â¢ The regular TBL , as described in section 2 ; â¢ An improved version of TBL , which makes extensive use of indexes to speed up the rules ' update ; â¢ The FastTBL algorithm ; â¢ The ICA algorithm ( Hepple , 2000 ) .


For example , Jokinen and Ragni ( 2007 ) and Jokinen et al. ( 2008 ) find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels .


This approach resembles the work by Grishman et al. ( 1986 ) and Hirschman et al. ( 1975 ) on selectional restrictions .


Unless it is desired to intentionally filter these out as being outside of the new domain , one can insert some arbitrarily small probability for these arcs , using , for example , an N-gram back-off model ( Katz 1987 ) .


feature Cohen 's k corrected k agreement 73.59 98.74 dial act 84.53 98.87 turn 73.52 99.16 Table 2 : Inter-coder agreement on feedback expression annotation Although researchers do not totally agree on how to measure agreement in various types of annotated data and on how to interpret the resulting figures , see Artstein and Poesio ( 2008 ) , it is usually assumed that Cohen 's kappa figures over 60 are good while those over 75 are excellent ( Fleiss , 1971 ) .


To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .


Empirical evidence has been brought forward that inflectional and/or derivational stemmers augmented by dictionaries indeed perform substantially better than those without access to such lexical repositories ( Krovetz , 1993 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ; Tzoukermann et al. , 1997 ) .


The XTAG group ( Doran et al. , 2000 ) at the University of Pennsylvania is also developing Korean , Chinese , and Hindi grammars .


HOLMES is given the following set of six domainindependent rules , which are similar to the upward monotone rules introduced by ( MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ) .


The lexicon is used to mediate and map between a language-independent domain model and a language-dependent ontology widely used in NLG , the Upper Model ( Bateman 1990 ) .


ImageNet is a large-scale and widely used image database , built on top of WordNet , which maps words into groups of images , called synsets ( Deng et al. , 2009 ) .


based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( McDonald et al. , 2005 ) .


Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; Shrestha and McKeown 2004 ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ;


The retrieval process relies on the vector space model ( Salton , 1989 ) , with the cosine measure expressing the similarity between a query and a document .


For right-branching structures , the leftcorner ancestor is the parent , conditioning on which has been found to be beneficial ( Johnson , 1998 ) , as has conditioning on the left-corner child ( Roark and Johnson , 1999 ) .


A few others incorporate various measures of inter-document similarity between the texts to be labeled ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) .


This is similar to `` one sense per collocation '' idea of Yarowsky ( 1993 ) .


Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .


This system has been successfully tested with the development of plug-ins supporting instant messaging , distributed video encoding ( Hughes and Walkerdine , 2005 ) , distributed virtual worlds ( Hughes et al. , 2005 ) and digital library management ( Walkerdine and Rayson , 2004 ) .


be found in figure 2 , which is similar with that in Moschitti et al. ( 2005 ) .


It is inspired by the system described in Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) .


â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) .


Although a number of methods for query-dependent text summarization are beginning to be developed and evaluated in a variety of realistic settings ( Mani et al. , 1999 ) , we again propose the use of vector space methods from IR , which can be easily extended to the summarization task ( Salton et al. , 1994 ) :


Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .


When we run our classifiers on resource-tight environments such as cell-phones , we can use a random feature mixing technique ( Ganchev and Dredze , 2008 ) or a memory-efficient trie implementation based on a succinct data structure ( Jacobson , 1989 ; Delpratt et al. , 2006 ) to reduce required memory usage .


These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by Frederking and Nirenburg ( 1994 ) , Frederking et al. ( 1994 ) , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) .


A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) .


Discriminative approaches ( especially SVMs ) have been shown to be very effective for many supervised classification tasks ; see , for example , ( Joachims , 1998 ; Ng and Jordan , 2001 ) .


This is the approach taken by IBM Models 4 + ( Brown et al. 1993b ; Och and Ney 2003 ) , and more recently by the LEAF model ( Fraser and Marcu 2007 ) .


