,391 people in the city. The region has about 1,146,790 people. The mayor of the city today (since November 2022) is Mark Sutcliffe. Ottawa is in the Ottawa Valley on the border with the province of Quebec which is divided by the Ottawa River. Ottawa is the fourth largest city in Canada and the second largest city in Ontario (after Toronto). Ottawa is the only officially bilingual city in Canada, where the English language and the French language are official languages and have equal status. Every official sign in the city is bilingual. The reason for this bilingual status, is not only because Ottawa borders the French-speaking province of Quebec, the city itself has a large French-speaking minority.\nWhen people talk about Ottawa, they are sometimes using the name as an eponym meaning the highest government in Canada, and not its local government or the city.\nThe cities of Ottawa, Kanata, Nepean, Gloucester and Vanier and the villages of Manotick and Rockcliffe Park joined in the year 2000 to form the new city of Ottawa. Ottawa also includes Orl\u00e9ans, which joined at that same time.\nThe city began with the name Bytown and became the city of Ottawa in 1855. The Rideau Canal ends in Ottawa.\nOttawa has many museums, many buildings for the government of Canada and many parks. There is a market area downtown.\nThere are many festivals during the year including Winterlude in February, The Tulip Festival in May, and BluesFest in the summer. There is also a large celebration on July 1st for Canada Day.\nThe Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League (NHL) play ice hockey in an arena called Canadian Tire Centre. The Ottawa Redblacks of the Canadian Football League (CFL) also play in the city.\nClimate.\nOttawa has a hot-summer humid continental climate (K\u00f6ppen climate classification: \"Dfa\").\nRain and snow.\nThe average yearly rain and snow in Ottawa is 943 millimetres.\n2017 was a record year in Ottawa because there was rain and snow of 1,213 millimetres during the first ten months of the year. The old record was in 1972, when the rain and snow was 1,174 millimetres."}
+{"id": "3845", "revid": "10191830", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3845", "title": "News agency", "text": "A news agency is a kind of company. It supplies information to newspapers, radio and television.\nExamples.\nIn the United Kingdom and some other countries a news agency or newsagent is a shop which sells newspapers, magazines and cigarettes.\nAlthough there are many news agencies around the world, three global news agencies, Agence France-Presse (AFP), Associated Press (AP), and Reuters have offices in most countries of the world, cover all areas of information, and provide the majority of international news printed by the world's newspapers."}
+{"id": "3846", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3846", "title": "Mudguard", "text": "A mudguard, fender or wing is a part covering the wheels of a vehicle to stop it from throwing off mud, water or objects from the road. It protects people and property from dirtiness, dampness, and damage. \nMudguards protect in several ways:"}
+{"id": "3847", "revid": "1435680", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3847", "title": "Para rubber tree", "text": "A Para rubber tree (or simply, rubber tree) is the tree which naturally produces rubber. It is native to tropical areas from South America, in the Amazon (Brazil), but was spread by European farmers to the Far East.\nPara Rubber trees belong to the Euphorbiaceae family. In the wild they may reach heights of 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) with large cylindrical trunks with or without buttresses. Crop trees reach a width of about 20 in. (50 cm), usually with a short bole, and with a sloped taper. \nMost rubber plantations are in South Asia and Southeast Asia. When trees reach 5-6 years old, they are harvested. Their trunks are cut just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the sap is collected in small buckets. This process is known as rubber tapping. Older trees produce more latex, but they stop producing it after 30-40 years. It was first collected in para district of brazil. Sri henry Wickham brought the seeds of para rubber from Brazil to India and Sri Lanka through the kew botanical garden in 1876. At first, the plantation was done in Malayasia and Sri Lanka and later in Java, Sumatra, India and parts of Indonesia. "}
+{"id": "3848", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3848", "title": "Safety curtain", "text": "A safety curtain is a curtain in theatre at the front of the stage. It is made of material that will not burn. The safety curtain may be lowered during the intermission and after the performance. A safety curtain is there in case there is a fire on stage. It will stop the fire from spreading to the auditorium where the audience sits."}
+{"id": "3849", "revid": "1649829", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3849", "title": "Safety lamp", "text": "A safety lamp is a miner's lamp with a covered flame that used to be used in coal mines.\nTypes of safety lamps.\nThe first safety lamp was invented by William Reid Clanny. It used bellows and water to separate gasses. Later, two newer designs were invented. One newer design was the Geordie lamp, made by George Stephenson, and the other was the Davy lamp, made by Sir Humphry Davy. In 1815, Davy discovered that if a flame was in a lamp, it would not ignite the flammable gases in mines. \nHow it works.\nCoal mines are dangerous because of flammable gasses like methane that can accumulate (gather together). A lamp with a naked (exposed) flame might make these flammable gasses catch fire, causing an explosion, which could kill people. The safety lamp prevents the hot flame of the lamp touching the flammable gasses, reducing the chance of an explosion."}
+{"id": "3850", "revid": "1530097", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3850", "title": "Christmas stocking", "text": "A Christmas stocking is a long sock hung by a fireplace or bed on Christmas Eve. Christmas presents are put into it for children. It came from an old legend. Stockings are now a European Christmas tradition."}
+{"id": "3853", "revid": "1091485", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3853", "title": "List of football clubs in Austria", "text": "These are the Austrian football teams and the leagues they played in for the 2023/24 season.\nAdmiral Zweite Liga (Second Division).\nThe champion of the league promotes to the Austrian Bundesliga.\nRegionalliga (Third Division).\nThe Regionalliga is divided into three sections."}
+{"id": "3854", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3854", "title": "2001", "text": "2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar. It was the first year of the 3rd millennium and 21st century."}
+{"id": "3856", "revid": "1650014", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3856", "title": "Sex", "text": "Sex is a type of reproduction common among living things. Sex is used by plants and animals, and also by fungi and various single-celled organisms. It usually needs two individuals which are different sexes from the same species. It works by combining genes from more than one source.\nBiological type.\nOrganisms may reproduce in more than one way:\nBenefits and drawbacks.\nAsexual reproduction is easier than sexual reproduction, but there are benefits and drawbacks to both:\nHumans.\nIn humans, sex is normally either male or female. For example: John's sex is male. Jane's sex is female. Most of the time, the sex of a person depends on what sex chromosomes that person got from his or her parents. A woman's ovum (egg cell) contains one X chromosome. A man's sperm contains either an X or a Y chromosome. When a sperm and ova combine to form a fertilised egg, the baby may get either of these chromosomes from its father. If the baby gets two X chromosomes, it will develop into a female. If the baby gets one X and one Y, it will develop into a male. Before babies are born, their sex parts are already formed, but not ready yet. During Puberty, the sex parts finish developing as well as other parts of the body like breasts and body hair.\nThere are some exceptions to this rule. Sometimes, the process of meiosis, which makes the sex cells, can go differently. This can result in a person having 3 X chromosomes, or 2 Y chromosomes or XXY instead of XY. Other times, the body may not follow exactly what their chromosomes are telling it to do.\nEvolution.\nSexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago. It evolved within single-celled eukaryotes. The scientific community still discusses why it appeared, and why it still exists. Reasons of commonly given include:\nSexual reproduction is a process that can only be found in eukaryotes. These cells have a nucleus and mitochondria. There are other kinds of organisms (other than animals, plants and fungi), the other eukaryotes \u2013 such as the malaria parasite \u2013 that also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between bacteria. This is not the same as sexual reproduction, but it results in a similar mixture of genetic traits.\nIn sexual reproduction the cells used for reproduction, called gametes, are either eggs or sperms. Fertilisation needs two different such cells. The mechanism of cell division only works when one sperm alone enters the egg. Once it is in, a fast reaction goes through the egg cell wall to shut off all other sperm.\nSex determination.\nSex determination in biology is about the function of sex, not what individuals look like. In humans, males and females usually look different. In many species they do not, except for the sex organs.\nSex can be determined in different ways:\nWhen there is sex determination there are basically two cases:\nGenetic.\nUsually, sex is determined by an organism's genes. With genetic sex determination, most alleles or genes that influence sexual development are on the same chromosome. That chromosome is then called the sex chromosome. Because genetic sex determination is controlled by a pair of sex chromosomes (or if of one of the chromosomes is there or not), there are usually the same number of male and female offspring. In humans, for instance, sperms carry either an X or a Y chromosome, and they occur in roughly equal numbers.\nNongenetic.\nFor some species sex is not determined by inheritance, but instead by environmental factors experienced during development or later in life. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination: the temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2\u00a0\u00b0C.\nSome fish change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called \"sequential hermaphroditism\". In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasse the opposite is true\u2014most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.\nIn some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite. Ferns which grow in soil which has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by hormones remaining to develop as male."}
+{"id": "3857", "revid": "1530097", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3857", "title": "Hacksaw", "text": "A hacksaw is a tool for sawing. A hacksaw is designed for cutting materials like very thin metals and plastic. It has a handle on one end, and can be either pushed or pulled across the object being cut. There are manual and electric hacksaws."}
+{"id": "3858", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3858", "title": "Spade", "text": "In gardening, a spade is a tool for digging. It is similar to a shovel. It has a straight handle, usually of wood and a blade, usually of steel. \nFor some purposes the difference between a spade and a shovel is important. For example, spade more easily digs in hard soil; a shovel more easily moves gravel. \nIn card games a spade is one of the four shapes or \"suits\" of cards."}
+{"id": "3859", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3859", "title": "Hoe (tool)", "text": "A hoe is a tool in farming and gardening. It has a blade, usually metal, attached to a long handle, usually wood. There are many types of blade and several uses, probably the most common of which is weeding. Other uses include shaping the soil and harvesting root crops such as potatoes. Along with the spade and fork, the hoe is considered a basic, essential hand farming implement."}
+{"id": "3860", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3860", "title": "Shovel", "text": "A shovel is a tool used for moving loose material. Shovels have a flat bottom head which is angled slightly from the handle to enable scooping and moving of material. \nAlthough a shovel can be used for digging, it is much less efficient than a spade. Spades are straight, and transmit force straight downwards. Shovels move loose material, such as coal, snow, gravel etc. They are usually made of metal at the bottom, and wood is sometimes used for the handle."}
+{"id": "3861", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3861", "title": "Plunger", "text": "A plunger is a tool. It is used to get rid of things that are blocking pipes. The plunger is placed over one end of the pipe, and the handle is pushed up and down. Doing this creates a sucking force, which makes the thing blocking the pipe move and unclog."}
+{"id": "3862", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3862", "title": "Ladder", "text": "A ladder is a tool which is made for people to climb up or down. Ladders have two vertical supports that go along the whole length of the ladder. Between these supports are the horizontal rungs. The rung is what the climber can put his foot on. The climber can use his hands to hold on to the rungs above him, or to the supports at the side.\nSome ladders are made in one piece. They can be carried around and made to lean against something such as the wall of a house. There should be a good distance between the bottom of the ladder and the wall so that the ladder is not too vertical, otherwise the ladder might fall backwards and the climber would fall off. Sometimes these ladders are extension ladders. Extension ladders are made in two or more sections so that the ladder can fold up to make it easier to carry about and to store. To open up the ladder, each section slides up almost to the top of the next section.\nStep ladders are useful in the home or the garden to reach things that are not too high, e.g. ceilings or the tops of hedges. They have two parts which are joined by a hinge, so that they are shaped like an upside down V. There is usually a platform at the top to stand on, but this can be dangerous unless great care is taken that the ladder will not wobble or fall down.\nSome ladders are vertical (they go straight up or down). These are fixed onto something. Examples are: ladders in a swimming pool for climbing in and out of the water, small ladders to climb up to a top bunk bed, ladders at the side of a big boat or at the side of a canal lock or of any other high or low construction where workmen may need to get up or down to do repairs.\nFire engines always have ladders. They often have a turntable ladder which makes it possible for the ladder to be facing in any direction.\nRope ladders can be folded away easily. They may be used for climbing trees or for rock climbing or in caves."}
+{"id": "3863", "revid": "2133", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3863", "title": "Open end spanner", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3864", "revid": "2133", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3864", "title": "Adjustable spanner", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3867", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3867", "title": "Oral history", "text": "Oral history is history that is told rather than written down. It is given through talking rather than reading a book. It is usually passed from generation to generation in order to explain events that have occurred. \nThough today oral history is not as popular as written history, it is still used in many places as a way of transferring knowledge about the past."}
+{"id": "3868", "revid": "1506319", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3868", "title": "Generation", "text": "A generation means any group that is sorted by the time they were born.\nIn a family, a generation means all the people on one level of a family tree. For example, your brothers, sisters and cousins are in the same generation as you.\nIn populations of people, a \u201cgeneration\u201d means groups of people born in different periods of time. Each generation lasts for the average amount of time between the birth of parents, and the birth of their children.\nExamples of generations:\nGenerational theory.\nThe sociologist Karl Mannheim (d. 1947) wrote about a theory of generations in his 1923 essay \"The Problem of Generations\". "}
+{"id": "3870", "revid": "1680045", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3870", "title": "Gene", "text": "Genes are parts of DNA. DNA is a molecule inside a cell that carries the instructions for making the proteins the cell will need. Each gene contains one or more sets of instructions These instructions usually code for a particular protein. (For example coding for the protein that would make your hair brown, or blonde). Humans have about 20,000 genes that code proteins and many more that are non-coding. Half of a person's genes come from the mother. The other half come from the father.\nThe definition.\nOriginally: a hereditary unit which occupies a specific position (\"locus\") on a chromosome. Other definitions are ways the gene showed itself: \nModern definitions must take note of later discoveries. There are now two classes of genes:p173\nWhat genes do?\nGenes are passed on from parent to child and are an important part of what decides how children look and act (their biological properties). Genes affect the way our bodies work, including how we look. Our eye, hair and skin color are decided by genes. It is said that genes cause \"genetic\" effects in our bodies.\nA gene may be \"dominant\" or \"recessive\". These terms refer to the effect a gene has on the offspring who carry it in their genome.\nFor example, let's say a mother only has genes for brown hair and a father only has genes for red hair. The child will inherit \u2013 receive \u2013 genes for red hair (from her father) and brown hair (from her mother). The brown hair gene is 'dominant' to the red hair gene. This means the child will have brown hair even though she has genes for both red and brown hair. This means only one dominant gene is needed for the child to receive that particular trait, while two recessive genes are needed for one.\nA recessive trait might stay hidden for many generations. Let us use the child from the last example. We will call her \"Mary\". Mary has brown hair but has genes for both red and brown hair. Let us say Mary grew up and married Tom. Tom also has brown hair, but like Mary one of his parents had red hair. This means Tom has genes for both red and brown hair. Mary and Tom would each have a chance of passing either brown or red hair genes to their children. This means that the children of Mary and Tom could have either red or brown hair. This explains why a person might look different from their parents, but look like their grandparents or great-grandparents.\nStructure and function.\nThe structure of a gene has many elements: the actual protein coding sequence is only a small part. There are DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA."}
+{"id": "3872", "revid": "1444326", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3872", "title": "Alliteration", "text": "Alliteration is when a sentence or phrase has words that start with the same sound. It is commonly used in advertising, poetry, headlines, and tongue-twisters. Basically the first consonant repeats itself throughout the sentence.\nAlliteration is common for poetry. It was used one thousand years ago in Anglo-Saxon poems. A fine example is a strophe from \"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner\" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge:\nRobert Browning used alliteration many times, too. he employed it in the poem \"Summum bonum\". This is a Latin expression and means \"all the best\".\nAlliteration is most commonly used in modern music but is also seen in magazine article titles, advertisements, business names, comic strip or cartoon characters, common sayings, and a variety of other titles and expressions.\nOne example of alliteration is \"Sally sold sea shells by the sea shore\". In \"Death Note\", the pseudonym of the detective, L, is Ryuzaki Ryuga, his real name is L Lawliet.\nOften, characters in books are named with alliteration. Many names in Harry Potter feature alliterations (for example, Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, and Salazar Slytherin). Similarly, in \"Hairspray\", most characters' names feature alliterations (e.g. Tracy Turnblad, Link Larkin, Corny Collins, Dan Dougherty, Penny Pingleton, and Seaweed Stubbs).\nTitles of books sometimes use alliteration, including the titles of all thirteen books (except the last one) in Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events. Author Jeff Lindsay's novels about serial killer Dexter Morgan all feature alliteration in their titles: for example, Darkly Dreaming Dexter. Another example is William Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost.\nA common application of alliteration is in books intended for children learning about letters. Animalia by Graeme Base famously applies alliteration within a storybook, going in order through each letter of the English alphabet and providing many sentences with alliteration.\nPlaces in books: Bat Barn, Terror Tombs, Vampire Village, etc.\nCode names: The release names of the Linux distribution, Ubuntu (e.g. Breezy Badger, Hoary Hedgehog, Feisty Fawn, etc.).\nGame Titles: Prince of Persia (also the tag: Prince of Persia \u2013 Warrior Within).\nBrand Names and Alliteration\nCompanies company use this alliterative effect all the time. The major reason companies use this technique is to ensure that their brand name is memorable. Think, for example, of all of the famous and well known brands and companies that have used alliteration in their names:\n\u2022Dunkin\u2019 Donuts\n\u2022PayPal\n\u2022Best Buy\n\u2022Coca-Cola\n\u2022LifeLock\n\u2022Park Place\n\u2022American Apparel\n\u2022American Airlines\n\u2022Chuckee Cheese\u2019s\n\u2022Bed Bath & Beyond\n\u2022Krispy Kreme\n\u2022The Scotch and Sirloin\nFamous People and Alliteration\nAlliterative names can also help you stand out in the crowd and can make you more memorable. For example, both fictional characters and real people may stand out in your head as a result of the alliterative effect of their name. Think of:\n\u2022Ronald Reagan\n\u2022Sammy Sosa\n\u2022Jesse Jackson\n\u2022Michael Moore\n\u2022William Wordsworth\n\u2022Mickey Mouse\n\u2022Porky Pig\n\u2022Lois Lane\n\u2022Marilyn Monroe\n\u2022Fred Flintstone\n\u2022Donald Duck\n\u2022SpongeBob SquarePants\n\u2022Seattle Seahawks\n\u2022Katie Courec (Remember, alliterative words don\u2019t even necessarily have to start with the same letter, they simply have to have the same first sound).\nPhrases and quotes.\nFinally, many famous phrases, quotes and saying also make use of alliteration:\n\u2022Busy as a bee\n\u2022Dead as a doornail\n\u2022Get your goat\n\u2022Give up the ghost\n\u2022Good as gold\n\u2022Home sweet home\n\u2022Last laugh\n\u2022Leave in the Lurch\n\u2022Living the life\n\u2022Look to your laurels\n\u2022Mad as a March hare\n\u2022Make a mountain out of a molehill\n\u2022Method to the madness\n\u2022Moaning Minnie\n\u2022Neck and neck\n\u2022Not on your nelly\n\u2022Out of order\n\u2022Pleased as punch\n\u2022Pooh-pooh\n\u2022Primrose path\n\u2022Right as rain\n\u2022Right roughshod\n\u2022Round Robin\nAlliteration is commonly used since it adds interest to a sentence and can be a great way to help you remember names and phrases that you might other wide forget. Enjoy alliteration. It is a very fun and useful literary device."}
+{"id": "3873", "revid": "1507082", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3873", "title": "Homophone", "text": "Homophones are words that sound the same as another word but have a different meaning, and often a different spelling.\nExamples include:"}
+{"id": "3874", "revid": "1406578", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3874", "title": "Condensation", "text": "Condensation is how gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface. Condensation is part of the water cycle. It is the opposite of evaporation. \nProcess.\nCondensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape. Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing. In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas, at that temperature.\nDuring condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down. Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change. Condensation is exothermic. This means that condensation makes the temperature go up. Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature loss.\nIt is a useful process. One use is in distillation. The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently. This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water. The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue."}
+{"id": "3875", "revid": "935234", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3875", "title": "Precipitation", "text": "Precipitation is the falling of water from the atmosphere. It is a term in meteorology, and includes rain, snow, sleet, ice pellets, dew, frost, and hail. These form by condensation from atmospheric water vapor, and fall under gravity.\nFog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions. In that case, the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. \nIf liquid, precipitation can be measured using a rain gauge. The most common form of solid precipitation is snow. Snow is made when temperatures are so cold that water vapor changes directly to solid crystals. Frozen rain is hail or ice pellets."}
+{"id": "3876", "revid": "396686", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3876", "title": "Relief rain", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3877", "revid": "515", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3877", "title": "Convection rain", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3878", "revid": "10129644", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3878", "title": "Relative humidity", "text": "Relative humidity is a way of describing how much humidity is present in the air, compared to how much there could be. Meteorologists often use the relative humidity as a measurement to describe the weather at various places.\nWhen the temperature is warm, more water vapor can be in the air than when it is cold. If the actual amount of vapor is compared to the total amount there could be as a fraction, then the number tells if the air feels dry or moist. The value is usually written in percent, where 0% means that the air is totally dry, and 100% means that it is so moist that mist or dew is about to form.\nWhen the temperature is lowered to the dew point, relative humidity becomes 100% and the water vapor condenses, making precipitation as dew, rain or snow (etc.)."}
+{"id": "3879", "revid": "7629", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3879", "title": "Doldrums", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3880", "revid": "1658459", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3880", "title": "Vitamin C", "text": "Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vitamin. It is found in fresh fruits, berries and vegetables. It is one of the water-soluble vitamins.\nVitamin C is important in wound healing. Without enough vitamin C, a person can get a sickness called scurvy. Lack of vitamin C was a serious health problem on long ocean trips where supplies of fresh fruit were quickly used up. Many people died from scurvy on such trips.\nMost animals make their own vitamin C. Some mammals cannot. Those that cannot include the main suborder of primates, the Haplorrhini: these are the tarsiers, monkeys and apes, including humans. Others are bats, capybaras and guinea pigs.\nVitamin C was first discovered in 1928. In 1932, it was proved to stop the sickness called scurvy. That fruit was a cure for scurvy was known long before vitamins were known to exist.\nHistory.\nThrough history the need for people to eat fresh plant food to help them get through long sieges or long sea trips was known by some wise people but was often forgotten.\nThe first attempt to prove this idea was by a ship's doctor in the Royal Navy called James Lind. At sea in May 1747 he gave some crew members lemon juice as well as their normal food, while others continued on normal food alone. The results showed that lemons prevented the disease. Lind wrote up his work and published it in 1753.\nLind's work was slow to be noticed. In 1795 the British navy adopted lemon or lime juice as food for sailors. The men hated the sour taste, and had to be forced to take it.\nLimes, oranges; sauerkraut, salted cabbage, malt, and soup were tried with various effects. James Cook relied on sauerkraut to prevent the disease on his long voyages of exploration.\nIt was originally thought that only humans got scurvy. However, in 1907 Alex Holst and Theodore Frohlich, two Norwegian chemists found that guinea pigs could also get it if not given fresh food.\nIn 1928 the Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson proved that Eskimos (Inuit) are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet by eating raw meat.\nIn 1912 the Polish American scientist Casimir Funk first used the word \"vitamin\" for something present in food in small amounts that is essential to health. He named the unknown thing that prevented scurvy \"Vitamin C\".\nFrom 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, and separately the American Charles Glen King, first took out vitamin C from food and showed it to be an acid they called \"ascorbic acid\".\nIn 1933/1934, the British chemists Norman Haworth and Edmund Hirst, and separately the Polish Tadeus Reichstein, successfully synthesized the vitamin.\nIt was the first man-made vitamin. This made it possible to make lots of vitamin C cheaply in factories. Haworth won the 1937 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for this work.\nIn 1959 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason why some animals get scurvy is because their liver cannot make one chemical enzyme that other animals have.\nSources.\nPlant sources.\nCitrus fruits (such as lime, Indian gooseberry, lemon, orange, and grapefruit) are good sources of vitamin C.\nOther foods that are good sources of vitamin C include papaya, broccoli, brussels sprouts, blackcurrants, strawberries, cauliflower, spinach, cantaloupe, sweet peppers, and kiwifruit.\nThe following table is to give an idea of how much vitamin C is in different plant foods. Each individual fruit will vary.\nThe amount of vitamin C in foods of plant origin depends on the kind of plant, the kind of soil where it grew, how much rain and sun it got, the length of time since it was picked, and how it was stored since then.\nCooking food destroys vitamin C.\nAnimal sources.\nMost species of animals synthesise their own vitamin C. It is therefore not a vitamin for them. It is made by a series of enzyme-driven steps which convert glucose to ascorbic acid. This is done either in the kidneys (reptiles and some birds), or the liver (mammals and perching birds). The loss of an enzyme which is essential for ascorbic acid synthesis has occurred quite frequently in evolution. It has happened in most fish, many birds; some bats, guinea pigs and most but not all primates, including humans. The mutations have not been lethal because ascorbic acid is so common in various food sources, especially fruit.\nIt was only realised in the 1920s that some cuts of meat and fish are also a source of vitamin C. However, the muscle and fat which make up the modern western diet are poor sources. As with fruit and vegetables cooking destroys the vitamin C content.\nArtificial chemical synthesis.\nVitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process developed in the 1930s uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The more modern Two-Step fermentation process was originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.\nIn 1934, the Swiss pharmaceutical company Hoffmann-La Roche was the first to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of Redoxon.\nMain producers today are BASF/ Takeda, Roche, Merck and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd of the People's Republic of China.\nFunctions of vitamin C in the body.\nIn living organisms, ascorbate is an antioxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress. It is also a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions, including several collagen synthesis reactions that cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy when they are dysfunctional. In animals, these reactions are especially important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries.\nVitamin C deficiency.\nLack of ascorbic acid in the daily diet leads to a disease\ncalled scurvy, a form of avitaminosis that is characterized by:\nDaily requirement.\nA healthy person on a balanced western diet should be able to get all the vitamin C needed to prevent the symptoms of scurvy from their daily diet. People who smoke, those under stress and women in pregnancy have a slightly higher requirement.\nThe amount of vitamin C needed to avoid deficiency symptoms and maintain health has been set by variously national agencies as follows:\nSome researchers have calculated the amount needed for an adult human to achieve similar blood serum levels as Vitamin C synthesising mammals as follows:\nHigh doses (thousands of mg) may result in diarrhoea, which is harmless if the dose is reduced immediately. Some researchers (Cathcart) claim the onset of diarrhoea to be an indication of where the body\u2019s true vitamin C requirement lies.\nThe small size of the ascorbic acid molecule means the kidneys cannot retain it in the body. Quite a low level in the blood serum will cause traces to be present in the urine. All vitamin C synthesising mammals have traces in the urine at all times.\nIn April 1998 \"Nature\" reported alleged carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of excessive doses of vitamin C. This was given great prominence in the world's media. The effects were noted in test tube experiments and on only two of the 20 markers of free radical damage to DNA. They have not been supported by further evidence from living organisms. Almost all mammals manufacture their own vitamin C in amounts equivalent to human doses of thousands of milligrams per day. Large amounts of the vitamin are used in orthomolecular medicine and no harmful effects have been observed even in doses of 10,000\u00a0mg per day or more.\nTherapeutic uses.\nVitamin C is needed in the diet to prevent scurvy. It also has a reputation for being useful in the treatment of colds and flu. The evidence to support this idea, however, is ambiguous and the effect may depend on the dose size and dosing regime. \nVitamin C advocacy.\nFred R. Klenner, a doctor in Reidsville, North Carolina reported in 1949 that poliomyelitis yielded to repeated megadoses of intravenous vitamin C.\nNobel Prize winning chemist Linus Pauling began actively promoting vitamin C in the 1960s as a means to greatly improve human health and resistance to disease.\nSome medical and scientific opinion sees vitamin C as a low cost and safe way to treat infectious disease and to deal with a wide range of poisons.\nA meta-study of the published research claimed that relatively high levels of vitamin C must be maintained in the body for it to function effectively as an antioxidant.\nSome research shows that there are veterinary benefits of vitamin C as well. This is relevant to the question of whether cats and dogs can be healthily kept on non-meat diets.\nOne meta-study of the published research examined the effectiveness of ascorbic acid in the treatment of infectious disease and toxins. It was conducted in 2002 by Thomas Levy, medical director of the Colorado Integrative Medical Center in Denver. It claimed that overwhelming scientific evidence exists for its therapeutic role.\nSome vitamin C advocates say that vitamin C is not used therapeutically because it cannot be patented. Pharmaceutical companies seek to generate revenue and profit their shareholders. They may be reluctant to research or promote something that will make them little money."}
+{"id": "3881", "revid": "1542442", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3881", "title": "Dichlorphenolindophenol", "text": "DCPIP (its full name is \"2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol\") is a blue chemical used as a dye because when it is oxidized it is blue. Once DCPIP is reduced (by addition of electrons) it does not have a color anymore. This reaction can be reversed, and the colourless DCPIP will turn blue again, when it is oxidized.\nPurpose.\nDCPIP is often used to measure the electron transport chain in plants. It has a higher redox potential (electron affinity) than the Fe-S complex in cytochrome b and will therefore \"steal\" electrons from it. This means that cytochrome c does not receive them. The process cuts off the electron supply of I. A common way to illustrate this change is by the addition of vitamin C solution. This reduces the 'jelly' by transforming it to a colourless mass. This experiment can be carried out to illustrate the effect of changing cell sizes on SA/V (surface area:volume ratio). This is known as Titration.\nReferences.\n "}
+{"id": "3882", "revid": "10165113", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3882", "title": "Healthy diet", "text": "A healthy diet or balanced diet is a diet (food that you eat) that contains the right amounts of all the food groups. It includes fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy products, and protein. It does not include too much or too little of any kind of food. Eating wrong amounts of a food group, whether it be too much or too little, is called an 'unhealthy diet' or an 'imbalanced diet'. A healthy diet is one that includes more foods that come from plants, animals and fewer convenience foods.\nBasic nutrition.\nWhat is known about nutrition and diet keeps changing as more is learned. However, basic nutrition remains much the same. The best advice is to talk to a doctor or dietitian for personalized information based on an individual's lifestyle, health, and food likes and dislikes.\nSpecial diets.\nThere are some diets made for people with some diseases. Here are some examples:"}
+{"id": "3883", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3883", "title": "Dye", "text": "Dye is a substance used to color materials. It is often used to color the fabric used to make clothing. It has low solubility. A pigment will not do this because it will not stick to the fibers of the fabric and color them. A dye can be natural, usually made from plant material such as berries, or a dye can be artificial, meaning that it is made by humans from chemicals such as petrochemicals.\nMost natural dyes are gotten from different parts of a plant like the roots, fruits, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. Most dyes are synthetic and are made from petrochemicals.\nClassification.\nDyes can be classified based on their solubility and chemical properties. "}
+{"id": "3885", "revid": "111904", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3885", "title": "Oxidized", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3886", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3886", "title": "Poetry", "text": "Poetry is written, spoken or sung language that is used in stronger or more original ways than prose is used. Poetry uses the \"meanings\" of words as prose does; but it also uses the \"sounds\" of words as if they were music, especially rhymes, other repeating sounds, and rhythms (beats or meters).\nPoetry arranges words and groups of words to make repetitions and parallelisms. Poetry uses figures of speech, ellipses and delayed identification to suggest that there is more meaning in the language.\nSome people believe that poetry began when language began. They think it is probably \"as old as history and older, present wherever religion is present.\"\nThe English words \"poetry,\" \"poet,\" and \"poem\" first appeared in English in the 14th century. They come from the Latin word \"poeta\", which itself probably comes from \"poiein\", a Greek word that means \"to make.\"\nThere are three major kinds of poetry: lyric, narrative, and dramatic.\nA poem can be as short as a few words or as long as a book. A one-line poem is called a monostich. A poem that is as long as a book is an epic.\nPoems are often printed on the page as lines and groups of lines called stanzas.\nThere are many different \"poetic forms\" or ways to shape a poem on the printed page or in the ear of the person who hears it. Some forms are: the sonnet, haiku, the ballad, the stev, the prose poem, the ode, free verse, blank verse, limerick, and nursery rhymes."}
+{"id": "3887", "revid": "1551765", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3887", "title": "Literature", "text": "Literature is a group of works of art that are made of words. Most are written, but some are shared by word of mouth. Literature usually means a work of poetry, theatre or narrative. There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels. They can also be put into groups by their language, historical time, place of origin, genre, and subject. The word \"literature\" comes from the Latin word \"literatura,\" which means \"writing formed with letters.\"\nMost of the earliest works were epic poems. Epic poems are long stories or myths about adventures, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia. \"Ramayana\" and \"Mahabharta\", two Indian epics, are still read today. The Iliad and \"Odyssey\" are two famous Greek poems by Homer. They were shared over time through speaking and memory and were written down around the 9th or 8th century BCE.\nLiterature can also mean imaginative or creative writing, which is read for its artistic value. Literature is also related to people and community. According to Sangidu (2004) as quoted by Arfani et.al (2023), \"literature is a part of society, a fact that inspires authors to involve themselves in the life order of the community where they are and try to fight for the position of the social structure and the problems face in society\". "}
+{"id": "3888", "revid": "10259802", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3888", "title": "Imagination", "text": "Imagination is the ability to form images of things or events in one's mind. When someone \"imagines\" something, they are trying to picture something in their mind that they are not experiencing at the moment or that is not really happening."}
+{"id": "3889", "revid": "1652218", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3889", "title": "Calorimeter", "text": "A calorimeter is a tool that measures the amount of thermal energy contained in a substance, or released in a reaction. A commonplace use is to measure heat of combustion. "}
+{"id": "3890", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3890", "title": "Bolus", "text": "In biology, a bolus (from the Latin word for \"ball\"), is a ball-shaped living thing.\nIn medicine, a \"bolus\" is a large amount of a drug given to patients to raise the blood level before treatment.\nA \"bolus\" can also refer to a ball of food after it has been chewed. It passes down the oesophagus by peristalsis."}
+{"id": "3891", "revid": "9788178", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3891", "title": "Oesophagus", "text": "The oesophagus (or esophagus) is also called the gullet. It is the part of the gastrointestinal system between the mouth and the stomach. It connects the pharynx and the stomach. It is about long.\nThe oesophagus is lined with muscle, and is lubricated. Its muscle pushes food down into the stomach. The oesophagus can contract or expand to allow for the passage of food. The muscular movement that pushes the food down the oesophagus is called peristalsis. At the entrance to the stomach there is a ring of muscle called a sphincter. This is usually closed, but relaxes as food approaches, allowing it to enter the stomach. In the stomach, the food is churned until it turns into a soupy mixture called chyme.\nFetal development.\nThe airways and intestines form as the same tube in embryonic development. It starts forming at the belly button (foregut)."}
+{"id": "3892", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3892", "title": "Protease", "text": "A protease is a digestive enzyme. It breaks down long chains of proteins into shorter amino acids. Proteases have evolved a number of times. We know this because different kinds of protease can do the same reaction in completely different ways. Proteases are found in animals, plants, bacteria, archaea and viruses.\nNow more than 50 types of protease are known. Each is a separate evolutionary origin of proteolysis.\nProtease can be divided into 6 types :"}
+{"id": "3894", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3894", "title": "Dental floss", "text": "Dental floss is a special type of thread. It is used for cleaning spaces between teeth which cannot be reached by toothbrushes. It is important to floss before brushing teeth and to floss at least once a day. Tooth brushing will not clean food that is packed between teeth. This 'food packing' can lead to unhealthy teeth and gums. Bacteria grow in this 'packed food' between teeth. These bacteria cause the surface of teeth (enamel) to break down. Then the teeth and gums and sometimes even the jaw can become seriously diseased. \nThese bacteria that come from the food on the teeth and between the teeth are called \"plaque\" or \"bacterial plaque\" and also can cause the gums to become less healthy. \"Gingivitis\" which means gum disease is one type of disease that flossing helps to prevent. Very serious diseases can start on the teeth and move to the bone of the jaw, damaging the jaw badly. Flossing your teeth reduces the danger of these serious diseases of the jaw bone. These hard-to-cure jaw bone diseases are called \"periodontal disease\". \nFood that is trapped between the teeth can be uncomfortable and even cause pain. Some food is hard, for example meat, apple. Ground meat is soft and so is apple sauce. Chicken and turkey meat are hard and full of fibres and very often get trapped between the teeth. When hard food is trapped between the teeth it can cause discomfort and sometimes pain. When hard food is pressed by the teeth against the gum it can cause pain. Some people use toothpicks to try to remove trapped food from between the teeth and other people use dental floss to do this.\nDental floss can do most things that a toothpick can do but dental floss is much thinner than a toothpick and can thus get to places that most toothpicks cannot reach. So floss presumably does a better job at getting bits of food out from between the teeth, relieving discomfort and pain quicker.\nWhen a person first starts flossing, bleeding can happen. This is normal and happens because teeth and gums that are not flossed are less healthy. It will stop as the teeth and gums get healthier with flossing."}
+{"id": "3895", "revid": "1464674", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3895", "title": "Rickets", "text": "Rickets is a disease that happens in young children. It happens in children who do not get enough vitamin D and calcium. It causes larger spaces inside bones, and makes them dry, like sponges. It can make the legs curve toward each other (so the knees touch) or away from each other.\nRickets in adults is called osteomalacia.\nThe word \"rickets\" comes from the Greek word \"rhakhis\", which means \"spine.\"\nCause.\nPeople need both vitamin D and calcium to make their bones strong.\nVitamin D helps the bones absorb (take up) calcium. Low vitamin D makes it hard to absorb calcium.\nThe human body makes vitamin D3 in the skin, from cholesterol. Then the liver changes vitamin D3 into calcitriol, which sends calcium from the blood into the bones. The bones need calcium to stay strong. However, the skin will not make vitamin D3 unless enough ultraviolet light shines on it. Sunlight contains ultraviolet light, so getting enough sun is one way of getting enough D3.\nPeople need calcium for calcification. Calcification uses calcium to help make bones bigger and stronger. Low calcium makes bones delicate and easier to break.\nPrevention.\nRickets can be prevented if a person gets plenty of calcium and vitamin D.\nThe best way to do this is to get a lot of sunlight, and eat foods that have a lot of vitamin D and calcium in them. However, people who cannot get enough vitamin D and calcium this way can take supplements (vitamin pills that have calcium and vitamin D in them).\nCalcium.\nFoods that have a lot of calcium in them include:\nCalcium is absorbed best by the bones when it is taken in amounts of 1000mg or less. Because of this, doctors suggest eating smaller amounts of foods with calcium in them, at different times in the day, instead of all at once.\nVitamin D.\nThere are three ways to get vitamin D: sunlight, foods, or supplements (vitamin pills that have vitamin D in them). However, many people cannot get enough vitamin D just from their diet.\nThere are only a few foods that have a lot of vitamin D in them. They include:\nBreast milk may not have enough vitamin D in it to prevent rickets. Babies who are only breastfed, and not fed any other foods, may be given vitamin D drops to make sure they do not get rickets. However, this is not a significant risk if mothers and child have some exposure to sunlight. Children with dark skin are more likely to need additional vitamin D.\nRisk factors.\nThese things make a person more likely to get rickets:\nSymptoms.\nSigns and symptoms of rickets include:"}
+{"id": "3896", "revid": "1663008", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3896", "title": "Bile", "text": "Bile or gall is an alkaline, green-yellow fluid. It is secreted from the liver of most vertebrate animals, and is often stored in the gall bladder. Bile helps digest fat.\nThe components of bile are, in descending order of composition, the following:\nThe name \"gall\" comes from the Greek word \"chol\u00e8\" meaning green or yellow. These colours come from the bile pigments. One of them is green and the other is yellow. When they are mixed together, they make feces brown. The term cholesterol and the illness cholera were named after gall.\nBile is also stored in bile ducts. Often after liver transplants, bile comes out of the body.\nBile increases fats' total surface area to volume ratio so their digestion is easier and faster. Hence, more fats and fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E and K can be absorbed. This keeps fat out of feces so they are brown instead of white, grey or greasy. "}
+{"id": "3897", "revid": "7998629", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3897", "title": "Dental pulp", "text": "The dental pulp is the part in the center of a tooth (pulp cavity). It is made up of living soft tissue and cells. It is surrounded by dentine and contains nerves and blood and lymph vessels."}
+{"id": "3898", "revid": "9717936", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3898", "title": "Protoplasm", "text": "\"Protoplasm\" is an old term which means the living substance that makes up a cell. It is no longer much used. Biologists prefer to talk about the cytoplasm and the cell nucleus.\nIn plant cells, it is surrounded by a cell wall. In animal cells, the whole cell is made of protoplasm, surrounded by a cell membrane. Protoplasm in living beings is made up of about 7580% water. However, this is rather misleading because the cytoplasm is full of structures called organelles, which do various tasks. The endoplasmic reticulum is the largest of these structures; there are many other organelles. \nThe word \"protoplasm\" was first used in 1846 by Hugo von Mohl to describe the substance in plant cells, apart from the cell wall, the cell nucleus and the vacuole. After the invention of the electron microscope it was clear that a living cell is much more complicated than von Mohl knew."}
+{"id": "3899", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3899", "title": "Amylase", "text": "Amylase is an enzyme which breaks down starch into sugars which the body can use.\nMore accurately, it is a family of similar enzymes which work in a wide range of animals, plants and fungi. There are two variants in humans: alpha-amylase, and gamma-amylase.\nAlpha-amylase is a major digestive enzyme. Its optimum pH is 6.7\u20137.0. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice. It takes starch chains and breaks them into smaller pieces with two or three glucose units. It can break down starch into maltose. It works in the mouth and stomach during digestion.\nThe gamma-amylase has most acidic optimum pH of all amylases because it is most active around pH 3. Therefore, it works best in the stomach, which does have an acidic pH.\nHuman evolution.\nApparently, early humans did not possess salivary amylase. The closest evolutionary relatives of humans, chimpanzees and bonobos, have either one or no copies of the gene for producing salivary amylase. A duplication event of the AMY1 gene led to the production of amylase in the saliva. The same event occurred independently in rodents. This shows the importance of salivary amylase in organisms that eat relatively large amounts of starch.\nCarbohydrates are a food source rich in energy. After the agricultural revolution, human diet began to rely more on plant and animal domestication in place of hunting and gathering. This shift marked the beginning of a diet composed of 49% carbohydrates as opposed to the previous 35% observed in Paleolithic humans. As such, starch became a staple of human diet. Humans that contained amylase in the saliva would benefit from increased ability to digest starch more efficiently and in higher quantities.\nNot all humans have the same number of copies of the AMY1 gene. Populations which rely on carbohydrates have a higher number of AMY1 copies than populations that eat little starch. The number of AMY1 gene copies in humans can range from six copies in agricultural groups such as European-American and Japanese (two high starch populations) to only 2-3 copies in hunter-gatherer societies such as the Biaka, Datog, and Yakuts.\nThe correlation between starch consumption and number of AMY1 copies suggests that more AMY1 copies in high starch populations is caused by natural selection. It is a favorable phenotype for those individuals. Therefore, it is likely that having more copies of AMY1 in a high starch population increases fitness and produces healthier, fitter offspring. Geographically close populations with different eating habits possess a different number of copies of the AMY1 gene. This offers strong evidence that natural selection has acted on this gene."}
+{"id": "3900", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3900", "title": "Variegated leaf", "text": "A variegated leaf is a type of leaf.\nUses.\nA variegated leaf is useful in conducting experiments to show that chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis to happen. They are also popular in horticulture.\nExperiments.\nThe easiest of these experiments is to stain the places where starch is produced (starch is a more compact form of glucose).\nPlace the leaves in boiling water for six minutes to soften the cells, and then in ethanol (alcohol). When the leaves are drained of colour, spread them out on a flat surface. Soak the leaves in iodine and the green parts will turn blue/black and the non green parts will stay the yellowish brown colour of iodine liquid. The green parts contain starch, which makes iodine turn blue/black. The blue/black stain is what shows starch is present. You could take \"before & after\" photos to prove the black areas were green at the start."}
+{"id": "3902", "revid": "1265117", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3902", "title": "Seam ripper", "text": "A seam ripper is a cutting tool. It is used for removing stitches in sewing and cutting open buttonholes made on a sewing machine. Sometimes it is also called a thread ripper.\nThe tool usually has a handle, shaft, and head. The head has two points: one flattened to form a pointed blade and the other forming a small point. \nTo use a seam ripper to remove sewn threads, the blade is placed underneath the thread to be cut. The thread slips down between the two points, and the tool is then lifted upwards allowing the blade to cut through the thread. Then the loose thread ends can be removed."}
+{"id": "3904", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3904", "title": "Plaque", "text": "Plaque: a word meaning a flat, plate-like object."}
+{"id": "3905", "revid": "209999", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3905", "title": "Pin cushion", "text": "A pin cushion is small cushion used for holding pins and needles. It is used so that the pins and needles are stored safely and can be taken out by pulling the head."}