11 Manandhar ( 1995 ) proposes to unify these two steps by including an update operator in the


For instance , when building translation units in EBMT approaches ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki , 2001 ) , ( AlAdhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) , ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Sadler & Vendelmans , 1990 ) , etc. , where S-SSTC can be used to represent the entries of the BKB or when S-SSTC used as an annotation schema to find the translation correspondences ( lexical and structural correspondences ) for transferrules ' extraction from parallel parsed corpus ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. ,


Silberer and Lapata ( 2012 ) introduce a new method of multimodal integration based on Canonical Correlation Analysis , and performs a systematic comparison between their CCA-based model and others on association norm prediction , held out feature prediction , and word similarity .


More details on how the structural divergences described in ( Don , 1994 ) can be accounted for using our formalism can be found in ( Nasr et al. , 1998 ) .


At present , the system takes into consideration the number of incorrect answers received in response to the current question and the number of uninterpretable answers .1 In addition to a remediation policy , the tutorial planner implements an error recovery policy ( Dzikovska et al. , 2009 ) .


More recently , Silberer et al. ( 2013 ) show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( Farhadi et al. , 2009 ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature


We found the same number using our previous approach ( Wang and Callison-Burch , 2011 ) , which is roughly equivalent to our core module .


Similar things hold for multifaceted properties like intelligence ( Kamp 1975 ) .


We have shown elsewhere ( Jensen and Binot 1988 ; Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) that natural language programs , such as on-line grammars and dictionaries , can be used as referential levels for commonsense reasoning -- for example , to disambiguate PP attachment .


( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .


There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .


Rubenstein and Goodenough ( 1965 ) reported an intra-subject correlation of r = .85 for 15 subjects judging the similarity of a subset ( 36 ) of the original 65 word pairs .


Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) .


More recently , Simard and Langlais ( 2001 ) have proposed the exploitation of TMs at a subsentential level , while Carl , Way , and Sch Â¨ aler ( 2002 ) and Sch Â¨ aler , Way , and Carl ( 2003 , pages 108 -- 109 ) describe how phrasal lexicons might come to occupy a central place in a future hybrid integrated translation environment .


With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis .


For some adjectives , including the ones that Bierwisch ( 1989 ) called evaluative ( as opposed to dimensional ) , this is clearly inadequate .


WIT has been implemented in Common Lisp and C on UNIX , and we have built several experimental and demonstration dialogue systems using it , including a meeting room reservation system ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , a video-recording programming system , a schedule management system ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) , and a weather infomiation system ( Dohsaka et al. , 2000 ) .


The more conservative approach is to try to integrate existing statistical disambiguation schemes for QLFs , either individually or in a `` packed '' structure ( Alshawi and Carter 1994 ) , with the resolution process as described here .


They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) .


While many approaches have addressed this problem , our work is most closely related to that of ( Raina et al. , 2005 ; MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ; Tatu and Moldovan , 2006 ; Braz et al. , 2005 ) , which convert the inputs into logical forms and then attempt to ` prove ' H from T plus a set of axioms .


While this is simply irrelevant for general-purpose morphological analyzers , dealing with such phenomena is crucial for any attempt to cope adequately with medical free-texts in an IR setting ( Wolff , 1984 ) .


The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


In English , where the base form is morphologically simpler than the other two , this rule could be argued to follow from Gricean principles ( Grice 1975 ) .


More generally , distributional clustering techniques ( Sch Â¨ utze , 1992 ; Pereira et al. , 1993 ) could be applied to extract semantic classes from the corpus itself .


The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


Somers ( 1998 ) replicates the work of Fung and McKeown with different language pairs using the simpler metric of Levenshtein distance .


â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .


Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ; Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) as discussed in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997a ) and ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) .


In Marom and Zukerman ( 2007a ) we identified several systems that resemble ours in that they provide answers to queries .


The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .


A variety of such lists for many languages are already available ( e.g. , Burnage 1990 ) .


In principle , this might be done by providing the generator with vague input -- in which case no special algorithms are needed -- but suitably contextualized vague input is often not available ( Mellish 2000 ) .


Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .


We induced a two-class word-to-word model of translational equivalence from 13 million words of the Canadian Hansards , aligned using the method in ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) .


Tenny ( 1987 ) observes that accomplishments differ from achievements only in terms of event duration , which is often a question of granularity .


[ The current system should be distinguished from an earlier voice system ( VNLC , Biermann et al. 1985 ) , which had no expectation and which handled discrete speech where a 300 millisecond pause must follow each word . ]


Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


He was a grammarian who analysed Sanskrit ( Misra , 1966 ) .


After much exploration , Demner-Fushman et al. ( 2006 ) discovered that it was not practical to annotate PICO entities at the phrase level due to significant unresolvable disagreement and interannotator reliability issues .


The necessity of this kind of merging of arguments has been recognized before : Charniak and McDermott ( 1985 ) call it abductive unification/matching , Hobbs ( 1978 , 1979 ) refers to such operations using the terms knitting or petty conversational implicature .


The OntoNotes-5 .0 dataset , which is released for the CoNLL-2012 Shared Task ( Pradhan et al. , 2012 ) , contains 3,145 annotated documents .


and Yang et al. ( 2003 ) , as described below .


We collect substring rationales for a sentiment classification task ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ) and use them to obtain significant accuracy improvements for each annotator .


We apply two different priming experiments namely , the cross modal priming and masked priming experiment discussed in ( Forster and Davis , 1984 ; Rastle et al. , 2000 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ) for Bangla morphologically complex words .


Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) .


The expectation parser uses an ATN-like representation for its grammar ( Woods 1970 ) .


â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .


The error rate on sentence boundaries in the Brown corpus was not significantly worse than the lowest quoted before ( Riley 1989 : 0.28 % vs. 0.20 % error rate ) .


We follow our previous work ( Hou et al. , 2013b ) and restrict bridging to non-coreferential cases .


In our case , the clustering is performed by the program Snob , which implements mixture modeling combined with model selection based on the Minimum Message Length ( MML ) criterion ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) .


This is in line with our previous findings from ( Prabhakaran et al. , 2014 ) that candidates with higher power attempt to shift topics less often than others when responding to moderators .


As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs .


It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) .


It provides a fine grained NE recognition covering 100 different NE types ( Sekine , 2008 ) .


Only a few such corpora exist , including the Hansard English-French corpus and the HKUST EnglishChinese corpus ( Wu , 1994 ) .


In FAQs , Berger and Mittal ( 2000 ) employed a sentence retrieval approach based on a language model where the entire response to an FAQ is considered a sentence , and the questions and answers are embedded in an FAQ document .


The statistical significance test is performed by the re-sampling approach ( Koehn , 2004 ) .


With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis .


Although evaluated on different data sets , this result is consistent with results from previous work ( Gatt and Belz , 2008 ; Gatt et al. , 2009 ) .


We used the revised experimental setup ( Gurevych , 2005 ) , based on discrete relatedness scores and presentation of word pairs in isolation , that is scalable to the higher number of pairs .


Robinson , 1982 ; Bobrow , 1978 ) consult relatively small lexicons , typically generated by hand .


Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) .3 ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) propose a compilation of lexical rules into TIT definite clauses


In the United States , for example , governmental bodies are providing and soliciting political documents via the Internet , with lofty goals in mind : electronic rulemaking ( eRulemaking ) initiatives involving the `` electronic collection , distribution , synthesis , and analysis of public commentary in the regulatory rulemaking process '' , may `` [ alter ] the citizen-government relationship '' ( Shulman and Schlosberg , 2002 ) .


This will become even more interesting when mappings of our synonym identifiers to a large medical thesaurus ( MeSH , ( NLM , 2001 ) ) are incorporated into our system .


( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .


raw length value as a feature , we follow our previous work ( Rubino et al. , 2013 ; Wagner et al. , 2014 ) and create multiple features for length using a decision tree ( J48 ) .


Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .


In some systems such dependencies are learned from labeled examples ( Bikel et al. 1997 ) .