+{"id": "3906", "revid": "1604351", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3906", "title": "Chemical cell", "text": "A chemical cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Most batteries are chemical cells. A chemical reaction takes place inside the battery and causes electric current to flow.\nThere are two main types of batteries - those that are \"rechargeable\" and those that are not.\nA battery that is not rechargeable will give electricity until the chemicals in it are used up. Then it is no longer useful. It can be rightly called 'use and throw'.\nA rechargeable battery can be \"recharged\" by passing electric current backwards through the battery; it can then be used again to produce more electricity. It was Gaston Plante, a French scientist who invented these rechargeable batteries in 1859.\nBatteries come in many shapes and sizes, from very small ones used in toys and cameras, to those used in cars or even larger ones. Submarines that aren't nuclear submarines require very large batteries.\nElectrochemical cells.\nAn extremely important class of\u00a0oxidation and reduction\u00a0reactions are used to provide useful electrical energy in batteries. A simple electrochemical cell can be made from copper and zinc metals with solutions of their sulphates. In the process of the reaction, electrons can be transferred from the zinc to the copper through an electrically conducting path as a useful electric current.\nAn electrochemical cell can be created by placing metallic electrodes into an electrolyte where a chemical reaction either uses or generates an electric current. Electrochemical cells which generate an electric current are called\u00a0voltaic cells\u00a0or galvanic cells, and common batteries consist of one or more such cells. In other electrochemical cells an externally supplied electric current is used to drive a chemical reaction which would not occur spontaneously. Such cells are called\u00a0electrolytic cells.\nVoltaic cells.\nAn\u00a0electrochemical cell\u00a0which causes external\u00a0electric current\u00a0flow can be created using any two different metals since metals differ in their tendency to lose electrons. Zinc more readily loses electrons than copper, so placing zinc and copper metal in solutions of their salts can cause electrons to flow through an external wire which leads from the zinc to the copper. As a zinc atom provides the electrons, it becomes a positive ion and goes into aqueous solution, decreasing the mass of the zinc electrode. On the copper side, the two electrons received allow it to convert a copper ion from solution into an uncharged copper atom which deposits on the copper electrode, increasing its mass. The two reactions are typically writtenThe letters in parentheses are just reminders that the zinc goes from a solid (s) into a water solution (aq) and vice versa for the copper. It is typical in the language of electrochemistry to refer to these two processes as \"half-reactions\" which occur at the two electrodes.\nIn order for the voltaic cell to continue to produce an external electric current, there must be a movement of the sulfate ions in solution from the right to the left to balance the electron flow in the external circuit. The metal ions themselves must be prevented from moving between the electrodes, so some kind of porous membrane or other mechanism must provide for the selective movement of the negative ions in the electrolyte from the right to the left.\nEnergy is required to force the electrons to move from the zinc to the copper electrode, and the amount of energy per unit charge available from the voltaic cell is called the\u00a0electromotive force (emf)\u00a0of the cell. Energy per unit charge is expressed in\u00a0volts\u00a0(1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb).\nClearly, to get energy from the cell, you must get more energy released from the oxidation of the zinc than it takes to reduce the copper. The cell can yield a finite amount of energy from this process, the process being limited by the amount of material available either in the electrolyte or in the metal electrodes. For example, if there were one\u00a0mole\u00a0of the sulfate ions SO42-\u00a0on the copper side, then the process is limited to transferring two moles of electrons through the external circuit. The amount of\u00a0electric charge\u00a0contained in a mole of electrons is called the Faraday constant, and is equal to\u00a0Avogadro's number\u00a0times the electron charge:The energy yield from a voltaic cell is given by the cell voltage times the number of moles of electrons transferred times the Faraday constant.The cell emf Ecell\u00a0may be predicted from the\u00a0standard electrode potentials\u00a0for the two metals. For the zinc/copper cell under the standard conditions, the\u00a0calculated cell potential\u00a0is 1.1 volts.\nSimple cell.\nA simple cell typically has plates of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in dilute sulphuric acid. The zinc dissolves and bubbles of hydrogen appear on the copper plate. These hydrogen bubbles interfere with the passage of current so a simple cell can only be used for a short time. To provide a steady current, a depolarizer (an oxidizing agent) is needed to oxidize the hydrogen. In the Daniel cell, the depolarizer is copper sulphate, which exchanges the hydrogen for copper. In the Leclanche battery, the depolarizer is manganese dioxide, which oxidizes the hydrogen to water.\nDaniel cell.\nEnglish chemist John Frederick Daniell developed a\u00a0voltaic cell\u00a0in 1836 which used zinc and copper and solutions of their ions."}
+{"id": "3907", "revid": "1556211", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3907", "title": "Deutschlandlied", "text": "Deutschlandlied (; \"The Song of the Germans\"), officially known as Das Lied der Deutschen (; \"Song of Germany\"), is a song written by Joseph Haydn and Hoffmann von Fallersleben. Part of this song is the national anthem of Germany (German National Anthem).\nA line from this song, \"Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit\" (\"Unity and Justice and Freedom\") is the considered to be the unofficial motto of Germany.\nHistory.\nThe music was written by Haydn in 1797 as the personal anthem of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. It was called \"Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser\" (\"God protect our Emperor Francis\"). The words which are used today were written by the poet August Heinrich Hoffman von Fallersleben in 1841. \nToday, the first line \"Germany, Germany above all\" sounds too strong for some people, and is often misunderstood. Fallersleben wanted a united Germany when he wrote it. At that time, Germany was not one country, but many small countries. So \"Germany above all\" meant that the most important thing to do was to have a unified Germany. Also, the poet was written in Heligoland, where people spoke German but were ruled by the British.\nFallersleben's music was very popular in Germany during the second part of the 19th century. This song was not a national anthem then, but a patriotic song supporting a united German state. On 11 August 1922, after 4 years of the end of the First World War and the abdication of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, it replaced the previous anthem \"Heil Dir im Siegerkranz\" (\"Hail Thee in the Victor's Crown\"). In 1921, a \"fourth stanza\", a new part or verse, was written by poet Albert Matthai with words about the difficult life in Germany at that time. This verse was rarely used.\nDuring the time of Adolf Hitler, only the first stanza of the song was used. This offended the international audience as the first stanza supports Germany holding colonial powers in non-consenting nations. This was often followed by Horst-Wessel Lied, the anthem of the Nazi Party.\nAfter the Second World War, Germany was divided into two countries. In 1949, the new West Germany tried to get a new song for the national anthem. Another song was chosen, written by poet Rudolf Alexander Schr\u00f6der. It was not very popular. Finally, on 2 May 1952, President Theodor Heuss approved the decision to make Das Lied der Deutschen the national anthem of Germany. However, only the third stanza was used.\nIn the other part of Germany, known as East Germany, the words of poet Johannes R. Becher (\"Auferstanden aus Ruinen\" - \"Risen from Ruins\") were used with a song written by Hanns Eisler. It was not very popular, and from the 1970s the words were not sung, because of the line \"Germany, [our] unified fatherland\".\nAfter East and West Germany united in 1990, the song again became the national anthem of Germany but only the third stanza is used. Today, the first part of the song is popular with nationalist extremists.\nLyrics.\nMetrical English Translation.\n<poem>\nTranslated by Kevin Kallande\nUnity and Right and Freedom,\nFor the German Fatherland!\nLet us all be strive towards them;\nBrotherly with Heart and Hand!\n\ud834\udd06 Unity and Right and Freedom,\nAre the pledge of Happiness;\nFlourish in this pledge of fortune,\nFlourish, German Fatherland! \ud834\udd07\nFlourish in this pledge of fortune,\nFlourish, German Fatherland!\n</poem>"}
+{"id": "3913", "revid": "293183", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3913", "title": "Cavity", "text": "A cavity is a hole.\nIt can also mean:"}
+{"id": "3914", "revid": "1464674", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3914", "title": "Evidence", "text": "Evidence is something that is used to support an argument. It gives examples of why something is true. \nEvidence is defined by Merriam-Webster dictionary as: \n1a : an outward sign : INDICATION\n1b : something that furnishes proof : TESTIMONY\nspecifically: something legally submitted to a tribunal to ascertain the truth of a matter\n2 : one who bears witness\nespecially: one who voluntarily confesses a crime and testifies for the prosecution against one's accomplices\nChoo states \u201cEvidence is the information with which the matters requiring proof in a trial are proved.\u201d The study of evidence, therefore, is the study of the process by which such matters are proved in court.\u201d (Choo, 42). \nPeter Achinstein defines evidence as \u201cinformation that increases probability of a hypothesis\u201d or \u201cinformation on the basis of which a hypothesis has high probability.\u201d (Achinstein, 44).\nThe Division of Extension Research and Training at the University of Arkansas defines evidence as \u201cthe outward sign, the indication, the proof\u201d (University of Arkansas, 1).\nFor example, if someone come across a cup of spilled milk, that person could look for evidence as to how the milk was spilled. If hairs of a cat and paw prints were found on the ground, they could be evidence that a cat was the cause of the spilled milk. If a witness saw the cat spilling the milk, her testimony would also be evidence.\nReferences.\nChoo, Andrew. Evidence. Oxford\u202f; New York\u202f: Oxford University Press, 2006, https://archive.org/details/evidence0000choo/page/n9/mode/2up.\nWebster, Merriam. \u201cEvidence.\u201d Merriam Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evidence.\nMiller, Colin. Evidence: Best Evidence Rule. 1st ed., CALI, eLangdell Press, 2012,https://www.cali.org/sites/default/files/BestEvidenceRule_Miller_Dec2014.pdf.\nAchinstein, Peter. The Book of Evidence. Oxford University, 2001, https://books.google.com/books?id=cZHflkcvCEUC&q=evidence.&pg=PP9\nForsyth, Stewart. \u201cWhat Is Opinion and What Is Evidence?\u201d InfoKat, 2019, https://saalck-uky.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01SAA_UKY/ija67f/cdi_webofscience_primary_000486649800003.\nWhat Is Evidence? University of Arkansas, June 1955, https://archive.org/details/CAT10680953/mode/2up."}
+{"id": "3917", "revid": "293183", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3917", "title": "Dyadic", "text": "A dyadic is a math function that needs two things in order to give something out. Addition and multiplication are dyadic. Powers are also dyadic. There are many more functions that are dyadic.\nDyadic may specifically refer to:"}
+{"id": "3919", "revid": "1531955", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3919", "title": "Hill", "text": "A hill is a landform that is higher than the surrounding terrain and that is smaller than a mountain. Hill is a highland of much lower elevation than a mountain. Normally it is not as steep as a mountain. By definition, a hill is often described as being lower than 600 meters (about 2,000 feet). However, some definitions say a hill is lower than 300 meters (about 1,000 feet). The surface of a hill is much more stable than that of a dune. Hill have long been used for hill forts"}
+{"id": "3922", "revid": "10130355", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3922", "title": "Enzyme", "text": "An enzyme is a protein molecule in cells which works as a biological catalyst. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the body, but do not get used while doing so, so they can be used over and over again. \nAlmost all biochemical reactions in living things need enzymes. With an enzyme, chemical reactions go much faster than they would without the enzymes.p39 Other biocatalysts are catalytic RNA molecules, called ribozymes.\nThe substances at the start of a reaction are called substrates. The substances at the end of a reaction are the products. Enzymes work on the substrates and turn them into products. The study of enzymes is called enzymology.\nThe first enzyme was found in 1833 by Anselme Payen.\nEnzyme structure.\nThere are thousands of different enzymes and each one is specific to the reaction which it catalyses. Enzymes have names which show what they do. Enzyme names usually end in \u2013ase to show that they are enzymes. Examples of this include ATP synthase. It makes a chemical called ATP. Another example is DNA polymerase. It reads an intact DNA strand and uses it as a template to make a new strand.\nOne example of an enzyme is amylase, found in saliva. It breaks down starch molecules into smaller glucose and maltose molecules. Another kind of enzyme is lipase. It breaks down fats into smaller molecules, fatty acids and glycerol.\nThe proteases are a whole class of enzymes. They break down other enzymes and proteins back into amino acids. Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA or RNA, often in specific place in the molecule.\nEnzymes are not only for breaking large chemicals into smaller chemicals. Other enzymes take smaller chemicals and build them up into bigger chemicals and do many other chemical tasks. The classification below lists the main types.\nBiochemists often draw a picture of an enzyme to use as a visual aid or map of the enzyme. This is hard to do because there may be hundreds or thousands of atoms in an enzyme. Biochemists cannot draw all this detail. Instead, they use ribbon models as pictures of enzymes. Ribbon models can show the shape of an enzyme without having to draw every atom.\nMost enzymes will not work unless the temperature and pH are just right. In mammals the right temperature is usually about 37oC degrees (body temperature). The correct pH can vary greatly. Pepsin is an example of an enzyme that works best when pH is about 1.5.\nHeating an enzyme above a certain temperature will destroy the enzyme permanently. It will be broken down by protease and the chemicals will be used again.\nSome chemicals can help an enzyme do its job even better. These are called \"activators\". Sometimes, a chemical can slow down an enzyme or even make the enzyme not work at all. These are called \"inhibitors\". Most drugs are chemicals that either speed up or slow down some enzyme in the human body.\nLock and key model.\nEnzymes are very specific. In 1894 Emil Fischer suggested that both the enzyme and the substrate have \"specific complementary geometric shapes\" that fit exactly into one another. This is often referred to as \"the lock and key\" model. However, this model fails to explain what happens next.\nIn 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model. Since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is reshaped by interactions with the substrate. As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site. The amino acid sidechains of the active site are bent into positions so the enzyme does its catalytic work. In some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site.\nFunction.\nThe general equation for an enzyme reaction is:\nEnzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction by forming an intermediary complex with the substrate. This complex is called an enzyme-substrate complex.\nFor example, sucrase, 400 times the size of its substrate sucrose, splits the sucrose into its constituent sugars, which are glucose and fructose. The sucrase bends the sucrose and strains the bond between the glucose and fructose. Water molecules join in and make the cleavage in a fraction of a second. Enzymes have these key features:\nControl of enzyme activity.\nThere are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell.\nEnzyme inhibitors.\nInhibitors can be used to stop an enzyme from binding to a substrate. This may be done to slow down an enzyme-controlled reaction. The inhibitors fit loosely or partially into the enzyme's active site. This prevents or slows down an enzyme-substrate complex being formed.\nDenaturation.\nDenaturation is the \"irreversible\" alteration of an enzyme's active site, caused by an extreme change in temperature or ph. It will decrease the rate of reaction because the substrate molecule will not be able to fit into the active site, so products cannot be formed.\nCofactors.\nCofactors, or coenzymes, are helper molecules which are needed to make an enzyme work. They are not proteins and may be organic or inorganic molecules. Both types of molecules sometimes contain a metal ion at the centre, such as Mg2+, Cu2+, Mn2+ or iron-sulphur clusters. This is because such ions may act as electron donors, and this is important in many reactions. The need of enzymes for various little helpers is the basic reason why animals, including ourselves, need trace elements and vitamins.\nClassification.\nEnzymes have been classified by the \"International Union of Biochemistry\". Their Commission on Enzymes has grouped all known enzymes into six classes:\nThe individual enzymes are given a four-figure number which classifies them in the database.p145\nUses of enzymes.\nEnzymes are used commercially for:"}
+{"id": "3924", "revid": "1659990", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3924", "title": "Mountain", "text": "A mountain is a large natural rise of the Earth's surface that usually has a \"summit\" (the name for a mountain's top, which can also be called a peak). It is usually steeper and taller than a hill. By definition, mountains are often thought of as being a hill which is higher than 610 meters (about 2,000 feet). \nFormation.\nThe forming of a mountain is called orogeny. Mountains are formed when rock layers in the ground are pushed from opposite sides, and by being pushed, they push the crust up. A mountain range is a large group of mountains beside each other. There are three main ways a mountain may be made:\nFold mountains.\nFold mountains occur when two plates collide. The less dense continental crust \"floats\" on the denser mantle rocks beneath. The continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines. The Jura Mountains are an example of fold mountains.\nFolded mountains make up some of the highest mountains in the world. Folded mountains commonly form along boundaries, where 2 continents meet. Some really complex folds are in parts of the Andes, Alps, Himalayas, Appalachians, and Russia's Ural Mountains. These long mountain chains also show lots of signs of folding.\nBlock mountains.\nBlock mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a seam where rocks can move past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or \"horsts\". The dropped blocks are called \"graben\". They can form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range province of Western North America and the Rhine valley. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned.\nVolcanic mountains.\nVolcanoes are formed in one of these ways:\nExamples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the states of Utah and Arizona, in the United States.\nVolcanic mountains form when molten rock erupts onto the Earth's surface. They can either form on land or in the ocean. The Cascade Range in Washington, Oregon and northern California is made of volcanoes. Some of the largest volcanoes are on divergent boundaries, which form the mid-ocean ridges. The mid-ocean ridges have big volcanic mountain chains that run through the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The mountains in the mid-ocean ridges can grow tall enough to create islands such as Iceland or the Azores.\nOther volcanic mountains form over hot spots, pockets of magma beneath the crust which erupt onto Earth's surface. The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of really high volcanic islands that have formed over a hot spot on the sea floor. The main Hawaiian island is a volcano about above the ocean floor. Its base is about wide. Almost of this island is above sea level.\nOther terms.\nDome mountains.\nDome mountains, like those in the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Adirondack Mountains of New York, are an unusual domish type of mountain that is formed when molten rock rises through the crust and push up the rock layers above it. This creates a circular dome on the Earth's surface. The molten rock later cools off and forms hardened rock. When the pushed up rocks are worn away, the hardened rock is shown. This hardened rock then wears away in places. When it wears away, it leaves mountains, and they are called dome mountains.\nPlateau mountains.\nPlateau mountains are formed a bit like folded mountains. They are large areas of flat topped rocks that have been lifted high above the crust by continental plates. Most plateaus are near folded mountains.\nHeight.\nThe height of a mountain is measured as distance above sea level.\nTallest mountains.\nThe highest known mountain in the Solar System is Olympus Mons (27 km high) on Mars. The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest (8,848m) which is in Nepal and Tibet, in Asia.\nThe \"tallest\" mountain in the world is Mauna Loa, in Hawaii. The \"height\" of a mountain is measured from sea level, but the \"tallness\" of a mountain is measured from its base, even if under water. The highest mountain in North America is Mount McKinley (6,194m) in Alaska in the USA. The highest in South America is Aconcagua (6,962m) in Argentina. For Africa, it is Kilimanjaro (5,963m) of Tanzania. In Europe, the highest mountain is in Russia called Elbrus (5,633m). Antarctica's highest mountain is Vinsin Massiff (5,140m). In Oceania, a mountain called Puncak Jaya (5,030m) is the highest there. This particular mountain is in Papua New Guinea / Indonesia."}
+{"id": "3925", "revid": "1512460", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3925", "title": "Machine code", "text": "Machine code is a computer program written in machine language. It uses the instruction set of a particular computer architecture. It is usually written in binary. Machine code is the lowest level of software. Other programming languages are translated into machine code so the computer can execute them.\nAn instruction tells the process what operation to perform. Each instruction is made up of an opcode (operation code) and operand(s). The operands are usually memory addresses or data. An instruction set is a list of the opcodes available for a computer. Machine code is what assembly code and other programming languages are compiled to or interpreted as.\nProgram builders turn code into another language or machine code. Machine code is sometimes called native code. This is used when talking about things that work on only some computers.\nWriting machine code.\nMachine code can be written in different forms:\nTypical instructions of machine code.\nThere are many kinds of instructions usually found in an instruction set:\nMany modern processors use microcode for some of the commands. More complex commands tend to use it. This is often done with CISC architectures.\nInstructions.\nEvery processor or processor family has its own instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits that correspond to different commands that can be given to the machine. Thus, the instruction set is specific to a class of processors using (mostly) the same architecture.\nNewer processor designs often include all the instructions of an earlier one and may add more instructions. Sometimes, a newer design will discontinue or alter the meaning of an instruction code (typically because it is needed for new purposes), affecting code compatibility; even nearly completely compatible processors may show slightly different behavior for some instructions, which may or may not be a problem.\nSystems may differ in other details, such as memory arrangement, operating systems, or peripheral devices. Because a program normally relies on such factors, different systems will typically not run the same machine code, even when the same type of processor is used.\nMost instructions have one or more opcode fields. They specify the basic instruction type. Other fields may give the type of the operands, the addressing mode, and so on. There may also be special instructions that are contained in the opcode itself. These instructions are called \"immediates\".\nProcessor designs can be different in other ways. Different instructions may or may not have the same length. Having all instructions with the same length can simplify the design.\nExample.\nThe MIPS architecture has instructions which are 32 bits long. This section has examples of code. The general type of instruction is in the \"op\" (operation) field. It is the highest 6 bits. J-type (jump) and I-type (immediate) instructions are fully given by \"op\". R-type (register) instructions include the field \"funct\". It determines the exact operation of the code. The fields used in these types are:\n 6 5 5 5 5 6 bits\n [ op | rs | rt | rd |shamt| funct] R-type\n [ op | rs | rt | address/immediate] I-type\n [ op | target address ] J-type\n\"rs\", \"rt\", and \"rd\" indicate register operands. \"shamt\" gives a shift amount. The \"address\" or \"immediate\" fields contain an operand directly.\nExample: add the registers 1 and 2. Place the result in register 6. It is encoded:\n [ op | rs | rt | rd |shamt| funct]\n 0 1 2 6 0 32 decimal\n 000000 00001 00010 00110 00000 100000 binary\nLoad a value into register 8. Take it from the memory cell 68 cells after the location listed in register 3:\n [ op | rs | rt | address/immediate]\n 35 3 8 68 decimal\n 100011 00011 01000 00000 00001 000100 binary\nJump to the address 1024:\n [ op | target address ]\n 2 1024 decimal\n 000010 00000 00000 00000 10000 000000 binary"}
+{"id": "3926", "revid": "36199", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3926", "title": "Area", "text": "Area is the amount of space a two dimensional (flat) surface takes up. It is useful because it is how much of a material is needed to make a hollow container. Area is the amount of surface covered by a close object or shape. \nSome units used to measure area are square foot, square mile, square metre and square kilometre. The area of a planar figure is often written as formula_1. Areas of regular shapes such as square, rectangle, triangle and circle can be calculated through formulas. The area of an irregular shape can be approximated through grid or graph paper.\nOne can use different formulas to find the area of different shapes. For example:\nThe area of a flat object is related to the surface area and volume of a three-dimensional object.\nThe area under a curve can be found using integration, a concept from calculus."}
+{"id": "3927", "revid": "196884", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3927", "title": "Air space", "text": "Air space is the area of the air that is controlled by a country or organisation. You have to have the permission of the controller to enter their air space in an airplane. The air traffic controllers make sure the planes go in the right place and do not hit each other or something else. Some countries are very protective of their air space."}
+{"id": "3928", "revid": "203", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3928", "title": "Web page", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3929", "revid": "10124200", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3929", "title": "Swamp cooler", "text": "Swamp coolers are simple type of air conditioning device that can cool a room of a house or a car by using the cooling effect of the evaporation of water. This is known as evaporative cooling. Swamp coolers can cool the air temperature in a small space by drawing the air through wet pads (some are made of aspen wood) using an electric fan. Swamp coolers work best in dry climates such as the American Southwest and the American South. They are usually much cheaper to buy and operate than refrigerated air-conditioning devices. This type of air conditioner was first used thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt."}
+{"id": "3930", "revid": "1572824", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3930", "title": "Saskatoon", "text": "Saskatoon is a city in Saskatchewan, Canada. Saskatoon is the largest city in Saskatchewan but is not the capital, which is Regina.\nThe South Saskatchewan River flows through the centre of the city, and many people enjoy boating, biking, and walking in the area. The University of Saskatchewan is also in Saskatoon.\nThe name\u00a0\"Saskatoon\"\u00a0[in\u00a0Cree:\u00a0\"s\u00e2skwat\u00f4n\", \"Saskatoon\"] comes from the Cree inanimate noun\u00a0\"mis\u00e2skwat\u00f4mina\"\u00a0\"saskatoon berries,\" which refers to the sweet violet-coloured\u00a0berry\u00a0that grows in the area.\nMedia.\nRadio stations include commercial stations CKOM-AM 650 kHz (\"\u201c650 CKOM\u201d\" News/Talk), CFMC-FM 95.1 MHz (\"\u201cC95\u201d\" Hot AC), CJDJ-FM 102.1 MHz (\u201c\"Rock 102\u201d\" Active Rock), CJWW- AM 600kHz (\"\u201cCountry 600\u201d\" Country), CKBL-FM 92.9 MHz (\"\u201c92.9 The Bull\u201d\" Country), CJMK-FM 98.3 MHz (\u201c\"98 Cool FM\"\u201d Classic Hits), CFWD-FM 96.3 MHz (\u201c\"96.3 Cruz FM\"\u201d - Mainstream Rock)"}
+{"id": "3932", "revid": "211304", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3932", "title": "Glass rod", "text": "Glass rods are sometimes used as stirrers in laboratory environments.\nGlass rods are often used to spread liquids evenly onto something. An example would be to coat glass surfaces with liquids to look at them under a microscope.\nGlass rods rubbed with silk or fur were used in early demonstrations of electrical energy. \nGlass rods are commonly manufactured in diameters of 3 mm, 6 mm, and 10 mm.\nGlass is used for these rods because it does not react with most laboratory chemicals."}
+{"id": "3933", "revid": "1652218", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3933", "title": "Thermometer", "text": "A thermometer is an instrument for measuring or showing temperature (how hot or cold something is). One type of thermometer is a narrow, concealed glass tube containing mercury or alcohol which extends along the tube as it expands. Another type is a digital thermometer, which uses electronics to measure temperature.\nEarly thermometers from the time of Galileo measured the expansion and contraction of air. After the middle 17th century, people more often used alcohol or mercury thermometers. In the 19th century, a mechanical thermometer was invented that used a bimetallic strip to move a pointer. This type of thermometer is still popular where people like to read temperature from a distance.\nLaboratory thermometers (Lab Thermometer).\nA laboratory thermometer is a tool used in laboratories, places where scientists and science technicians perform experiments and measure things. A laboratory thermometer can measure temperature very closely. A laboratory thermometer can be put into what the scientist wants to measure. A laboratory thermometer has a long stem with a silver bulb at the end. The silver color in the bulb usually means there is mercury in it. Mercury expands as the temperature becomes hotter. Mercury is a poison to humans if touched, inhaled, or swallowed, which makes it dangerous to use when taking people's temperatures. Mercury-in-glass thermometers are less used in the 21st century. This is because digital thermometers are more accurate, and alcohol-filled and organic-based thermometers are safer to use than mercury thermometers.\nMedical thermometers.\nIn the 20th century, the traditional clinical thermometer was a mercury-in-glass thermometer. People put the end of this in their mouth (\"oral\" temperature), under their arm, or in their rectum (\"rectal\" temperature).\nIt is only possible to find oral temperatures on patients who can hold the thermometer correctly in their mouth. Mercury thermometers need a long time to measure the temperature, so it would be difficult to get the temperature of small children, people with a cough, or people who are vomiting. Today's digital thermometers are much faster and more accurate. If a person drinks something hot or cold, a person needs to wait before testing their oral temperature. \nRectal thermometers are usually more reliable since they aren't as much influenced by other factors.\nThere are other kinds of medical thermometers: \"tympanic\" thermometers test the temperature of the tympanic membrane (the eardrum) with infrared; \"band\" thermometers test a person's temperature on the front of their head."}
+{"id": "3935", "revid": "1467751", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3935", "title": "Week", "text": "A week is 7 days in connecting order. There are usually 52 weeks in a year.\nIn the English language, the days of the week are named after gods in Norse mythology, except for Saturday, which is named after a Roman god.\nDepending on the law of a country, the week either starts on Monday and ends on Sunday, or starts on Sunday and ends on Saturday. In most countries, Saturday and Sunday are the weekend. Friday, Saturday, and Sunday is a religious day for Muslims, Jews, and Christians, respectively."}
+{"id": "3936", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3936", "title": "Suffix", "text": "A suffix is a few letters put at the end of a word to change its meaning. It is a type of affix mostly used to show inflection.\nVerb examples:\nAdjective examples:\nCompare to prefix. Prefixes are letters put at the beginning of a word to change its meaning."}
+{"id": "3937", "revid": "1666112", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3937", "title": "Japanese language", "text": "The Japanese language () is the official language of Japan, in East Asia. Japanese belongs to the Japonic language family, which also includes the endangered Ryukyuan languages. One theory says Japanese and Korean are related, but most linguists no longer think so. Other theories about the origin of Japanese are that it is related to the Austronesian languages, the Dravidian languages, or the controversial Altaic language family. The term used for Japanese as a course of study by citizens is \"kokugo\" (\u56fd\u8a9e), which means national language. Nonetheless, Japanese is still referred to as Nihon-go by the Japanese. \nJapanese uses three separate writing systems: hiragana, katakana, and kanji. Hiragana and katakana are phonetic systems and show the pronunciation of Japanese words. Kanji is the Japanese variation of Chinese characters and shows the meaning of Japanese words. The three systems are used interchangeably, and all three systems can often be found in the same sentence. The three systems are each reserved for different purposes.\nIn English, the order of the words is very important. For example, the sentences \"Is it?\" and \"It is.\" mean different things. In Japanese, differences are often made by adding or changing the ending of words (using the previous example, one would say them as \u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059\u304b \"sou desu ka\" and \u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059 \"sou desu\", respectively). A Japanese word has a stem called a \"body\", and additional parts (called suffixes). Changing the suffix can change the meaning or the grammar of the word.\nAfter World War II, many English words entered the Japanese language (Gairaigo). An example of one would be \"\u30a2\u30a4\u30b9\u30af\u30ea\u30fc\u30e0 (romanized: aisukur\u012bmu)\u201d, meaning \u201cice cream\u201d.\nSounds.\nJapanese has five vowel sounds that can have two different lengths. They are \"a, i, u, e, o\". In IPA they are transliterated as /a/, /i/, /\u026f/, /e/, /o/; and they are pronounced in English as \"ah, ee, oo (lips are unrounded),\"\nGrammar.\nWhen foreigners speak Japanese, it is important they know how formal they must be when they speak to people you may or may not know. In Japan, it could be considered quite impolite (rude) if you are not formal enough.\nIn Japanese, sentences use subject-object-verb (SOV) word order, so the verb is at the end of the sentence and the subject is at the beginning. Many sentences have no subject, and the listener can infer the subject based context and the form of a verb.\nIn Japanese, Japan is called \"Nihon\" (\u65e5\u672c), and the language is called \"Nihongo\" (\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e) (-go means \"language\"). Sometimes, the words \"Nippon\" and \"Nippongo\" are also used, but both words are now thought of as more nationalist, and \"Nihon\" is a more neutral word. The kanji of the word mean \"sun-origin.\" Since Japan is at the eastern edge of Asia, to observers in China, the sun rose from the direction of Japan. That is why Japan is called \"The Land of Rising Sun.\"\nJapanese is also agglutinative language, especially in its verbs. Its words has a short \"body,\" and prefixes or suffixes are easily added to change or to redefine the meaning.\nJapanese words come from three main sources. The first is \"wago\" (\u548c\u8a9e), which are native Japanese words and can also be called \"yamato kotoba\" (\u5927\u548c\u8a00\u8449). The second is \"kango\" (\u6f22\u8a9e), which are Chinese loanwords. The third is \"gairaigo\" (\u5916\u6765\u8a9e), which are loanwords borrowed from languages other than Chinese (usually English since the Second World War).\nWriting System.\nJapanese has three main writing systems:\nHiragana is a Syllabary, meaning each character represents a syllable or vowel. Each character is a comprised of either a vowel, a consonant-vowel blend, or the syllabic consonant, n (\u3093). Hiragana is the standard, phonetic writing system in Japanese and is used for grammatical words or particles e.g. \u306f\u3001\u3092 (wa - Subject particle, o - Object Particle); words that don't have Kanji characters e.g. \u3053\u3093\u306b\u3061\u306f (kon'nichiwa - hello); or for beginners to write Kanji. The symbols were originally adopted from Kanji characters and have changed overtime into their distinct, rounded shapes (e.g. \u4ee5 \u2192\u3044).\nKatakana is also a Syllabary, with each Hiragana character having a character in Katakana (e.g. \u3042 = \u30a2 \u3053 = \u30b3). Katakana is used for impact (similar to italics in English) as well as gairaigo words and direct transliterations from English e.g. \u30e1\u30cb\u30e5\u30fc (Menyuu - Menu). Katakana was originally made by Buddhist Monks to teach Japanese people how to read Chinese.\nKanji is an adaptation of the Chinese logographic writing system, meaning each symbol was originally meant to look like the word it was describing. Each symbol can represent a word e.g. \u97f3 (oto - sound) or a syllable in a larger word. There are multiple pronunciations for each Kanji character, categorised into On'yomi (\u97f3\u8aad\u307f) or Kun'yomi (\u8a13\u8aad\u307f), depending on the word's origin."}
+{"id": "3939", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3939", "title": "Spice", "text": "Spice is an ingredient that adds flavor to food. It is usually used to enrich or alter the quality of something. Spices can be used to give food an interesting and exciting taste.\nExamples of a spice would be cinnamon, fenugreek and nutmeg.\nSpices can also be used to hide or cover up bad tastes in food which is rotten or affected by fungi, e.g. marzipan.\nIndians use a lot of spices like garam masala."}
+{"id": "3940", "revid": "1368260", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3940", "title": "Flavor", "text": "Flavor (or flavour in British English) is the main quality of anything which affects the taste. When someone remarks on the \"flavor\" of something they are trying to describe the specific way something tastes.\nFlavor can also be used to describe the act of adding a taste alteration (to change the taste) to something. This is usually done by adding spices or sugars, though in \"processed food\" there are oftentimes artificial (fake) flavors. A person who develops natural and/or artificial food additives is called a flavourist or flavorist (US English)."}
+{"id": "3941", "revid": "1134777", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3941", "title": "Muslim", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3942", "revid": "1669736", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3942", "title": "Bank", "text": "A bank is a financial institution where customers can save or borrow money. Banks also invest money to build up their reserve of money. What they do is regulated by laws. Those laws differ in different countries. The people who work at a bank are called bank employees. Certain banks deal directly with the public and are the only ones that a regular person will work with. Other banks deal with investments and international currency trading.\nThe customer's money may be placed in the bank for safekeeping. Banks may give loans to customers under an agreement to pay the money back to the bank at a later time, with interest. An example is getting a mortgage to buy a house or apartment. Banks also can use the money they have from deposit accounts to invest in businesses to make more money.\nIn most countries, the rules for banks are made by the government acting through laws. A central bank (such as the Bank of England) changes how much money is issued at a particular time. This is a factor in the economy of a country, and the government makes the big decisions. These \"banks of issue\" take in, and issue out, coins and banknotes.\nHistory.\nThe word \"bank\" comes from the Italian word \"banco\", meaning \"a bench\", since Italian merchants in the Renaissance made deals to borrow and lend money beside a bench. They placed the money on that bench.\nElementary financial records are known from the beginning of history. Baked clay records were done before the invention of writing.\nIn the 17th century, merchants started storing their gold with goldsmiths in London. The goldsmiths had their own vaults and charged a fee for storing the merchants' gold. The goldsmiths eventually started loaning money using the gold left to them and also paid interest on the gold.\nThe Bank of England began issuing banknotes in 1695. The oldest bank still in existence is Monte dei Paschi di Siena in Siena, Italy, which started in 1472.\nBanking activities.\nA bank usually provides the following services:"}
+{"id": "3943", "revid": "1604351", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3943", "title": "Halley's Comet", "text": "Halley's Comet (Comet Halley) is a comet which comes round every 75 or 76 years. When it is near, it can be seen with the naked eye. It will return in 2061. \nThe comet is named after Edmond Halley (1656\u20131742), an English astronomer, who predicted the comet's return. Halley's Comet was the first comet to be recognized as periodic. (Periodic means that it comes by Earth regularly.)\nWhen the comet came close to the Earth in 1986, it was visited by several space-probes. The probe \"Giotto\" from the European Space Agency managed the closest approach to the comet.\nThe number of years that the comet finishes its full cycle can vary depending on the effect of another planet's gravitational pull.\nIn 1986, Halley's Comet was the first to be observed in detail by spacecraft. It gave the first data on the structure of a comet nucleus and how the \"coma\" (nebulous envelope around the core or nucleus) and the tail formed. These observations supported Fred Whipple's \"dirty snowball\" model. This correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices \u2013 such as water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, \u2013 and dust. The missions also adjusted these ideas. For example, it is now known that the \"surface\" of Halley is mostly dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.\nComing closer to the Sun again: Since 2023, it is closing the distance between the Sun and itself."}
+{"id": "3944", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3944", "title": "Hubble Space Telescope", "text": "Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is the first big optical space observatory telescope. Being above the atmosphere means it can see the sky more clearly than a telescope on the ground. The atmosphere blurs starlight before it reaches Earth. Named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble, the Hubble Space Telescope can observe 24 hours a day. The main mirror is 94.5 inches (2.4 meters) across. The telescope can take pictures of things so far away it would be nearly impossible to see them from anywhere else.\nIt was made by both NASA and the ESA working together. It is 600\u00a0km in space and was launched on April 24, 1990. Like other things in low Earth orbit it travels at 5 miles (8 km) per second. If you were going this speed on Earth, you would be able to get from New York to San Francisco in 10 minutes. This speed creates difficulty in scheduling observations.\nThe Hubble itself is the size of a large school bus, but still small enough to fit inside the cargo bay of a Space Shuttle. It was repaired in 1993 due to problems in the picture quality.\nLaunch.\nThe telescope was launched in 1990 by a space shuttle. When it entered orbit, everything seemed fine. But there was a problem with the telescope that was not discovered until it started taking pictures.\nProblems.\nWhen the HST took its first pictures, astronomers were happy to see the images, but they were not as sharp and as crisp as expected. Telescopes in space can take better pictures than telescopes on Earth, but for some reason, the pictures were not better than the pictures taken on Earth. They found a problem with the telescope's mirror. The mirror was not curved right. It was only wrong by 2.2 microns (1/50th as thick as a piece of paper). Still, this was enough to cause the images to be blurred. Some said that Hubble was nearsighted.\nRepair.\nAnother space shuttle was soon sent up to repair the space telescope. The repair was not easy. The astronauts had to install some small mirrors to correct the light from the big mirror. The big mirror could still be used. It took five days of space walks. When an astronaut opened one of the doors on Hubble to install a new camera, the door would not close. The astronauts had to think of a creative way to get around the problem. Eventually, Hubble was fixed. \nRepairs and servicing missions have been made to the Hubble Space Telescope five times to keep it in orbit and make it even better as technology improved. The space shuttle program was kept going longer than planned to send an extra trip up to the Hubble Space Telescope for a final fix.\nReplacement.\nHubble has been replaced by the James Webb Space Telescope which is located even further from Earth. There are now other telescopes in orbit, like the Herschel Space Observatory, the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Kepler Spacecraft, which was specially made for finding Earth-like planets around other stars."}
+{"id": "3945", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3945", "title": "Motion sensor", "text": "A motion sensor is a sensor device. It is used for studying motions. It is connected to a . The data-logger is connected to a computer. The computer runs a data-logging program. The computer is connected to power, and a security system. Motion sensors have many uses including security.\nApplications for movement sensor technology include clinical, workplace safety & athletic sports."}
+{"id": "3946", "revid": "10306981", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3946", "title": "Arm", "text": "An arm is a limb. Most humans have two arms each, coming out of their body at the shoulder, just below the neck. On the end of each arm is a hand. Humans use arms and hands to do things to other objects, this is called manipulation. The main purpose of the hand is to grasp objects. Some other primates have arms which they use to move around by holding onto trees or supporting themselves as they walk along the ground. Fingers and hand, wrist, forearm, elbow, upper arm and shoulder are parts of the arm."}
+{"id": "3947", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3947", "title": "Arrow", "text": "An arrow is a projectile fired with a bow. A bow and arrow is a weapon used before medieval times and later. For thousands of years, people all over the world have used bows and arrows for hunting and for defense. Arrows have a sharp point at one end and usually a flight at the other end. The flight is usually made of feathers and helps the arrow go through the air straight. Someone who makes arrows is a fletcher.\nA picture of an arrow is often used to point to something. Arrows look may like this: -->. \"Double-headed\" arrows look like this: <\u2014>."}
+{"id": "3948", "revid": "203", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3948", "title": "Deceleration", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3950", "revid": "62069", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3950", "title": "Golf", "text": "Golf is a game played in an open field where the golfer plays his golf ball into a hole by using different types of clubs (golf instruments). The book \"Rules of Golf\" reads \"The Game of Golf consists in playing a ball from the teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules.\"\nPlay of the game.\nIn golf, a golfer plays a number of holes in a given order. 18 holes played in an order controlled by the golf course design, normally make up a game. On a nine-hole course, two nine-hole rounds make up a normal game.\nEach hole starts from the teeing area. Golfers put the ball on a small stand called a tee and swing a club at it to try and hit it as straight and far as possible. Once each golfer in the group has done this, the person whose ball landed farthest from the hole hits his again, followed by everyone else, one person at a time, until everyone is on the green. The green is the area near the hole where the grass is cut very short. \nOnce on the green the players will try to \"putt\" the ball into the hole. Putting is similar to a regular swing except it is not as hard and the player does not want the ball to go in the air. Once each player has put their ball into the hole, the group moves on to the next hole.\nEach time a player swings at his ball, it is considered a \"stroke\". Each hole is a certain number of strokes that golfers are expected to need to get their ball into the hole. This is known as the \"par\". If a player gets his ball in the hole in less than the par he gets a \"birdie\". If it takes him one more shot then the par it is known as a bogey. Most holes have a par between 3 and 5.\nThe two common forms of playing golf are match play and stroke play. In match play, two golfers (or two teams) play holes one at a time. The golfer with the lower number of strokes (number of times the golfer used to get his ball in the hole) wins that hole. If the two have the same number of strokes, the hole is \"halved\" (drawn). The golfer that has the greatest number of holes wins. In \"stroke play\", the golfer (or team) with the smallest number of strokes all together wins. There are different forms of these rules, some given in the \"Rules of Golf\" making them \"official\".\nClubs.\nThe four different types of clubs used in golf are woods, irons, putters and wedges. Woods are used to hit the ball very far, usually off the tee (but also on the fairway and a lay-up in Par 5s.). The name of woods is different every number, for example, No.1 wood is called \"driver\" it is the farthest in all the clubs you have, No.2 is \"brassey\", No.3 is \"spoon\" and so on. There are many types of irons, which can be used to hit varying distances. They are numbered 1-9 with a 1 iron hitting the ball farthest than shorter every club to a 9 iron. The 1 iron is no longer common in the game. Even the 2 iron is getting uncommon. Pitching wedge, 52 degrees and 58 degrees are the most common wedges to use. They are the most common used in around the greens for chipping. Putters are used when on the green. The rules do not let the golfer use over 14 clubs in a game.\nThe Majors.\nGolfers call the four (or five) biggest tournaments in professional golf \"majors\", and they play them at nearly the same time every year. The four majors are:\nIn 2013, women's golf added the fifth major. The Evian Masters, held in France.\nVincent Clark won the first ever open championship which was held in St Andrews in 1860."}
+{"id": "3952", "revid": "103847", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3952", "title": "Spirituality", "text": "Spirituality is a name given to matters of the spirit. These can be any kind of meaningful personal activity or peaceful experience. There is not one agreed upon way to explain what happens. It is a concept so people can see and understand it in different ways. Some people believe spirituality is a part of religion. Others who are not religious, still seek and have spiritual experiences.\nMatters of the spirit.\n\"Matters of the spirit\" may include the meaning in a person's life (or in all life), and how to find and improve on it. They may also include someone's search for God, the supernatural, a divine influence in their lives, or information about the afterlife, and how to best deal with each. \"Matters of the spirit\" may also include how to live among others as a group, or in a certain environment.\n\"Spiritual, but not religious\".\nSome who do not believe in an organized religion may still be interested in the \"spirits\" of humanity or of nature and live a certain way, or worship ancestors or creation because it gives them a sense of happiness to do so. This is referred to as spiritual but not religious.\nAnother common usage refers to people who ascribe to ideals \"greater than themselves.\" For many, this leads to a pursuit of some form of enlightenment, often through meditation, yoga, philosophy or, in some cases, a study of Metaphysics.\nMany philosophers work to find answers to spiritual questions, although some may deny the existence of a 'god' or any supernatural influences. Throughout the world however, philosophers have often had ideas about spirituality. The following are a few 20th century examples:"}
+{"id": "3953", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3953", "title": "2002", "text": "2002 (MMII) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3954", "revid": "10343576", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3954", "title": "2003", "text": "2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3955", "revid": "1035196", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3955", "title": "1999", "text": "1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar.\nEvents.\nMarch.\n "}
+{"id": "3956", "revid": "10343573", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3956", "title": "1998", "text": "1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3957", "revid": "1566408", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3957", "title": "1997", "text": "1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3958", "revid": "10343571", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3958", "title": "1996", "text": "1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3959", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3959", "title": "1995", "text": "1995 (MCMXCV) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3960", "revid": "10343568", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3960", "title": "1994", "text": "1994 (MCMXCIV) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3961", "revid": "10387501", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3961", "title": "1993", "text": "1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3962", "revid": "248920", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3962", "title": "1992", "text": "1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3963", "revid": "10343565", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3963", "title": "1991", "text": "1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3964", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3964", "title": "2005", "text": "2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Gregorian calendar."}
+{"id": "3965", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3965", "title": "2006", "text": "2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar.\nIn the Chinese calendar, 2006 was the Year of the Dog. Chinese New Year is January 29.\nBirths.\n\"for more information, see Category:2006 births.\""}
+{"id": "3966", "revid": "73230", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3966", "title": "2007", "text": "2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar.\nThe year 2007 was called:"}
+{"id": "3967", "revid": "731605", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3967", "title": "1989", "text": "1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar. A wave of counter revolutions led to the end of the Eastern Bloc and the Cold War during the year."}
+{"id": "3974", "revid": "1678598", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3974", "title": "Common year", "text": "A common year is a calendar year with 365 days. It is a year that is not a leap year. This means a common year has 52 weeks and one day. So if a certain year started on a Monday, the following year will start on a Tuesday. Stated differently, a common year always begins and ends on the same day of the week (for example, in 2023, January 1 and December 31 fell on a Sunday). In common years, February has exactly four weeks, so March begins on the same day of the week. November also begins on this day. For example, if February 2023 began on a Wednesday, then March would begin on a Wednesday as well. November follows the same characteristic. \nIn a common year, the corresponding months are January and October; February, March, and November; April and July; as well as September and December. No month corresponds to May, June nor August.\nIn the Gregorian calendar, 303 out of every 400 years are common years. In the Julian calendar, 300 out of every 400 years were common years. All the other years are special and known as leap years. \nMonths.\nThese are the 12 months in a year.\nThere are 7 months with 31 days. There are 4 months with 30 days. There is 1 month with 28 days. In the Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BC, every 4 years there are 29 days in February, which is called a leap year. This happens because every year is 365 and 1/4 days but instead of us having a spare quarter of a day in each year we add them all up every 4 years and make an extra day to avoid confusion and make things easier for everyone.\nIn the Gregorian Calendar, which was introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, because the Julian calendar added slightly too many years, three leap years were removed for every 400 years. These are those that are multiples of 100, but not multiples of 400. Thus, in the Gregorian calendar, 2020 is a leap year, but not 2019 and 2021, 1900 is not a leap year even though 1904 and 1896 are, and 2000 is a leap year even though 1900 and 2100 are not. "}
+{"id": "3975", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3975", "title": "Centuries", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3976", "revid": "26", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3976", "title": "Decades", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3977", "revid": "487619", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3977", "title": "Decade", "text": "A decade (pronunciation: DEK-aid) is a period of 10 years. The word comes from the Ancient Greek word \"deka\" (\"ten\"). Ten decades make a century, while 100 decades make a millennium. \nOverview.\nA decade is any 10-year period: There are different ways to refer to different groupings of ten years. For example, the period from 2001 to 2010 can be described as the 1st decade of the 21st century, the period from 2011 to 2020 is the 2nd decade of the 21st century, and the 3rd decade of the 21st century is the period from 2021 to 2030.\nApplications.\nAn individual who has been alive two full decades is referred to as being in their 20s for the next decade of their life, from age 20 to 29. Decades are also considered specific groups of ten years sharing the same tens digit, identified by name, as in the nineteen-eighties (1980s) referring to the period from 1980 to 1989 and the nineteen-nineties (1990s) referring to the period from 1990 to 1999. \nThis is sometimes shortened to simply the \"decade\", where the context is clear, as in the eighties (80s) or the nineties (90s). No apostrophe is used before the \"s\" in the names of these decades. Some decades also have nicknames, such as the Roaring Twenties (1920s), the Naughty Nineties (1890s) (UK), and the Swinging Sixties (1960s)."}
+{"id": "3978", "revid": "10251183", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3978", "title": "19th century", "text": "The 19th century lasted from 1801 to 1900. Some people call this the Victorian era because Queen Victoria ruled the United Kingdom.\nThe Second Industrial Revolution started in most western countries during this century.\nCulture.\nMusic.\nSonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century is in the Romantic style. \nMany great composers lived through this era, including Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list also includes:\nDecades and years.\nNote: years before or after the 19th century are in \"italics\""}
+{"id": "3979", "revid": "1612166", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3979", "title": "21st century", "text": "The 21st century began on January 1, 2001 and will end on December 31, 2100.\nYears.\nNote: years before or after the twenty-first century are in \"italics\"."}
+{"id": "3980", "revid": "363813", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3980", "title": "Ijtihad", "text": "Ijtihad () is the process of reaching a legal decision on the basis of one's own interpretation of Islamic law. The word is related to the better-known \"jihad\". \nIjtihad appeared among the Muhammad's companions. "}
+{"id": "3982", "revid": "736607", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3982", "title": "Standard temperature and pressure", "text": "In order to be able to reproduce experiments, standard conditions for temperature and pressure have been defined in different fields of science. Very often these are also called standard temperature and pressure. The table below gives some examples: "}
+{"id": "3983", "revid": "687081", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3983", "title": "STP", "text": "STP usually refers to:\nSTP may also refer to:"}
+{"id": "3985", "revid": "374981", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3985", "title": "Human being", "text": ""}
+{"id": "3986", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3986", "title": "Jungle", "text": "The jungle is a place in a rainforest where the forest floor is covered with plants. Like other rainy places, they have many rivers or streams. Scientists think that more types of animals and plants live in the jungles than everywhere else. When people talk about jungles, they sometimes mean the whole rainforest.\nThe crowding in a jungle leaves little room to walk. This may make it dangerous to people. However, it also has benefits. The many plants and animals can provide food for foraging. \nThe Amazon rainforest is thick and dark jungle in many places in nine countries. However, most of this forest is in Brazil, South America.\nSome snakes in the Amazon are very dangerous. The jungle is home to a variety of venomous and large constrictor snakes that can pose a threat to humans and other animals. In the Amazon jungle, snakes have plenty of food options due to the rich and diverse environment. Some large Snakes like the Green Anaconda eat animals such as rodents, monkeys, and even larger mammals like deer. They also feed on birds, their eggs, frogs, fish, lizards and some other small snakes. "}
+{"id": "3987", "revid": "1692666", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3987", "title": "Light", "text": "Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It is natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things easy to see. Light is the opposite of darkness.\nLight has a wavelength. Some wavelengths can be seen by the human eye. Others cannot. Many animals can see light. They need it to find food, water, and other things.\nLight makes up a part of both the electromagnetic spectrum and radiation given by stars, like the sun. The light that comes from the sun reaches the Earth and makes it bright. This is called daytime.\nRainbows are a type of light and stars are a type of light to.\nThe study of light is known as optics. When light hits an opaque object, it makes a shadow. When light hits a transparent object, it passes through it almost completely without making a significant shadow.\nLight is a form of electromagnetic radiation that shows properties of both waves and particles. It is a form of energy. Light also keeps the Earth warm. Light exists in tiny energy packets called photons. Each wave has a wavelength or frequency. The human eye sees each wavelength as a different color. Rainbows show the entire spectrum of visible light. The separate colors, moving in from the outer edges, are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Other colors can be seen only with special cameras or instruments: Wavelengths up the frequency of red are called infrared, and higher than of violet are called ultraviolet.\nThe main properties of light are intensity, polarization, phase and orbital angular momentum.\nIn physics, the term \"light\" sometimes means electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether it can be seen or not.\nPhysical properties of light.\nIn a vacuum, the speed of light is 299,792,458 meters per second, or about 186,282 miles per second. This means it takes about 8 minutes for light to reach Earth from the Sun. \nLight moves in a straight line. The straight line path is often drawn as a ray that moves in one direction. Ray diagrams are used to illustrate light traveling from one place to another. A beam of light can be thought of as a set of light rays.\nObjects that block rays of light can create shadows. Opaque objects block all light rays and create a darker shadow. Translucent objects block some rays and scatter others. They create a lighter shadow. Transparent things will allow all light rays to pass straight through them. They have no or very little shadow. Light can easily move through transparent things. When light is not in a vacuum, it travels slower than the speed of light. The slowest speed of light ever recorded was 39 miles per hour.Opaque objects make shadows.\nOur eyes react to light. When we see something, we see the light it reflects, or the light it gives off. For example, a lamp gives off light. Everything else in the room the lamp is in reflects the lamp's light. As the viewer, one cannot directly determine where the ray of light came from prior to reflecting off an object. Humans can only see rays of light traveling directly into the eyes.\nEvery \"color\" of light has a different wavelength. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy the light has.Red has the longest and purple has the shortest wavelength. The speed of light does not depend on its energy. Going through translucent objects can slow light down by a very small amount.\nWhite light is made up of all the many colors of light added together. When white light shines through a prism, it splits up into different colors, becoming a spectrum. The spectrum contains all of the wavelengths of light that we can see. Red light has the longest wavelength, and violet (purple) light has the shortest.\nLight with a wavelength shorter than violet is called ultraviolet light. X-rays and gamma rays are forms of light with even shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet. Light with a wavelength longer than red is called infrared light. Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than infrared light. The microwaves that are used to heat food in a microwave oven are also a form of electromagnetic radiation. Our eyes cannot see those kinds of energy, but there are some cameras that can see them. The various forms of light, both visible and invisible are the electromagnetic spectrum.\nWhen light is refracted in raindrops, a rainbow is made. The raindrop acts like a prism and refracts the light until we can see the colors of the spectrum.\nColour.\nColor (US Spelling) and Colour (British Spelling) have different spellings, but mean the same\nLight and colour are forms of analogue information. However, electronic cameras and computer displays work with digital information. Electronic cameras or document scanners make a digital version of a colour image by separating out the full colour image into separate red, green, and blue images. Later, a digital display uses pixels of just those three colours. Computer screens use only these three colours in different brightness levels. The brain puts them together to see all of the other colours in the image.\nPeople think objects \"have\" a colour. The colour of objects is because the molecules that make up the object absorb certain light waves, leaving the other light waves to bounce off. The human eye sees the wavelengths of all of the light that was not absorbed. This gives the brain the impression that there is a colour.\nLight is very hot if it is centred in one direction (usually on focus). That is why if you point a magnifying glass at an ant, it burns that ant. Centred light can also burn metal due to it being so much overwhelmingly concentrated.\nOther information.\nIn 2025, media said that researchers had created a \"supersolid ... out of light\". Supersolids can (sometimes) flow under certain conditions."}
+{"id": "3989", "revid": "248920", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3989", "title": "Stockholm", "text": "Stockholm is the capital city of Sweden. It is also the biggest city in Sweden. It is on the east coast of the country. The city is built on islands, with canals and open water in the inner city. Stockholm is found between Sweden's third largest lake, M\u00e4laren, and the Baltic Sea.\nTyresta National Park is near Stockholm.\nGeography.\nCentral Stockholm has four different parts - Kungsholmen, S\u00f6dermalm, Norrmalm and \u00d6stermalm. It is built on 14 islands connected by 57 bridges. Kungsholmen and S\u00f6dermalm are islands, while Norrmalm and \u00d6stermalm are parts of the mainland. Also, there are several smaller islands in the inner city - Gamla Stan, Riddarholmen, Djurg\u00e5rden and Skeppsholmen. Since Stockholm has so many islands, it is sometimes referred to as the \"Venice of the North\".\nGamla Stan is the oldest part of the city - the name means \"Old Town\", and is usually called that in English. Djurg\u00e5rden is mostly a large park, but there are buildings on the island. Most of these are museums that commemorate Sweden's and Stockholm's past - like Skansen, a zoo with a Swedish theme. Skeppsholmen is an island that used to be a training ground and military school, but most of the buildings are now used for museums and art galleries, such as the Modern Museum, or the East Asian museum. Riddarholmen is a part of Gamla Stan, but actually a different island.\nAll of the islands in Stockholm are connected by several bridges. The biggest one is V\u00e4sterbron, going from Kungsholmen to S\u00f6dermalm.\nHistory.\nBirger Jarl is considered the founder of Stockholm. It is believed that he rebuilt a defense building in the 13th century on what is today the island of the Old town. Around the fortification, a town grew. The town grew mainly because of its sea and land trading.\nWikimania.\nThe last Wikimania conference is hosted in this city in 2019."}
+{"id": "3990", "revid": "1694597", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3990", "title": "Rain", "text": "Rain is a kind of precipitation. Precipitation is any kind of water that falls from clouds in the sky, like rain, hail, sleet and snow. It is measured by a rain gauge. \nOverview.\nRain is part of the water cycle. Clouds will often absorb smoke to create rain, commonly referred to as \"nature's laundry\" due to this process. Some places have frequent rain. This makes rainforests. Some have little rain. This makes deserts.\nTypes.\nRainstorm.\nA rainstorm is a sudden heavy fall of rain. It may cause flash floods in valleys. Heavy rain for a long time may make floods that destroy houses and cause drowning. Also, landslides may happen.\nConvectional rain.\nWhen the Sun heats the Earth's surface, the ground heats the air above it. Convection makes the air rise and cool. When it cools to the dew point, clouds form and rain follows. This usually occurs on flat land. This type of rainfall often causes summer showers and thunderstorms.\nRelief rain.\nRelief rain typically occurs along coastal areas where a line of hills runs along the coast. Wet onshore wind from the sea meets a mountain, hill or any other sort of barrier, it is forced to rise along the slope and cools. When the air temperature falls to its dew point, water vapour condenses to form clouds. When the clouds can no longer hold the water droplets, relief rain begins to fall on the windward slope of the mountain. On the leeward slope, air sinks, it is warmed and further dried by compression. Therefore, the leeward slope is known as rain shadow. Moist winds blow in from the sea and are forced to rise over the land. The air cools and the water vapour condenses, forming raindrops. Places that reactive a lot of rain in the world are places that have relief rainfall. \nFrontal rain.\nFrontal rain, also known as cyclonic rain, happens when cooler air and warmer, humid air meet in a weather front. The less dense warm air rises and condenses forming clouds. These clouds grow and eventually create rain. In some places on the northern temperate zone the cold air front tends to come from the north west and the warm air front comes from the south west.\nCollection.\nRain is often collected in a rainwater tank, which is used for watering plants, cleaning the house, bathing, or drinking. It is not always safe to drink rainwater. It can have bacteria, parasites, viruses, and chemicals that could make people sick.\nOther websites.\nrain water drink"}
+{"id": "3992", "revid": "10343596", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3992", "title": "2009", "text": "2009 (MMIX) was a common year starting on Thursday in the Gregorian calendar.\n2009 was designated as:\n2009 was the Chinese Year of Earth Ox based on the 12-year Chinese Zodiac cycle."}
+{"id": "3997", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3997", "title": "Gambling", "text": "Gambling is a contest where a player bets on the result of an event. The bet is generally in the form of money. The rules and the amount of money bet have to be decided on before the event happens.\nHistory.\nPlaying cards appeared in the 9th century AD in China. Records trace gambling in Japan back at least as far as the 14th century.\nPoker, the most popular U.S. card game associated with gambling, derives from the Persian game As-Nas, dating back to the 17th century.\nThe first known casino, the Ridotto, started operating in 1638 in Venice, Italy.\nTypes.\nThere are three variables common to all gambling.\nThere are many types of gambling. Casino games, sports betting (especially horse racing), and state lotteries are some of the most common forms of gambling. Investments, such as stocks, bonds and real estate, are also sometimes considered forms of gambling. Generally, the odds are not in favor of the gambler.\nIssues.\nMany people gamble for fun and entertainment. For others it can become an addiction and lead to financial problems. \nGambling addiction is a serious mental health issue which can become life-threatening. People with a gambling problem should seek help. Many organizations are trying to combat gambling addiction. One project to combat addiction is the Global Self-Exclusion Initiative, which helps people stop gambling.\nRules.\nGambling regulation differs in different countries. Some have established specific legal institutions. However, some countries have only overseeing laws. A well-known executive institution is The Gambling Commission in the UK. Its main function is controlling commercial gambling in partnership with people in charge of licensing. An example of strict ruling is the Gambling Law in the USA. The law decides gaming rules for local, state, and federal businesses. In the United States, gambling is restricted almost everywhere, except in Las Vegas and in Atlantic City, New Jersey. New Jersey, legalised online gambling and poker in November 2013. In 2018, Swiss citizens voted that gambling should also be allowed on the Internet in the future. A convincing 73% voted in the referendum, in which 1.8 million Swiss people took part. The new Gaming Act was put into effect by the Federal Gaming Board on January 1, 2019. Since then, it has been completely legal for Swiss citizens to play games of chance on the Internet.\nIn some places, such as mainland China, gambling is illegal. Chinese people cannot do so inside their country, so they go outside of it, such as to Macau, which is known as the \"gambling capital of the world\" because of its many big casinos. Other countries and local governments, such as Hong Kong, have some kind of gambling control board to make sure people don't gamble too much while allowing them to gamble.\nGambling has been banned in Brazil since 1946.\nIn Denmark, the Danish Gambling Authority, part of the Ministry of Taxation, makes sure gambling is fair and safe. They give out licenses for online and land-based casinos, like betting shops or online gambling sites. To get a license, companies must follow strict rules, like not having a criminal record and being financially stable. There are only a few licenses for physical casinos, but more are available for online gambling. Gambling ads must be honest and not target kids, and there are special rules to help people who gamble too much, including a way for them to exclude themselves from gambling sites. People in Denmark can gamble from age 18."}
+{"id": "3998", "revid": "248920", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3998", "title": "Monty Python", "text": "Monty Python, also known as The Pythons, is a group of British comic actors. They have acted in several comedy movies (most famously, Monty Python and the Holy Grail). They had a television show, \"Monty Python's Flying Circus\" between 1969 and 1974, which is still well-known and watched around the world.\nThe members of Monty Python are: John Cleese, Eric Idle, Graham Chapman, Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin. Carol Cleveland and Neil Innes regularly appeared in their movies. \nMonty Python started with their first movie, \"And Now For Something Completely Different\", and finished with their final movie, \"Monty Python's The Meaning of Life\"."}
+{"id": "4003", "revid": "1604351", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4003", "title": "Time zone", "text": "Time zones give specific areas on the Earth a time of day that is earlier or later than the neighboring time zones. This is because when it is daytime on one side of the earth, it is night-time on the other side. There are 24 time zones dividing the earth into different times, each with its own name, like the North American Eastern Time Zone. The North American Eastern Time Zone contains large cities in North America like New York City and Miami.\nGreenwich Mean Time (GMT) began in 1675. This was when the Royal Observatory, Greenwich was built to help ships find their longitude at sea. GMT was a standard reference for time keeping when each city kept a different local time. When railways began carrying many people quickly among cities keeping different time, they adopted time zones to simplify operations. By about 1900, almost all time on earth was in the form of standard time zones. \nGreenwich Mean Time is now called UTC (Coordinated Universal Time). UTC is the time standard of the world. All other parts of the world are offset (plus or minus) according to their longitude. Most of the zones are offset by a full hour, but there are some offset by half an hour or 45\u00a0minutes.\nIn some parts of the world they follow the Daylight Saving Time (DST), and during this period of time in summer they add one hour to their normal solar hour.\nIn the poles, the time is UTC in the North Pole and UTC+12 in the South Pole.\nThe time zones are numbered in relation to the UTC, so in Los Angeles the time zone will be UTC\u22128, in London UTC+0, in Rome , and in New Delhi UTC+5:30."}
+{"id": "4004", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4004", "title": "Market", "text": "A market is a place where people go to buy or sell things. When people have products to sell, they set up a market place. There may be a special building for the market place, or the market may be held in an open space where the sellers can put up a stall (like a kind of tent) and then take the stall down at the end of the day.\nThe word \"market\" can also have a more general meaning in the economy. It can mean the way things are bought or sold. \"There is a big market for dishwashers\" means that lots of people want to buy dishwashers. Therefore, a business that makes dishwashers is likely to be able to make a lot of money. When things are sold, people buy the product, and this \"stimulates the economy\" (helps people to spend and earn money). The market needs to balance supply and demand. There is no reason to make a supply of dishwashers if people do not want dishwashers. In the market, prices may change quickly if supply or demand changes.\nCompetition.\nIf a seller of a good cannot supply what customers want or asks for a very high price, other sellers may try to supply that good. If other sellers enter the market for that good, in competition, that will tend to fulfill demands and lower prices. Sellers who do not like competition may try to kill their competition. When there is no competition, a monopoly is formed. Many countries have laws to protect the free market from monopolies."}
+{"id": "4006", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4006", "title": "Electron", "text": "An electron is a very small piece of matter made up of negative charge. Its symbol is e\u2212 or \u03b2-, and it was discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897.\nAn electron is a subatomic particle, particle smaller than an atom. Every atom is made of some electrons that surround the nucleus of the atom, e.g. Hydrogen has 1 electron in outermost shell. An electron can also be separated from any atom through Ionization energy to overcome its binding energy. It is believed to be an elementary particle (made of lepton, a point like particle) because it cannot be broken down into anything smaller. Its electric charge is negative. Electrons have very little mass (approx 9.1093837 x 10-31 kgs). They may move almost at the speed of light, for instance, as beta particles, and in the inner electron shells of elements with a large atomic number. \nElectrons take part in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions. The electromagnetic force is strongest in common situations. Electrons repel (push apart) from each other because of their same type of negative charges. Electrons are attracted to protons because they have opposite electric charge. An electron has an electric field, which describes these forces. The electricity that powers televisions, motors, mobile phones or basically foundation of electricity is actually many electrons continuously pushed through, using voltage supply, wires or other conductors.\nDescription.\nElectrons have the smallest electrical charge of about 1.6021 x 10-31(in negative). This electrical charge equals the charge of a proton. For this reason, electrons are attracted towards the protons in atomic nuclei. This attraction makes electrons near a nucleus form an atom. An electron has a mass of about 1836th times of a proton.\nOne way to think about the location of electrons in an atom is to imagine that they orbit at fixed distances from the nucleus. This way, electrons in an atom exist in a number of electron shells surrounding the central nucleus. Each electron shell is given a number 1, 2, 3, and so on, starting from the one closest to the nucleus (the innermost shell). Each shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of electrons. The distribution of electrons in the various shells is called electronic arrangement (or electronic form or shape). Electronic arrangement can be shown by numbering or an electron diagram. (A different way to think about the location of electrons is to use quantum mechanics to calculate their atomic orbitals.)The electron is one of a type of subatomic particles called leptons. The electron has a negative electric charge. The electron has another property, called spin. Its spin value is 1/2, which makes it a fermion.\nWhile most electrons are found in atoms, others move independently in matter, or together as cathode rays in a vacuum. In some superconductors, electrons move in pairs. When electrons flow, this flow is called electricity, or an electric current.\nAn object can be described as 'negatively charged' if there are more electrons than protons in an object, or 'positively charged' when there are more protons than electrons. Electrons can move from one object to another when touched. They may be attracted to another object with opposite charge, or repelled when they both have the same charge. When an object is 'grounded', electrons from the charged object go into the ground, making the object neutral. This is what lightning rods (lightning conductors) do.\nChemical reactions.\nElectrons in their shells round an atom are the basis of chemical reactions. Complete outer shells, with maximum electrons, are less reactive. Outer shells with less than maximum electrons are reactive. The number of electrons in atoms is the underlying basis of the chemical periodic table.\nMeasurement.\nElectric \"charge\" can be directly measured with a device called an . Electric \"current\" can be directly measured with a galvanometer. The measurement given off by a galvanometer is different from the measurement given off by an . Today laboratory instruments are capable of containing and observing individual electrons.\n'Seeing' an electron.\nIn laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge. In one instance a was used to contain a single electron for 10 months. The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.\nThe first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time. The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can also be visualized.\nAnti-particle.\nThe antiparticle of the electron is called a positron. This is identical to the electron, but carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a positron, they may scatter off each other or be totally annihilated, producing a pair (or more) of gamma ray photons.\nHistory of its discovery.\nThe effects of electrons were known long before it could be explained. The Ancient Greeks knew that rubbing amber against fur attracted small objects. Now we know the rubbing strips off electrons, and that gives an electric charge to the amber.\nMany physicists worked on the electron. J.J. Thomson proved it existed, in 1897, but another man gave it the name 'electron'.\nThe electron cloud model.\nThe model views electrons as holding indeterminate positions in a diffuse cloud around the nucleus of the atom.\nThe uncertainty principle means a person cannot know an electron's position and energy level at the same time. These potential states form a cloud around the atom. The potential states of electrons in a single atom form a single, uniform cloud."}
+{"id": "4008", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4008", "title": "Chile", "text": "Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country on the south-western side of South America. Most people there speak Spanish.\nChile, which claims a part of the Antarctic continent, is the longest country on earth. The Atacama Desert, in the north of the country, is the driest place on earth. The average rainfall there is less than per year. The center of Chile, with the two cities Santiago and Valpara\u00edso, has a Mediterranean climate with an average temperature of in January and in July. In the middle of Chile, the country is very good for growing things.\nThere are about 16.9 million people living in Chile in 2009. About 10 million people live in the center of Chile around Valpara\u00edso and Santiago, on about 20% of the total land.\nChile is a well-educated country. Only 2.7% are not able to read or write. Some believe that Chile has one of the best school systems in South America.\nAbout 95% of Chileans are people with a combination of European descent, mostly Spanish, but also German, English, Italian and Arab people. Around 2% of the population is Native American, but most people have native ancestors. Immigrants are 7% of the population. including Peruvians, Bolivians, Colombians, Haitians, Chinese and Europeans. The majority of people are Roman Catholic (62.8%), but many do not go to church. About 10% are Protestant, and there are some Jews and Muslims as well. The country's official language is Spanish. Chili peppers, first cultivated by Native Americans from other Latin American countries and the United States, did not come from this country, although it has a similar name.\nChile's currency is the Chilean \"peso\".\nGeography.\nChile borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far south. It is over north to south, but only at its widest point east to west.\nThe northern Atacama Desert has great mineral wealth, mostly copper and nitrates. Chile is the largest producer of copper. The Andes Mountains are on the eastern border.\nChile controls Easter Island and Sala y G\u00f3mez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia.\nAnimals and plants.\nAnimals.\nOnly a few of the many distinctive South American animals are found in Chile. Among the larger mammals are the puma or cougar, the llama-like guanaco and the fox-like chilla. In the forest region, several types of marsupials and a small deer known as the pudu are found.\nThere are many species of small birds, but not most of the larger common Latin American types. Few freshwater fish are from Chile, but North American trout have been successfully introduced into the Andean lakes. The coast of Chile is close to the Humboldt Current, so ocean waters have many fish and other forms of marine life. This in turn supports a rich variety of waterfowl, including several penguins. There are many whales, and six species of seals in the area.\nFungi.\nJust over 3,000 species of fungi are recorded in Chile. This number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species in Chile is likely to be far higher. The generally accepted estimate is that only about 7 percent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.\nPlants.\nThe northernmost coastal and central region is largely empty of vegetation. It is the most close to an absolute desert in the world. On the slopes of the Andes, besides the scattered tola desert brush, grasses are found. The central valley has several species of cacti, the hardy espinos (a kind of acacia tree), the Chilean pine, the southern beeches and the copihue, a red bell-shaped flower that is Chile's national flower.\nIn southern Chile, south of the Biob\u00edo River lots of rain has made dense forests of laurels, magnolias, and various species of conifers and beeches, which become smaller and more stunted to the south.\nThe cold temperatures and winds of the extreme south make it impossible for heavy forestation. Grassland is found in Atlantic Chile (in Patagonia).\nMuch of the Chilean plant life is different from that of neighboring Argentina. This shows that the Andean barrier existed during the formation of Chile.\nRegions.\nChile is divided into 16 regions. The regions are then divided into provinces. Each province is divided into communes.\nLiterature.\nChileans call their country \"pa\u00eds de poetas\"-country of poets. Gabriela Mistral was the first Latin American to receive a Nobel Prize for Literature (1945). Chile's most famous poet, however, is Pablo Neruda. He also received the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971).\nAmong the list of other Chilean poets are Lily Garafulic, Vicente Huidobro, Pablo Simonetti, and Paulo Coloane. Isabel Allende is the best-selling Chilean novelist, with 51 millions of her novels sold worldwide. Novelist Jos\u00e9 Donoso's novel \"The Obscene Bird of the Night\" is said by critic Harold Bloom to be one of the important works of 20th century Western literature. Another internationally recognized Chilean novelist is Roberto Bola\u00f1o. His translations into English have had an excellent reception from the critics.\nPeople.\nThe Chilean population is estimated to be about 65% mestizo, 35% white, 5% native.\nFood and drink.\nChilean food shows the differences in the land across the country. There is an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Traditional recipes include asado, cazuela, empanadas, humitas, pastel de choclo, pastel de papas, curanto and sopaipillas.\nCrudos is an example of food from the various ethnic groups in Chile. Onions were brought by the Spanish colonists, and the use of mayonnaise and yogurt was introduced by German immigrants, as was beer.\nSports.\nChile's most popular sport is association football. Chile has been in eight FIFA World Cups which includes hosting the 1962 FIFA World Cup. Other results by the national football team include four finals at the Copa Am\u00e9rica, one silver and two bronze medals at the Pan American Games, a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics and two third places finishes in the FIFA under-17 and under-20 youth tournaments. The top league in the Chilean football league system is the Chilean Primera Divisi\u00f3n. It was named by the IFFHS in 2011 as the ninth strongest national football league in the world.\nTennis is one of Chile's most successful sports. Its national team won the World Team Cup clay tournament twice (2003 & 2004). They played the Davis Cup final against Italy in 1976. At the 2004 Summer Olympics the country took gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles. Marcelo R\u00edos became the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in the ATP singles rankings in 1998. Anita Lizana won the US Open in 1937. She was the first woman from Latin America to win a grand slam tournament. Luis Ayala was twice a runner-up at the French Open and both R\u00edos, Nicolas Massu Friedt and Fernando Gonz\u00e1lez Ciuffardi reached the Australian Open men's singles finals. Gonz\u00e1lez also won a silver medal in singles at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.\nAt the Summer Olympic Games Chile has a total of two gold medals (tennis), seven silver medals (athletics, equestrian, boxing, shooting and tennis) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football). In 2012 Chile won its first Paralympic Games medal (gold in Athletics).\nRodeo is the country's national sport. It is practiced in the more rural areas of the country. A sport similar to hockey. Skiing and snowboarding are practiced at ski centers in the Central Andes. Surfing is popular at some coastal towns. Polo is professionally practiced in Chile. In 2008 Chile won top prize in the World Polo Championship.\nBasketball is a popular sport. Chile earned a bronze medal in the first men's FIBA World Championship held in 1950. They won a second bronze medal when Chile hosted the 1959 FIBA World Championship. Chile hosted the first FIBA World Championship for Women in 1953 finishing the tournament with the silver medal. Other sports such as marathons and ultramarathons are also increasing in popularity. San Pedro de Atacama is host to the yearly \"Atacama Crossing,\" a six-stage, 250-kilometer footrace which has about 150 competitors from 35 countries each year. The Dakar Rally off-road automobile race has been held in both Chile and Argentina since 2009.\nImmigration to Chile.\nA few European immigrants settled in Chile during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, mainly from Spain. The general picture is as follows:\nNational symbols.\nThe national flower is the copihue (\"Lapageria rosea\", Chilean bellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile.\nThe coat of arms shows the two national animals: the condor (\"Vultur gryphus\", a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and the huemul (\"Hippocamelus bisulcus,\" an endangered white tail deer). It also has the saying \"Por la raz\u00f3n o la fuerza\" (\"By reason or by force\").\nThe flag of Chile has two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red. There is a blue square the same height as the white band. The square has a white five-pointed star in the center. The star is a guide to progress and honor. Blue is for the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red stands for the blood spilled to get independence."}
+{"id": "4009", "revid": "1338660", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4009", "title": "Ambassador", "text": "An ambassador is a person sent by the government of a country to a different country. The ambassador is the official representative of their country. The ambassador speaks to officials of the other country about any problems and issues between the two countries.\nIn past years, communication between countries could take days or weeks. It was necessary to have a person in each foreign capital to have meetings and make negotiations between countries. Nowadays, communication is much faster, and often governments can be in direct contact with each other. However, it is still true that many problems need person-to-person meetings, so ambassadors are still needed.\nOften an ambassador will live in the foreign country for a number of years. An embassy is where the ambassador lives. Embassies are most often in the capital of the foreign country. An ambassador may bring people with him to help him and work at the embassy. Some of the high ranking people may be called embassy officials.\nIt is both tradition and law that the ambassador and many embassy officials have diplomatic immunity. They cannot be arrested or prosecuted in the foreign country. The only possibility is to send a person back to their own country."}
+{"id": "4010", "revid": "40117", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4010", "title": "Monday", "text": "Monday is a day of the week. In some countries, it is the second day of the week. In other parts of the world, including some countries in Europe, Monday is the first day of the week.\nMonday is the day in which is celebrated Easter Monday.\nThe International Standards Organization considers Monday the first day of the week."}
+{"id": "4012", "revid": "62069", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4012", "title": "Nuclear war", "text": "A nuclear war is a war in which countries fight with nuclear weapons. Because nuclear weapons are extremely powerful and could cause destruction throughout the world, the possibility of nuclear war has had a great effect on international politics.\nSo far, two nuclear weapons have been used during warfare. They were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and resulted in the deaths of approximately 120,000 people. Thousands of much more powerful bombs were made in later years. They have not yet been used in war. \nHistory.\nNuclear bombs were invented by the United States with Canadian and British help during World War II to help make that war stop. The destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria caused Japan to surrender. They are still the only nuclear weapons that have ever been used in fighting a war. At that time only the United States had the technology needed to make these bombs, but within a few years the Soviet Union had developed it too. In the new Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union were enemies and each had many nuclear weapons, but they did not dare to use them against each other, either directly or by attacking the other country's allies. Since either country could be completely destroyed by the other's weapons, nuclear war could no longer be limited to the use of only one or two bombs; if they were used anywhere by one side, the other would attack with its own nuclear weapons, and the fighting would almost certainly become greater. This situation came to be known as the \"balance of terror,\" or Mutually Assured Destruction, and stopped conflicts between the two superpowers from leading to a third world war.\nSince the end of Communist rule in Russia and Eastern Europe, tensions between America and Russia have eased and war has become less likely. However, today there is more worry about nuclear proliferation. Countries around the world who already have their own bombs include Britain, France, China, Israel, India, Pakistan and North Korea; as all kinds of technology tend to become cheaper and easier to get and use, there is a fear that nuclear weapons could become available to countries with unstable governments. There is also the possibility that terrorists might be able to capture or build nuclear weapons and use them. the threat of nuclear war is thought to have increased after the Russian invasion of Ukraine, as Russian threatened to use nuclear weapons during the invasion.\nNuclear war in fiction.\nEver since the end of World War II, writers, film-makers, and artists have created works of fiction imagining how a nuclear war might happen and what life would be like afterwards. Most have pictured widespread death and destruction, and a grim post-armageddon world where a few survivors struggle to live without power, medicine, or food. Some have pictured civilization breaking down completely, and primitive societies developing; with the past world becoming forgotten."}
+{"id": "4013", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4013", "title": "Tax", "text": "Tax is money that people have to pay to the government.\nThe government uses the money it gets from taxes to pay for things. For example, taxes are used to pay for people who work for the government, such as the military and police, provide services such as education and health care, and to maintain or build things like roads, bridges and sewers. The earliest known taxes were those of the Egyptian Old Kingdom. \nTypes of taxes.\nThere are many different kinds of taxes. They may be direct tax or indirect tax.\nTaxes can also be split into 3 groups:\nPaying lots of different taxes.\nOften because different parts of governments use taxes for different things, people end up paying lots of taxes.\nIn the United States, for example, the national government has an income tax; most states have an income tax or a sales tax, or both; and cities and towns may have a sales tax or a property tax. In some states such as Ohio, the sales tax is different in each county.\nBefore Taxes.\nIn ancient times, people from one city or area would attack another place, and make the people there pay \"tribute\". Tribute meant that the attacked people would pay money (or other things), and the attacker would stop attacking them. A famous tribute was the Danegeld, when people from Denmark conquered part of England and made the English pay thousands of silver coins.\nGroups who are against taxes.\nAnarchists and Libertarians are against all taxes or against high taxes. As people are paying them unwillingly and under the threat of sanctions, they say that taxation is the same as robbery. (Taxation as theft)"}
+{"id": "4015", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4015", "title": "Florida", "text": "Florida ( ), is a state in the southeast part of the United States. It is the 22nd largest US state by total area with 65,757.70 sq mi (170,312 km2) and the third most-populous with a 2020 population of more than 21 million. It is a peninsula, which means that water surrounds the state on three of four possible sides. To the west is the Gulf of Mexico, to the south is the Florida Straits, and to the east is the Atlantic Ocean. It also borders two states, Alabama and Georgia, both along its northern border. The highest elevation in Florida is Britton Hill. Many Cubans, Haitians and other Caribbeans live in state.\nIn 2018, The top countries of origin for Florida\u2019s immigrants were Cuba, Haiti, Colombia, Mexico and Jamaica.\nHistory.\nNative Americans had first settled in Florida before the arrival of the Europeans. Florida had many residents from many tribes and nations living in almost all parts of it for thousands of years. These include the Timucua, the Tequesta, the Calusa, the Seminole, the Miccosukee, and many more. Florida was first discovered by a European in 1513 by the Spanish Ponce De Leon, who called this peninsula \"Tierra de la Pascua Florida\" (Land of the Easter flowered) because it was discovered on Easter: in the next centuries only the last word remained.\nNatural landscape and geography.\nNorthern Florida contains hills because it is at the very end of the Appalachian Mountains. The highest hill in Florida is Britton Hill, in northern Walton County near the town of Lakewood, Florida. It is above sea level. It is the shortest of the highest points in all other states.\nFlorida has the longest coastline in the continental United States.The Gulf Stream ocean current goes through the Atlantic Ocean near the east coast of Florida, so the water is warmer than the Pacific Ocean. The Gulf of Mexico is on the west coast of Florida.\nIn the center of southern Florida is a lake called Lake Okeechobee. It is the seventh largest freshwater lake in the United States and the second largest freshwater lake entirely within the lower 48 states. Okeechobee is 730 square miles (1,890\u00a0km\u00b2), about half the size of the state of Rhode Island, and is very shallow for a lake of its size, with an average depth of only 9\u00a0feet (3\u00a0m).\nA lot of south Florida used to be covered by a swamp called the Everglades. When Florida was first being settled, farmers found out the soil there was fertile, so they drained some of the wetlands in 1882 for farming. In 1947, the state constructed levees and canals to make more room for farming and houses. The Everglades is now about half the size it used to be. Most of what is left is now the Everglades National Park. Lots of animals live there, including alligators and Florida panthers. Walt Disney with his EPCOT project fixed and maintained a lot of the Floridian swamp area. Recently, Florida has been trying to restore the Everglades.\nAt the southernmost tip of Florida is a chain of islands called the Florida Keys. There are 4500 islands in the Keys. The most famous one is Key West.\nFew states had a bigger population boom than Florida during the Covid pandemic. But now, many who moved there have decided that Florida is not for them, citing high inflation and the state's politics, among other things.\nWeather.\nFlorida is nicknamed the Sunshine State. During the summer, temperatures may rise up to as high as 109 degrees Fahrenheit (or 40.5 degrees Celsius). Its annual average temperature is much warmer than many of the other states, but during winter, temperatures occasionally fall below 32 degrees Fahrenheit. In Florida, a dozen palm tree species are native to the state. Florida has both a rainy season and dry season. Southern Florida does not have four separate seasons.\nFlorida's sunny climate attracts visitors. The summer is great for surfing the waves and enjoying the beaches. The most popular sport in Florida is fishing.\nFlorida is vulnerable to hurricanes due to its proximity to the warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. Hurricane season is from June 1 to November 30, but sometimes a hurricane will occur outside of this period. Hurricane Andrew was a destructive hurricane that hit Florida on August 23, 1992. Florida's most active recorded hurricane seasons were in 2004 and 2005, when it was hit by hurricanes Charley (August 13), Frances (September 4\u20135), Ivan (September 16), Jeanne (September 25), Katrina (August 25), and Wilma (October 24).\nAnimals.\nFlorida has many types of wildlife including:\nIn the 1930s, the Red imported fire ants were accidentally brought from South America to North America. Since then, they have spread to most of the Southern United States, including Florida. They are more aggressive than most native ant species and have a painful sting.\nA lot of non-native snakes have been released in the wild. In 2010 the state created a hunting season for Burmese, Indian and African rock pythons, green anacondas, and Nile monitor lizards.\nCities.\nThe capital of Florida is Tallahassee, and Jacksonville is the state's largest city. Tallahassee is in the part of Florida called the panhandle, or the narrow part in the northwest. There are other big cities in Florida, like Tampa, Orlando and Miami.\nOrlando is home to many amusement and theme parks, like Walt Disney World Resort, Sea World, and Universal Studios. Millions of tourists visit Orlando each year. There is also Busch Gardens in Tampa, which is another tourist attraction.\nThe oldest city in Florida is St. Augustine, which was founded by the Spanish in 1565.\nThe Kennedy Space Center is on Merritt Island, near Cape Canaveral, on Florida's Space Coast.\nEducation.\nFlorida has eleven state universities. They are Florida A&M University, Florida Atlantic University, Florida Gulf Coast University, Florida International University, Florida State University, New College of Florida, University of Central Florida, University of Florida, University of North Florida, University of South Florida, and University of West Florida. The University of Central Florida has the most students. There are 28 private universities in Florida."}
+{"id": "4016", "revid": "1681633", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4016", "title": "Mario", "text": " is a video game character made by Nintendo. He is an Italian plumber who lives in the Mushroom Kingdom. The non-anthropomorphic human character was created and designed by Japanese game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. Mario is the main mascot of Nintendo along with his rival Bowser. He has been in more than 200 games by the company, which are usually designed for people of all ages. \nIn most of the \"Mario\" games, he tries to stop Bowser from kidnapping Princess Peach in order to not let Bowser marry Princess Peach in the other games like Super Mario Odyssey. He is helped by his brother Luigi in most games. He has other enemies like Donkey Kong, Waluigi, and Wario, but they are friends in some spinoffs. \nMario is one of the most famous video game characters. Over 200 million \"Mario\" games have been sold all over the world.\nConcept and creation.\nMario is the Greek form of the Roman Latin name Marius. Mario first appeared in the arcade game \"Donkey Kong\" as a carpenter named Jumpman. In Japan, he had the name \"Mr. Jump.\" Later, he was named \"Mario,\" after Mario Segale, who was a lot like Mario. Mario Segale owned the land where Nintendo of America's office was built.\nMario later appeared with his younger brother Luigi in an arcade game called \"Mario Bros.\" The game \"Super Mario Bros.\" was released at the same time as the Nintendo Entertainment System. \"Super Mario Bros.\" was a very well liked game, along with \"Super Mario Bros. 3\" and The Legend of Zelda.\nAt that time, video games were hard to make and Nintendo could not make Mario move without making his arms \"disappear\". Changing his clothes fixed it. They also did not have the space to give him a mouth or ears. They also could not make hair on his head. To fix this, the makers of the game gave Mario a moustache, sideburns, and a cap so it would not look like he was bald. Mario's creator, Shigeru Miyamoto, said that he gave Mario a cap, because it is hard for him to draw hair. His voice is made by Charles Martinet, who also voices Luigi, Wario, Waluigi and other characters like Toadsworth.\nMario is Nintendo's mascot (the face of the company). Mario's rival was Sega's mascot, Sonic the Hedgehog. Sonic the Hedgehog first appeared in 1991. At first, Sega and Nintendo competed with each other. But then, in \"Sonic Adventure 2: Battle, Sega\" made a game for a Nintendo video game console. Mario and Sonic appeared together in a sports game, \"Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games\", and again in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, \"Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U,\" and \"Super\" \"Smash\" \"Bros\". \"Ultimate\".\nDisney Style.\nMario in Disney Style\nMario from Super Mario in the style of Disney is a non-anthropomorphic human character created by the Japanese game designer Shigeru Miyamoto.\nAppearances.\nMario has been seen in many games, and is seen in games that are not Mario games, like \"Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!!\" where he is a referee. He is also a character you can play as in the \"Super Smash Bros.\" series. Mario has appeared as a secret character which any player can play as in the GameCube version of \"NBA Street V3\" and \"SSX on Tour\", which are both from Electronic Arts. In some games, he only makes very small appearances: in both ' and ', a picture of Mario can be seen, and in \"\" small Mario and Yoshi statues can be seen.\nAfter the Game & Watch game \"Mario Bombs Away\", the first \"Mario\" non-platformer game, \"Dr. Mario\", was sold in 1990. There are two educational \"Mario\" games that have been made. They are called \"Mario Paint\", which was sold in 1992 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and \"Mario Pinball Land\" for the Game Boy Advance. ' was released in 1996 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It is the first \"Mario\" role-playing game. Since then, other Mario role-playing games have been released, such as \"Paper Mario\" for the Nintendo 64; and ' for the Game Boy Advance. Both of these games were made into their own series later on.\nThere have been more series based on the original \"Mario\" series. The \"Mario Kart\" series' first game was \"Super Mario Kart\" for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The \"Mario Kart\" series is the most successful racing video game series of all time. The \"Mario Kart\" series is a type of \"Mario\" sports game. There have been other \"Mario\" sports games like \"Mario Golf\" and \"Mario Tennis\", and the baseball and soccer games \"Mario Superstar Baseball\" and \"Super Mario Strikers\". In 1999, the \"Mario Party\" series started on the Nintendo 64.\nThere has been a few TV shows and a movie for the \"Mario\" series. The name of the first TV show is \"The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!\" and the movie is called \"Super Mario Bros.\". The TV show starred \"Captain\" Lou Albano as Mario, and the movie starred Bob Hoskins as Mario. There have also been \"Mario\" toys sold in some places.\nCharacteristics.\nMario was first a 2D character but since technology has changed, Nintendo has remade Mario in 3D. He is a plumber who lives in the land of Mushroom Kingdom. He is the older, shorter brother of Luigi, and they are both plumbers. In the television series, Mario and Luigi are from Brooklyn, although \"\" says he was born in the Mushroom Kingdom.\nPhysical appearance.\nMario's looks have changed over the years although he has several staple features. He is a short, stubby man wearing a hat with an \"M\" on it, brown hair, black moustache, a very large nose, white gloves, and denim overalls. In most appearances, Mario wears a red hat and shirt with blue overalls. However, in the original \"Super Mario Bros.\" video game, Mario wears a brown shirt and red overalls.\nMario's clothes depend on the game he is in. For example, in the \"Super Mario Strikers\" soccer game, Mario wears a football kit instead of overalls, and in \"Super Mario Sunshine,\" a very sunshiny tropical game, he wears a red T-shirt and can also put on sunglasses and a Hawaiian-style shirt. In some games, Mario can turn into different forms, each with different clothes.\nPersonality.\nMario is a kind-hearted and brave hero, with a love of pasta and pizza. People know Mario has a great, happy, personality since he has a high pitched, funny voice. Since \"Mario's Game Gallery\", Charles Martinet has been his voice actor. In the games, Mario speaks in English with a thick Italian accent. In other things like TV shows, he has a more Brooklyn-styled accent. Mario does not say much. He usually says: \"Okey dokey!\", \"Woohoo!\", \"Let's a-go!\", \"It's-a me! Mario!\", \"Here we go\", \"Mama mia!\" and more, though in sports games, he says things relevant to the sport, in Mario Golf he says \"Fore!\" for example. Mario hardly ever speaks properly in any game, leaving the talking to other characters. He does speak normally in the DiC animated cartoons and the anime series.\nOccupation and hobbies.\nHe only acts like a plumber in the games, \"\" and the original \"Mario Bros.\", but pipes are always one way to get around. Mario was seen plumbing during the animated series. He knows a lot about tools and fixing pipes in the movie. In the first Donkey Kong games when Mario was called Jumpman, he was a carpenter.\nIn the \"Dr. Mario\" games first seen in 1990, Mario is a doctor. In 2001, Mario appeared in \"Dr. Mario 64\", an updated version of the original puzzle game. Dr. Mario appeared as an secret character in the Nintendo GameCube game \"Super Smash Bros. Melee\", and in another newer version, \"Dr. Mario Virus Buster\", for WiiWare. In the Game Boy game \"Mario's Picross\", Mario is an archaeologist.\nMario usually saves Princess Peach (AKA Princess Toadstool), Princess Daisy and . And he usually has to defeat villains, like Bowser(AKA King Koopa in Japan) Most characters in the games know who he is because he acts like a hero, as shown in \"\", where they are called \"superstars\", or celebrities.\nIn \"\", it is said that Mario has a toy-making company that earns him money.\nRelationships.\nSince his first game, Mario has to save the \"damsel in distress\" of the game. Originally, he had to rescue his girlfriend Pauline in \"Donkey Kong\". Pauline was soon replaced by a new damsel-in-distress, Princess Peach, in \"Super Mario Bros.\" (she was first named \"Princess Toadstool\" or simply \"the Princess\" in English-speaking places until 1993, when \"Yoshi's Safari\" was sold, even though the name was not widely used until \"Super Mario 64\" was sold three years later). Pauline returned in the Game Boy remake of \"Donkey Kong\" in 1994, and later \"\" in 2006, although the character is now said to be \"Mario's friend\".\nMario has rescued Princess Peach lots of times since \"Super Mario Bros.\". In a role reversal, Peach rescues Mario in \"Super Princess Peach\". Some people say the two could be a couple.\nLuigi is Mario's younger brother. He is usually a companion on many of Mario's adventures and the character whom players play as in two-player sessions of many of the video games. He sometimes acts like a \"scaredy cat\" who sets off to help Mario but instead needs help himself, though he has also had to rescue Mario occasionally as displayed in \"Mario is Missing!\" and \"Luigi's Mansion\". Yoshi is another one of Mario's friends.\nMario rescued Princess Daisy in \"Super Mario Land\" for the Game Boy. In \"Super Smash Bros. Melee\", the text explaining Princess Daisy's trophy states that \"after her appearance in Mario Golf, some gossips portrayed her as Luigi's answer to Mario's Peach\", although Luigi and Daisy were previously paired as a romantic couple in the live-action \"Super Mario Bros\" movie.\nWario, Mario's evil counterpart was first seen in \"\". Though there is no clear relationship between the two, Wario was once referred to as Mario's cousin in Nintendo Power. Wario is designed to act, in a way, as an anti-Mario.\nBaby Mario.\nBaby Mario is Mario when he was a child. He first appeared in ', released in 1995 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and has appeared in several titles since. Baby Mario has often appeared in Nintendo-sports titles, such as \"Mario Golf\", \"Mario Tennis\", \"Mario Superstar Baseball\", ', \"Mario Super Sluggers\", and \"Mario Kart Wii\". These games imply Mario and Baby Mario are separate characters, but those games are considered to be outside the continuity of the main \"Mario\" series. More recently, he has appeared in \"\", in which Baby Mario appeared via time travel along with Baby Luigi, Baby Peach, and Baby Bowser, which could explain the separation of the two characters. Like the older Mario, Baby Mario is also voiced by Charles Martinet.\nAbilities.\nDuring the development of \"Donkey Kong\", Mario was known as \"Jumpman\". Jumping\u2014both to access places and as an offensive move\u2014is a common gameplay element in \"Mario\" games, especially the \"Super Mario Bros.\" series.\nMario's most commonly portrayed form of attack is jumping to stomp on the heads of enemies, first used in \"Mario Bros.\". This jump-stomp move may entirely crush smaller enemies on the stage, and usually deals damage to larger ones, sometimes also causing secondary effects. This attack often enables Mario to knock the turtle-like Koopa Troopas into their shells, which can slide into and damage other enemies or Mario.\nSubsequent games have elaborated on Mario's jumping-related abilities. \"Super Mario World\" added the ability to spin-jump, which allows Mario to break blocks under him. Later, the Game Boy version of \"Donkey Kong\" allows Mario to jump higher with many jumps, and perform a back-flip. In \"Super Mario 64\", Mario has several jumping abilities, such as a sideways somersault, a \"ground pound\", which makes Mario hit the ground under him hard, and the \"Wall Kick\", which propels him upwards by kicking off walls.\nPower-ups.\nMario uses many items, which give him various powers. The one that shows up the most often is the \"Super Mushroom\", which allows Mario to grow to twice his size, becoming \"Super Mario\" (after the name of the series), and can take a hit before shrinking back down to \"regular\" Mario. If \"Super Mario\" collects a \"Fire Flower\", he will transform into \"Fire Mario\", who can throw fireballs at enemies. Picking up a \"Star\" makes it so nothing can hurt Mario for several seconds.\nA common theme in the \"Mario\" series' power-ups is the fact that many items give Mario a semi-animal appearance, sometimes related to the item itself, for example \"Super Mario Bros. 3\"s Frog Suit, which turns Mario into a frog, and \"\"s Power Carrot, which turns Mario into a rabbit. Other times the item may not be related to the power; for example, the Raccoon Leaf gives him raccoon ears, a tail, and the power of flight. Other power-ups are overall more useful; in \"Super Mario World\", the Cape allows Mario to fly and glide, and a balloon in a later game in the series allows similar effects. \"New Super Mario Bros.\" introduced other types of Mushroom power-ups, such as the \"Mega Mushroom\", which causes Mario to grow to a screen-filling size and the \"Mini Mushroom\" that makes him shrink to a very small size. The Drill Mushroom in Super Mario Bros. Wonder allows the player to dig and dodge enemies go through walls and dig in ceilings to almost fly. \nIn \"Super Mario 64\", Mario takes extra damage without when he is not wearing his hat. Different types of caps found in the game also give him powers of flight, invincibility, and invisibility. Along with these basic features, caps gave more practical abilities as well. For example, the Metal Cap allows Mario to sink to sea floors and the Invisibility cap allows him to walk through thin surfaces such as iron grates.\n\"Super Mario Sunshine\" has several few power-ups with a water theme. He is granted a F.L.U.D.D. (Flash Liquidizing Ultra Dousing Device) pack that performs his main attack and squirts paint and enemies with water, named the Squirt Nozzle. He has three other expansion packs including the Hover Nozzle, which allows him to hover for short distances, the Turbo Nozzle, which allows him to move a lot faster and break through some barriers, and the Rocket Nozzle, which charges water up, then blasts Mario high into the air.\n\"Super Mario Galaxy\" introduced several new power-ups along with a few older items re-done. These include the Bee Shroom, which allows him to float short distances and stick to certain surfaces; the Boo Shroom, which makes him capable of floating as well as traveling through walls; the Life Shroom, which gives him three more life wedges; the Rainbow Star, granting him brief invincibility; the Fire Flower, which appeared for the first time in a 3D game; and the Ice Flower, which allows him to turn water into solid ice so he can go to otherwise unreachable or deadly places. A hidden power-up is the Flight Star, which allows Mario to fly for a while.\nMario uses hammers in numerous games, such as \"Super Mario Bros. 3\", the original \"Donkey Kong\", and \"Super Mario RPG\". Hammers are used to attack and for other things, like flicking switches and solving puzzles. He often picks up and throws various projectiles around him, however, starting in \"Super Mario Bros. 2\". He tosses items such as vegetables, giant blocks and Bob-ombs.\nIn the Mario Kart series, there are a number of items to use. For example, a mushroom makes the characters go faster, and a Koopa shell knocks into other players to slow them down.\nReception and legacy.\nAs Nintendo's mascot, many people think that Mario is the most famous video game character of all time. The \"Mario\" series of video games has sold more than 200 million copies, making it the best selling game series of all time. Mario was the first video game character to get a wax figure in the Hollywood Wax Museum in 2003. In 1990, a national survey showed that more American kids knew Mario than Mickey Mouse. Mario has become a very famous person having been in many television shows, comic books, and in a movie. He has been on lunch boxes, T-shirts, magazines, commercials, in candy form, on Shampoo bottles, cereal, badges, and as a stuffed toy. Nintendo of Japan made a 60-minute anime (Japanese cartoon) movie starring Mario and his friends in 1986, but this movie has never been shown or sold on DVD outside of Japan. The animated series \"The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!\" had a live-action series of episodes starring former WWF manager \"Captain\" Lou Albano as Mario and Danny Wells as Luigi. There was even a book series, the Nintendo Adventure Books. In 2005, Jonathan Mann even wrote an opera based on the character, and performed \"The Mario Opera\" at the California Institute of the Arts.\nBergsala, the distributor of Nintendo's products in the Nordic and the Baltic countries, is located at Marios Gata 21 (Mario's Street 21) in Kungsbacka, Sweden, named after Mario.\nMario's legacy is recognized by Guinness World Records, who awarded the Nintendo Mascot and his games seven records in the \"Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008\". These records include, \"Best Selling Video Game Series of All Time\", \"First Movie Based on an Existing Video Game\", and \"Most Prolific Video Game Character\", with Mario appearing in 116 distinct titles (not including remakes or re-releases).\nIn a poll conducted in 2008, Mario was voted as the most popular video game character in Japan.\nIn popular culture.\n Former NHL hockey player, Mario Lemieux was given the nickname \"Super Mario\" by the media during his career. Mario Williams, the #1 draft pick in the 2006 NFL Draft, was also given the nickname \"Super Mario\", as was pro-cyclist, Mario Cipollini. German international footballer Mario Basler was affectionately referred to as \"Super Mario\" by fans and the media. Another sportsman who received this nickname was the Brazilian soccer player M\u00e1rio Jardel, famous for his jumps and headers."}
+{"id": "4017", "revid": "1334790", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4017", "title": "Video game", "text": "A video game is an electronic game played on a video screen (normally a television, computer monitor, or built-in screen when played on a handheld machine).\nThere are many types, or genres, of video games: role-playing games; shooters, first-person shooters, side-scrollers, and platformers.\nVideo games usually come on CDs, DVDs or digital download. Many games used to come on cartridges. A specialized device used to play a video game at home is called a console. There have been many types of consoles and home computers used to play video games. Some of the first were the Atari 2600 in the 1970s and the Sega Master System and Nintendo Entertainment System in the 1980s. Newer video game consoles are Microsoft's Xbox Series X, Sony's PlayStation 5 and Nintendo's Nintendo Switch. The best-selling video game console of all time is the PlayStation 2, made by Sony.\nPeople can also use computers to play games, which are sometimes called PC games. The older consoles do not have new games developed for them often, although some console games are emulated for PCs (see emulator). This means that new computers can play many old console games along with games made just for new computers. Older games are often more popular emulated than when they were first on sale, because of the ease of download.\nPeople can play portable video games anywhere. Mobile devices (running operating systems such as iOS or Android) also can download games, making them portable game machines. Mobile phones have many games, some of them using a mobile emulator for games from consoles. Not all PC or console games are on mobile or iPad/ iPod/Tablet.\nCompetitions of video game players are called electronic sports. Also known today as e-sports. \nCurrent handheld consoles.\nOne handheld console that is supported today is the Switch, which looks like a tablet computer but can also be plugged into a TV. It is the first example of a \"hybrid console\" that can be used as both as a TV-based model and a handheld device. It was released in March 2017.\nSony's PlayStation Portable (PSP) came out in 2004. A new version, the PlayStation Vita, first came out in 2012.\nAlso in 2004, Nintendo released the Nintendo DS (Dual Screen), which has two separate screens, one of which is a touchscreen. New versions came out in later years, such as the Nintendo DSi in 2008 and the Nintendo DSi XL. The Nintendo 3DS, the first handheld console with 3D graphics, came out in 2011. The 2DS followed in 2013. The New 3DS XL, which is similar to the 3DS but with updated graphical capabilities, was released in 2015. The latest entry into the DS lineup is the \"New 2DS XL\", released on the 28th of July 2017.\nValve released the Steam Deck in Feb 2022 in the North America region. The Steam Deck is a handheld console that can play games made for personal computers.\nAsus released the ROG Ally in June 2023.\nHistory.\nThe first video game ever is often said to be \"Tennis for Two\", a rudimentary tennis game to be played with two people developed in 1958. Another early example is \"Spacewar!\", developed in 1962.\nIn the 1950s, when the first computers began to be made, three people had some ideas to create the basis of actual video games. In 1951, Ralph Baer, an American engineer of Loral Electronics, tried to create \"the best television\", proposing to add a gaming module, but his employer did not like his idea. Even if his idea was never realized, he is the first man to have thought of the idea of video games, later creating the first video game console, the Odyssey. Later, in 1952, A.S Douglas, of the University of Cambridge in the UK, made a video game on a computer in order to illustrate one of his speeches. The game, called \"OXO\", was a tic-tac-toe game, with two players (the person itself and the opponent, the computer). In 1953, Willy Higinbotham made a game called \"Tennis For Two\", similar to the later \"Pong\", to entertain visitors to Brookhaven National Laboratory. Another early video game is a version of checkers, but this is largely overlooked.\nOne of the most famous and one of the earliest video games ever is called \"Space Invaders\". \"Space Invaders\" Keplerians was made in 1978 as a coin operated arcade game but a version has been made for almost every game console and home computer ever available."}
+{"id": "4018", "revid": "661929", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4018", "title": "Oboe", "text": "An oboe is a woodwind instrument with a double reed. It looks very similar to the clarinet, and may be confused with it. While the clarinet's shape remains cylindrical, the oboe's body is conical. The sounds produced by clarinets and oboes are very different. An oboe's sound is produced by blowing air through the double reed at the upper end of the instrument which forces the two reeds to vibrate together which produces the sound. The oboe has four parts: the bell, lower joint, upper joint, and the reed. A person that plays the oboe is called an oboist. A typical orchestra employs between two and four oboists, one of which also plays the cor anglais which sounds a fifth lower than the oboe. The oboe is part of a family of double reed instruments that includes the piccolo oboe, oboe d'amore, Cor anglais, bass oboe, and heckelphone. \nThe oboe came from the shawm which was a medieval and Renaissance instrument. It became popular in the Baroque period. Bach and Handel both used it in most of their orchestral music. Many Italian composers such as Antonio Vivaldi wrote concertos for the instrument, and it is used in a lot of chamber music. At this time it hardly had any keys, but over time more keys were added which made it easier to play the sharps and flats.\nLater composers to write for the oboe as a solo instrument include Mozart, Weber, Richard Strauss, Vaughan Williams and Francis Poulenc.\nThe principal oboist in an orchestra plays the pitch A (440Hz) for the rest of the orchestra to tune their instruments to before a performance.\nThe name \"oboe\" comes from the French language \"hautbois\", meaning \"high wood\", a high-pitched woodwind instrument."}
+{"id": "4019", "revid": "1174418", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4019", "title": "GURPS", "text": "The Generic Universal RolePlaying System, or GURPS, is a role-playing game system created by Steve Jackson Games. It emphasizes a set of rules that can be used in any time or world. Characters are created using a point-based system. There have been four releases of the GURPS core rules and dozens of game supplements that extend the core rules with genre or setting-specific information. \nIn 1990, GURPS became the focus of a Secret Service investigation when an as yet unreleased GURPS Cyberpunk game supplement was misconstrued by the Secret service as being a handbook for computer crime."}
+{"id": "4020", "revid": "1611993", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4020", "title": "Eric Idle", "text": "Eric Idle (born 29 March 1943) is an English actor, comedian, composer, musician, singer-songwriter and writer. He is one of the members of Monty Python. Monty Python is a British comedy team.\nIdle was born in South Shields, County Durham. He studied English at Pembroke College, Cambridge.\nHe is known for his songwriting and singing skills. His songs were important parts of the Monty Python television programme and movies. He wrote the song \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\". This song was written as the closing song of the 1979 movie Life of Brian.\nHe lives in Studio City, California."}
+{"id": "4021", "revid": "1373821", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4021", "title": "Enemy", "text": "An enemy is a person or group of people who is against another person or group. In war, the enemy is anyone fighting for the other side of the war.\nIn the Bible, Saint Peter states that: ' your enemy, the Devil, roams around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour' (1 Peter 5:8)"}
+{"id": "4022", "revid": "1664682", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4022", "title": "2000", "text": "2000 (MM) was a century leap year starting on Saturday in the Gregorian calendar. It was the last year of the 2nd millennium and the 20th century. \n2000 was designated the International Year for the Culture of Peace and the World Mathematical Year.\nPopular culture holds the year 2000 as the first year of the 21st century and the 3rd millennium, due to a tendency to group the years according to decimal values, as if the nonexistent year zero were counted. According to the Gregorian calendar, these distinctions fall to the year 2001, because the 1st century back then was also retroactively said to start with year AD 1. Since the Gregorian calendar doesn't have year zero, its first millennium spanned from years 1 to 1000 inclusively and its second millennium from years 1001 to 2000. For more information, see century and millennium. \nThe year 2000 is sometimes abbreviated as Y2K. The Y stands for year, and the K stands for kilo which means \"thousand.\" \nThe year 2000 was the subject of Y2K concerns, which were fears that computers wouldn't shift from 1999 to 2000 correctly. However, by the end of 1999, many companies had already converted to new, or upgraded, existing software. Some even obtained Y2K certification. As a result of massive effort, relatively few problems occurred."}
+{"id": "4025", "revid": "1320268", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4025", "title": "Adelaide", "text": "Adelaide () is a city in Australia. It is the capital city of the state of South Australia, and it has an approximate population of 1.2 million people.\nIt is the fifth biggest city in Australia, behind Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Perth. Adelaide was founded in 1836 by Colonel William Light, who named it after Queen Adelaide.\nAdelaide is near the Southern Ocean and is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula. It has a river going through it called the River Torrens. Many festivals are held there. Adelaide has a hot-summer and cool-wet-winter Mediterranean climate. Grapes for wine production are grown in the Barossa Valley about 50 kilometres (30 miles) northeast of Adelaide, in the McLaren Vale about 30 kilometres south of Adelaide and parts of the Mt Lofty Ranges to the east."}
+{"id": "4029", "revid": "1458798", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4029", "title": "Yoshi", "text": "Yoshi is a fictional dinosaur who appears in the \"Mario\" series of video games made by Nintendo. The character was created by Shigeru Miyamoto. \nYoshi's best-known ability is his ability to eat enemies. He has a long frog-like tongue which he uses to eat enemies and items. In some games, after Yoshi eats enemies, they can be turned into eggs, which can be thrown. One of Yoshi's companions is Mario who helps Yoshi throughout dangerous situations. Most of the time, Mario can ride Yoshi. \nYoshi also can jump very high, and can also float in the air a little bit by kicking his legs. He can also ground pound enemies by quickly jumping on them.\nYoshis are usually green, but can come in many other colors. These other colors include green, red, light blue, blue, purple, pink, yellow, orange, brown, black, and white. Blue Yoshi is especially in Super Mario World. In \"Super Mario 64 DS\", Rec Room there's a light blue color in one of Yoshi's minigames Tox Box. In Vs Mode multiplayer, it has a dark blue color and the third player can play him.\nIn a few games like \"Super Mario World\" Yoshi gains powers, like flying, shooting fireballs when spat out, ground pounding, or all three by holding certain colored koopa troopa shells in its mouth.\nYoshi first appeared in the game \"Super Mario World\" (SNES), which was released in 1990 in Japan and 1991 in the United States.\nReception.\nYoshi is a very well-known character in the \"Mario\" series. Yoshi is also seen a lot in Mario toys, games, and shirts. Yoshi was in two of the McDonald's Happy Meal Mario toy promotions, which only starred Mario, Donkey Kong and Yoshi himself. In a 2008 poll, Yoshi was voted as the third favorite video game character in Japan. Cloud Strife and Mario were second and first place, in that order."}
+{"id": "4031", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4031", "title": "Lake", "text": "A lake (from Latin: \"lacus\") is a large body of water (larger and deeper than a pond) within a body of land. As a lake is separated from the ocean, it is not a sea. Some lakes are very big, and people in the past sometimes called them seas. Lakes do not flow like rivers, but many have rivers flowing into and out of them.\nMost lakes on the surface of the Earth are fresh water and most are in the Northern Hemisphere. More than 60% of the lakes of the world are in Canada. Finland is known as \"The Land of the Thousand Lakes\" (there are 187,888 lakes in Finland, of which 60,000 are large).\nMany lakes are man-made reservoirs built to produce electricity, for recreation, or to use the water for irrigation or industry, or as drinking water.\nIf there are not rivers flowing out of the lake (see Endorheic basin), or they are few and small, the lake loses water only by evaporation or because the water flows through the soil pores. Where the water evaporates rapidly and the soil around the lake has a high salt level, as in very dry places, the water of the lake has a high concentration of salt and the lake is called a salt lake. Examples of salt lakes are the Great Salt Lake, the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and the Dead Sea."}
+{"id": "4032", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4032", "title": "French", "text": "French can mean:"}
+{"id": "4033", "revid": "873387", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4033", "title": "East", "text": "East is one of the 4 main directions on a compass (called cardinal directions). East is normally to the right on most maps. For example: Japan is east of China, which is itself east of Pakistan. When \u201cThe East\u201d is described: it usually refers to the countries of Asia (especially from Pakistan eastwards like China and India). The sun and moon rise in the east."}
+{"id": "4035", "revid": "1604351", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4035", "title": "Tire", "text": "A tire is a ring of material that covers the rim of a wheel. Most road vehicles and many other vehicles use rubber tires. Tires help vehicles to move smoothly. Some metro trains and trams also use rubber tires on their steel wheels to provide better traction than the steel tires of other trains.\nTires need to be changed after their treads wear away. Driving with worn tires is very dangerous. It can cause the tire to explode and the driver to lose control.\nTires were made of leather for thousands of years, and of iron or steel for hundreds. Pneumatic tires were invented in the 1840s and again in the 1880s. They became commonplace early in the 20th century.\nConstruction.\nTires are made of different types of rubber. Softer rubber is used in summer or when the tires need better traction, for example, in auto racing. Tires made of harder rubber are made for long lasting performance, like long-distance truck carriers. There are many different types of tires. They come in different sizes and have different tread patterns. \nThere are many different sizes of tires. On car and truck tires, they are marked with 3 numbers and might look like: 225/60R16. The first number is the width in millimeters of the tire at the widest point when it is mounted and inflated. The second number is the sidewall (side of the tire) height as a ratio or percentage of the width. The last number is the wheel diameter in inches.\nTire size: 225/60R16\nVery large tires (for example, tires on big mining trucks) use different units. For example: 59/80R63. The first number is the width in inches of the tire. The second number is the sidewall height as a ratio of the width. The last number is the wheel diameter in inches.\nTire damage.\nMost tires today do not have a tube inside of them. There are grooves in the wheel that let the tire be popped into place and hold a lot of air pressure. If there is a crack in the tire, it will not be able to hold its air. Tire leaks are very common. The most common cause is a hole from a nail or screw. This can usually be fixed by patching the inside of the tire so that it can hold air again. If the hole is close to or in the side of the tire, it can not be fixed. This is because the sides of the tire flexes to support the weight of the vehicle. A patch will not be able to handle the stress.\nMud and snow tires.\nMud and Snow, (or M+S, or M&S), is a designation used by manufacturers for all-season and winter tires. Most are designed to provide improved performance under low temperature conditions, compared to summer tires. The tread compound is usually softer than that used in tires for summer conditions. This provides better grip on ice and snow, but wears more quickly at higher temperatures. Tires may have well above average numbers of sipes in the tread pattern to grip the ice. M&S relates to the percentage of tread void area. On four-wheel drive vehicles, M&S tires are often standard equipment.\nAll Terrain Tires.\nAll-terrain (AT) Tires (tyres) are versatile tyres designed to perform well on a variety of road conditions, including both paved roads and off-road surfaces like gravel, dirt, and rocky terrain. They are a popular choice for vehicles that need the flexibility to drive comfortably on highways while also being equipped for light to moderate off-road conditions. AT tyres aim to provide a balance between durability, traction, and comfort, making them suitable for a range of vehicles, including SUVs, trucks, and off-road vehicles.\nSize Guide for All-Terrain (AT) Tires (Tyres).\nAll-terrain tyres come in various sizes to fit different types of vehicles and driving needs. The sizing often follows standard tyre size formats (e.g., 265/70R17), where:\nAT tyres are typically available in sizes compatible with SUVs, light trucks, and off-road vehicles, with larger sizes offering better off-road performance and smaller sizes providing a smoother ride on highways. It's recommended to consult the vehicle\u2019s manual or a tyre specialist for the correct size based on the vehicle's specifications and the intended use."}
+{"id": "4037", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4037", "title": "Population", "text": "A population is the number of living people that live together in the same place. A city's population is the number of people living in that city. These people are called inhabitants or residents. The population includes all individuals that live in that certain area. The world population was estimated to have reached 8 billion in November 2022. Asia\u00a0is the most populous continent, with its 4.8 billion inhabitants being 60% of the world population. The most populous country is India with 1.4 billion people.\nPopulation density is the average number of people in a place. Urban areas such as big cities have a high population density. People living there lives close to each other. In areas with a low population density, people usually live far away from each other, such as in rural areas out in the countryside.\nUsually population refers to the number of humans in a certain area. The maximum population that can be supported in an area is called the carrying capacity.\nPopulation trends.\nGlobal population is going up, but the population growth rate is declining all over the world. Growth in poor countries is faster than in rich ones; some rich countries have a population pyramid that is nearly square. Urbanization is also common, and urban areas usually have lower birth rates. In population growth, births exceed deaths. In the modern world this is due to reduction of infant deaths, control of infectious diseases, and improved agriculture so more people can eat.\nThe change in population from 2010 to 2015 was:\nHuman population control is the practice of altering the rate of growth of a human population. Concerns about overpopulation and its effects on poverty, environmental degradation, and political stability led to efforts to reduce population growth rates."}
+{"id": "4038", "revid": "1677235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4038", "title": "World war", "text": "A world war is an international conflict in which most of the countries in the world fight or help. \nThere have been two World Wars so far, World War I (1914-1918), and World War II (1939-1945), Several earlier historical wars such as the Anglo-Dutch Wars, Seven Years' War, French Revolutionary Wars, Napoleonic Wars, Cold War, and War on terror were fought in many places around the world, but they were wars amongst European empires.\nAfter World War II, many people were scared that World War III would start from the Cold War between the United States and Western Bloc on one side and the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc on the other. After World War II, countries had many powerful weapons, including jet bomber airplanes, which could carry nuclear weapons to destroy many buildings and kill many people instantly, far away; and much faster missiles which could also carry nuclear weapons."}
+{"id": "4039", "revid": "1508758", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4039", "title": "Snow", "text": "Snow is a form of ice. Snow forms when water in the atmosphere becomes frozen. It comprises individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere\u2014usually within clouds\u2014and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes. Snow comes in all different shapes and sizes.\nAt the freezing point of water (0\u00b0 Celsius, 32\u00b0 Fahrenheit), snow melts and becomes liquid water. Sometimes, the snow will melt very fast and become water vapor. This is called sublimation. The opposite, where water vapor becomes snow, is called deposition.\nSnow is used for some winter sport activities like skiing and sledding. Sometimes people make artificial snow so they can ski. People also commonly build things out of snow for fun.\nSnow can also be dangerous, as it can lower visibility and make driving very difficult. When it snows, the snow will melt a little during the daytime and freeze again at night. This makes ice which can make driving conditions very treacherous. Snow plows are used to remove snow from roads to make driving easier and safer. Also, sand or salt may be added to the road to help tires grip the road. When salt is mixed with snow, the snow will melt more easily. This is because salt water has a lower melting point than fresh water (water without salt).\nA blizzard is a dangerous type of a snowstorm. A blizzard produces strong winds that keep the snow in the air, thus reducing visibility. Sometimes it produce thunder snow, which is snow with lightning and thunder."}
+{"id": "4040", "revid": "873387", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4040", "title": "West", "text": "West is one of the 4 main directions on a compass. West is normally to the left on most maps. For example: (Germany is located to the west of Poland, which is itself located to the west of Lithuania). When \u201cThe West\u201d is used in everyday speech: it usually refers to the nations of Europe (Especially from Croatia Westward) and its daughter states in the Americas and Australasia. The sun and moon also set in the west."}
+{"id": "4043", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4043", "title": "List of physics topics", "text": "A.\nAir resistance\nC.\nCompression --Critical angle -- Colour filter -- Concave lens -- Convex lens\nD.\nDiffraction -- Density (distance)--(displacement)\nE.\nElectromagnetic spectrum -- Energy --\nF.\nFluid friction -- Focus -- Force sensor -- Frequency -- Friction --\nFlotation\nG.\nGamma ray -- Gravity\nI.\nInertia -- Interference\nK.\nKinetic energy\nL.\nLamp-housing -- Laser pointer -- Lens -- Longitudinal wave -- Longitudinal wave model (Crova's disc) --\nM.\nMoment of inertia\nN.\nNormal -- Normal force -- Newton's laws of motion\nO.\nOscilloscope - Overhead projector\nP.\nPlane mirror -- Potential energy -- Prism\nR.\nRarefaction -- Ray box -- Reflection -- Refraction -- Ripple tank --\nrelative density refleaction of light through prism\nS.\nSignal generator -- Slinky -- Slit plate -- Spring -- String theory -- Sound -- Statistical mechanics\nT.\nTension -- Translucent screen -- Transverse wave -- Transverse wave model --\nV.\nVibration -- Velocity\nW.\nwave -- Wave speed -- Waveform -- Wavefront -- Wavelength --\nY.\nYoung's double-slit experiment"}
+{"id": "4044", "revid": "1414547", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4044", "title": "President", "text": "A president is the leader of a country which is a republic. A president is usually elected directly through a vote by the citizens or indirectly by legislatures (parliaments) who were voted by the citizens and which represents them. \nSome presidents are both the head of state and head of government, such as the President of the United States. In other countries, such as the Republic of Ireland, the President has a ceremonial role while the Prime Minister is the leader of the government. In France, the President and Prime Minister both share executive powers.\nA president could also be the title of the head of a large business, company or organization.\nElecting a President.\nMany republics have direct elections by citizens to elect a president. But some other republics do not. The President of the United States is elected by the electoral college. Some other republics choose a president this way. In some other republics, the parliament elects a president. \nCountries that have a monarch as leader, are called monarchies. Some countries have neither a president or a monarch as leader, such as the Vatican City which is ruled by a religious leader called a Pope.\nCompanies also have presidents. They are elected by the people who own part of the company. In some companies, the people who are workers for the company elect (vote for) their company president.\nPower of a President.\nThe president of a country is not the same thing as a prime minister. A prime minister is part of a parliament, but a president is not. In some countries, (such as the United States or France), the president has more power and responsibility than anyone else. Such a president is often called the nation's chief executive. As chief executive, the president must take an active role in all phases of government. The republics where the president is both the head of state and head of government (and there is no prime minister) are called a presidential republics. \nIn other republics (such as India, Israel or the Republic of Ireland), to be president is more of an honor or a symbol, and the position has no real power. The real power in such republics is held by the prime minister, who is the head of government. In this kind of republics, the president is only the head of state, and are called parliamentary republics.\nIn some republics (such as France or Russia) both the president as the head of state, and the prime minister as the head of government, run the day-to-day affairs of the state, but often the president has more powers than the prime minister. Such republics are called semi-presidential republics. \nMost monarchies that have a king or queen as their monarch and head of state, have no president, but very few monarchies, such as the United Arab Emirates has a president who is the head of state, who by custom (but not by law) is always the emir (monarch) of Abu Dhabi, which is \"de facto\" hereditary.\nThe American President is restricted by the written United States Constitution, which was written to make sure that the American executive never became as powerful as in the British system. The British Prime Minister is part of both the Legislature and Executive, whereas the American President is the head of the Executive. The American governmental system shows a clear separation of powers unlike the British system.\nSo despite having a large nuclear arsenal, the American president can not carry out policy and introduce legislation as freely as the British prime minister."}
+{"id": "4046", "revid": "10440231", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4046", "title": "List of colors", "text": ""}
+{"id": "4047", "revid": "1618275", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4047", "title": "List of lakes", "text": "A list of lakes, ordered by continent:\nNorth America.\n\u2020 = the North American Great Lakes"}
+{"id": "4052", "revid": "1687111", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4052", "title": "Galileo Galilei", "text": "Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564\u00a0\u2013 8 January 1642) was an Italian polymath. Galileo was originally going to be a doctor but became a tutor instead. He was a professor of mathematics and natural science in Padua and Pisa. People most remembered him today for his conflict with the Catholic Church of his day, which led to his trial for heresy by the Inquisition.\nLife.\nGalileo was born on 15 February 1564 in Pisa, Duchy of Florence. He was the eldest of five siblings. His father was Vincenzo Galilei, who was a scholar and a musician. In 1574, the Galilei family moved to Florence and he started his formal education in the Camaldolese monastery.\nAstronomy.\nGalileo was not the first person to build a telescope. He was the first person to publish his observations of astronomical objects through a telescope. He discovered that the Milky Way is made of many stars. He discovered that the Moon has hills. He discovered the first moons not counting our own moon, these are the four biggest moons of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymade and Callisto. Those moons are now called the Galilean moons. He discovered sunspots, which are dark areas of the Sun. He saw that the planet Venus has light and dark phases just like the Moon. This helped people to know that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System, as Nicolaus Copernicus had said.\nPhysics.\nGalileo worked more at physics than at astronomy. He studied natural forces, and was one of the most important discoverers of the part of physics that is now called kinematics, including the discovery of the kinematic principle of relativity. However, he is often remembered now for things that either did not happen, or failed.\nA legend says that he climbed the Leaning Tower of Pisa, and dropped cannonballs of different weights, to see which would strike the ground first. Even though their weights were not the same, they hit the ground at the same time. Galileo found that objects fall to the ground at the same rate, unless things like wind resistance change the rate. This went against the views of Aristotle, an ancient philosopher whose theory was different. Galileo's findings were ignored by most people, and Aristotle's view was still accepted as correct until Isaac Newton proved Galileo was right. This also led to Newton creating his Law of Gravity.\nGalileo also tried to determine the speed of light. He climbed a hill, and had an assistant climb another hill, both carrying lanterns with closed shutters. He then opened the shutter of his lantern. His assistant opened his own shutter when he saw Galileo's lantern. Galileo then measured the time it took for his assistant's shutter to open. Knowing the time difference, and the distance between the hills, he tried to estimate the speed of light. However, this did not work.\nPublications.\nThe most important are:\nTrial for heresy.\nGalileo came to accept the findings of Copernicus, that the Sun was the center of the then-known universe, and not the Earth. He played a major part in the scientific revolution through this argument. Because he promoted this and other ideas, he came to the notice of the Committee of Propaganda, the dreaded Inquisition. The Church taught that the Earth stood still, while everything in the sky moved around it. The Inquisition ruled in 1616 that other theories could only be discussed as possibilities, not facts. Galileo said he would obey. \nGalileo later discussed the question in his most famous work, \"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems\", published in 1632 by permission of the Inquisition. His scientific writing was usually in Latin for hundreds of scientists around Europe, but this was one of the books he wrote in Italian so thousands of Italians could read it. The book was in the form of conversations between three men. The man representing the Church's point of view was called 'Simplicio'.\nChurch leaders who liked his earlier books were angry at this one. The Inquisition took action in 1633. He was arrested and put on trial. They found him \"vehemently suspect of heresy\". They reminded him of the fate of Giordano Bruno, who had been burnt at the stake for heresy on topics such as transubstantiation and the Trinity. Bruno also believed the Earth went round the Sun and stars had planets. The Inquisition forced Galileo to recant (say he was wrong) under the threat of execution, and to withdraw his works from publication. Galileo spent the last ten years of his life under house arrest. Galileo continued to write about physics and other topics, but not astronomy.\nGalileo has become synonymous with a warrior for scientific truth. Although he had to retract his writings at his trial, it is widely believed that after the trial he insisted that Earth does move around the sun, saying the famous phrase \"\"Eppur si muove\"' \u2013 \"still it moves.\" The saying itself became a slogan for science.\nDeath.\nGalileo Galilei died on in Arcetri, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy.\nPreviously, he was buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor. Later, he was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been built there in his honor."}
+{"id": "4053", "revid": "103847", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4053", "title": "Agreement", "text": "An agreement is writing down a promise made. Agreements are common in law and business. For example, when a person takes out a loan or hires someone to work, an agreement is usually signed so that everyone understands what and when things must be done."}
+{"id": "4054", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4054", "title": "Promise", "text": "When a person agrees to do something or to \"not\" do something, that person is making a promise. A promise can be made verbally (by saying it), or it can be written down as a contract. \"Breaking\" a promise, or not keeping it, is often just bad manners, but it can sometimes be illegal, such as when a contract is not kept.\nA vow is a special promise. It is mostly used in a religious sense or in ceremonies such as marriages when the couple who are being married make their \"marriage vows\", promising to be faithful to one another.\nAn oath is a promise in the legal sense. When someone has to give evidence in a court of law they \"swear an oath\". This means that they promise they will tell the truth."}
+{"id": "4055", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4055", "title": "Cloud", "text": "A cloud is water vapour in the atmosphere (sky) that has condensed into very small water droplets or ice crystals that appear in visible shapes or formations above the ground.\nWater on the Earth evaporates (turns into an invisible gas) and rises up into the sky. Higher up where the air is colder, the water condenses: it changes from a gas to drops of water or crystals of ice. We see these drops of water as clouds. The drops fall back down to earth as rain, and then the water evaporates again. This is called the \"water cycle\".\nThe atmosphere always has some water vapour. Clouds form when the atmosphere can no longer hold all the invisible air vapor. Any more water vapor condenses into very small water drops.\nWarm air holds more water vapor than cool air. So if warm air with lots of water inside cools, it can form a cloud. These are ways air can cool enough to form clouds:\nClouds are heavy. The water in a cloud can have a mass of several million tons. Every cubic metre (m3) of the cloud has only about 5\u00a0grams of water in it. Cloud droplets are also about 1000 times heavier than evaporated water, so they are much heavier than air. They do not fall, but stay in the air, because there is warm air all round the heavier water droplets. When water changes from gas to droplets, this makes heat. Because the droplets are very small, they \"stick\" to the warm air.\nSometimes, clouds appear to be brilliant colors at sunrise or sunset. This is due to dust particles in the air.\nCloud classification.\nClouds are classified according to how they look and how high the base of the cloud is in the sky. This system was suggested in 1803. There are different sorts of clouds because the air where they form can be still or moving forward or up and down at different speeds. Very thick clouds with large enough water droplets can make rain or snow, and the biggest clouds can make thunder and lightning.\nThere are five basic families of clouds based on how they look:\nThe following is a summary of the main cloud types arranged by how high they form:\nHigh-Level clouds.\nHigh clouds form from in cold places, in mild regions and in the very hot tropics. They are too high and thin to produce rain or snow.\nHigh-level clouds include:\nMedium-level clouds.\nMiddle clouds usually form at in colder areas. However, they may form as high as in the tropics where it's very warm all year. Middle clouds are usually made of water droplets but may also have some ice crystals. They occasionally produce rain or snow that usually evaporates before reaching the ground.\nMedium-level clouds include:\nLow-level clouds.\nLow-level clouds are usually seen from near ground level to as high as . Low clouds are usually made of water droplets and may occasionally produce very light rain, drizzle, or snow.\nLow-level clouds include:\nWhen very low stratus cloud touches the ground, it is called fog.\nModerate-vertical clouds.\nThese are clouds of medium thickness that can form anywhere from near ground level to as high as . Medium-level cumulus does not have \"alto\" added to its name. The tops of these clouds are usually not much higher than . Vertical clouds often create rain and snow. They are made mostly of water droplets, but when they push up through cold higher levels they may also have ice crystals.\nModerate-vertical clouds include:\nTowering-vertical clouds.\nThese clouds are very tall with tops usually higher than . They can create heavy rain and snow showers. Cumulonimbus, the biggest clouds of all, can also produce thunderstorms. These clouds are mostly made of water droplets, but the tops of very large cumulonimbus clouds are often made mostly of ice crystals.\nTowering-vertical clouds include:\nAs a sign.\nIn the Bible, clouds are often a sign of God's presence."}
+{"id": "4056", "revid": "1694597", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4056", "title": "Water cycle", "text": "The water cycle, or hydrological cycle, is the cycle that water goes through on Earth.\nOverview.\nWater is essential for life as we know it. It is present throughout the Solar System, and was part of the Earth from its formation. The source of the water was the same as the source of the Earth's rock: the cloud particles which condensed in the origin of the Solar System.\nProcesses.\nThis is the process that water starts and ends in the water cycle."}
+{"id": "4057", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4057", "title": "Water vapor", "text": "Water vapor is water that is in the form of a vapor, or gas. It is a part of the water cycle. When liquid water is heated to boiling point, 100 \u00b0C (212 \u00b0F), it turns into vapor. Water vapor can also be produced directly from ice; this is called sublimation. Steam is water vapor, but clouds are liquid water. The amount of water vapor in air is called humidity and it affects weather conditions. In the cold, breathing out causes the water vapor in the breath to freeze.\nWater vapor weighs less than air, thus it slightly reduces the lift produced by an aircraft wing. It is also transparent, which means the small droplets that look like mist are actually liquid. Water vapor also is a big cause of the greenhouse effect. It is invisible, but makes visible water when it condenses.\nProperties of water vapor.\nWater vapor is the gas form of water (H\u2082O). In this state, the water molecules are no longer stuck together by hydrogen bonds like they are in liquid or ice. Instead, each molecule moves around freely on its own. A single water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. These atoms are joined by covalent bonds, meaning they share electrons. The shape of a water molecule looks like a bent \"V\". It has an angle of about 104.5\u00b0 between the hydrogen atoms. Oxygen pulls more on the electrons, making one side of the molecule more negative and the other side more positive. This makes water a polar molecule.\nIn water vapor, the tiny water molecules move quickly and randomly, like other gases. Each molecule is on its own, flying around freely. But because water molecules are polar (they have a positive side and a negative side), they can still weakly attract each other or other polar molecules in the air. These weak attractions can slightly change how water vapor behaves. This happens especially when there is a lot of water vapor or they are under high pressure. Still, in most everyday situations, water vapor acts almost like a regular or ideal gas.\nPeople often think steam or mist is the same as water vapor, but that is not true. Real water vapor is actually invisible. You cannot see it with your eyes. What we call steam is actually made of tiny liquid water droplets floating in the air. These form when water vapor cools down and starts to condense. True water vapor, like the air we breathe, is a gas you cannot see. But even though it is invisible, we can still measure it using special tools. Water vapor has pressure, takes up space (volume), and has a temperature, just like any other gas.\nIn nature, water vapor is usually mixed in with other gases in the air. How much water vapor the air can hold depends on the temperature. Warmer air can hold a lot more water vapor than cooler air. That is why places near the equator are more humid. Water vapor is made of small, light molecules. Each water molecule has a mass of about 18 grams per mole, which is lighter than nitrogen (28) and oxygen (32), the main gases in air. This means that humid air is actually lighter than dry air. Because it is lighter, moist air usually rises up. This helps form clouds and plays a big role in weather."}
+{"id": "4058", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4058", "title": "Solid", "text": "Solid is one of the four common states of matter. The molecules in solids are closely bound together, so they can only vibrate. This means solids have a definite shape that only changes when a force is applied. This is different to liquids and gases which move randomly, a process called flow. \nSolids can resist forces applied to their surface. \nWhen a solid becomes a liquid, this is called melting. Liquids become solid by freezing. Some solids, like dry ice, can turn into gas without turning liquid first. This is called sublimation.\nKinds of solids.\nThe forces between the atoms in a solid can take many forms. For example, a crystal of sodium chloride (common salt) is made up of ionic sodium and chlorine, which are held together by ionic bonds. In diamond or silicon, the atoms share electrons and make covalent bonds. In metals, electrons are shared in metallic bonding. Some solids, like most organic compounds, are held together with \"van der Waals forces\" coming from the polarization of the electronic charge cloud on each molecule. The dissimilarities between the types of solid come from the differences between their bonding.\nMetals.\nMost metals are strong, dense, and good conductors of electricity and heat. The mass of the elements in the periodic table, those to the left of a diagonal line drawn from boron to polonium, are metals. Mixtures of two or more elements in which the big component is a metal are known as alloys.\nPeople have been using metals for many purposes since prehistoric times.\nThe strength and relialbility of metals has led to their widespread use in making of buildings and other things, as well as in most vehicles, many tools, pipes, road signs and railroad tracks. Iron and aluminium are the two most commonly used metals. They are also the most common metals in the Earth's crust. Iron is most commonly used in the form of an alloy, steel, which has up to 2.1% carbon, making it much harder than pure iron.\nSince metals are good conductors of electricity, they are valuable in electrical tools and for carrying an electric current over long distances with little energy loss. Because of this, electrical power grids rely on metal cables to get electricity. Home electrical systems, for example, are wired with copper for its good conducting uses. The high thermal conductivity of most metals also makes them useful for stovetop cooking utensils.\nMinerals.\nMinerals are natural solids formed through many geological processes and having a crystal structure with uniform physical things throughout.."}
+{"id": "4059", "revid": "1555593", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4059", "title": "Evaporation", "text": "Evaporation is when a liquid becomes a gas without forming bubbles inside the liquid volume. If bubbles are formed we are talking instead about \"boiling\".\nFor example, water left in a bowl will slowly disappear. The water evaporates into water vapor, the gas phase of water. The water vapor mixes with the air.\nThe opposite of evaporation is condensation.\nWhen the molecules in a liquid are heated, they move faster. This makes them full of energy and so the particles collide with each other, and eventually they become so far apart that they become a gas.\nDifferences between evaporation and boiling.\nDuring evaporation only the molecules near the liquid surface are changing from liquid to vapor. During boiling the molecules inside the volume of the liquid are also changing to vapor. For this reason during evaporation no bubbles are formed, instead they are formed during boiling.\nEvaporation can happen at any temperature, while boiling happens only at a specified temperature called the \"boiling point\". Evaporation happens slowly, but boiling happens quickly.\nRate of evaporation.\nSome liquids evaporate more quickly than others. There are many factors that affect the evaporation rate.\nThe rate of evaporation depends on the liquid's exposed surface area (faster when increased), the humidity of surroundings (slower when increased), the presence of wind (faster when increased) and the temperature (faster when increased).\nLiquid with high boiling points (those that boil at very high temperatures) tend to evaporate more slowly than those with lower boiling temperatures.\nEvaporation is a very essential part of the water cycle."}