CD for this type of descriptions along the lines of Section 4 is not difficult once relational descriptions are integrated with a standard GRE algorithm ( Krahmer and Theune 2002 , Section 8.6.2 ) : Suppose an initial description is generated describing the set of all those dogs that are in sheds over a given size ( say , size 5 ) ; if this description happens to distinguish an individual dog then this legitimizes the use of the noun phrase the dog in the large shed .


Michiels proposed rules for doing this for infinitive complement codes ; however there seems to be no principled reason not to extend this approach to computing the underlying relations in other types of VP as well as in cases of NP , AP and PP predication ( see Williams ( 1980 ) , for further discussion ) .


While wikis have spread from a detailed design ( Cunningham and Leuf , 2001 ) , unfortunately blogs have not been designed under a model .


In our experiment , we annotated a high number of pairs similar in size to the test sets by Finkelstein ( 2002 ) and Gurevych ( 2006 ) .


notation of Montague ( 1970 ) is more sophisticated , and may be considered another possibility .


The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .


Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .


Vybornova and Macq ( 2007 ) aimed to embed information by exploiting the linguistic phenomenon of presupposition , with the idea that some presuppositional information can be removed without changing the meaning of a sentence .


We first identified the most informative unigrams and bigrams using the information gain measure ( Yang and Pedersen 1997 ) , and then selected only the positive outcome predictors using odds ratio ( Mladenic and Grobelnik 1999 ) .


Perhaps some variation of multi-level bulleted lists , appropriately integrated with interface elements for expanding and hiding items , might provide physicians a better overview of the information landscape ; see , for example , Demner-Fushman and Lin ( 2006 ) .


Some previous works ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ; Zhao et al. , 2009 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) indicate , as main limitations of the mentioned resources , their limited coverage , their low precision , and the fact that they are mostly suitable to capture relations mainly between single words .


Nugget F-score has been employed as a metric in the TREC question-answering track since 2003 , to evaluate so-called definition and `` other '' questions ( Voorhees 2003 ) .


Manually defined heuristics are used to automatically annotate each tree in the treebank with partially specified HPSG derivation trees : Head/argument/modifier distinctions are made for each node in the tree based on Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) ;


Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .


In addition , there has been much work on the application of linguistic and semantic knowledge to information retrieval ; see Lin and Demner-Fushman ( 2006a ) for a brief overview .


However , Dunning ( 1993 ) claims that the log-likelihood chisquared statistic ( G2 ) is more appropriate for corpus-based NLP .


In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) .


This alignment is done on the basis of both length ( Gale and Church [ 7 ] ) and a notion of cognateness ( Simard [ 16 ] ) .


Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers .


A more detailed discussion of the various available Arabic tag sets can be found in Habash ( 2010 ) .


The high Dirichlet priors are chosen to prevent sparsity in topic distributions , while the other parameters are selected as the best from Hoffman et al. ( 2010 ) .


The resulting speech understanding system is called the Voice Natural Language Computer with Expectation ( VNLCE , Fink 1983 ) .


In our previous papers ( Zhang and Clark 2011 ; Zhang , Blackwood , and Clark 2012 ) , we applied a set of beams to this structure , which makes it similar to the data structure used for phrase-based MT decoding ( Koehn 2010 ) .


A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .


In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .


A number of alignment techniques have been proposed , varying from statistical methods ( Brown et al. , 1991 ; Gale and Church , 1991 ) to lexical methods ( Kay and Roscheisen , 1993 ; Chen , 1993 ) .


( Michiels ( 1982 ) contains further description and discussion of LDOCE . )


Juola ( 1994 , 1997 ) assumes that words ending in - ed are verbs .


For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( Chinchor 1998 ) .


We would also provide a user facility for choosing the right licence for every lexia , following the model of Creative Commons licences ( Lessig , 2004 ) .


The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .


There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .


We have yet to import such a constraint into our model , but we plan to do so in the near future using the weighted majority algorithm ( Littlestone and Warmuth 1992 ) .


Generally speaking , we find that the personal public diary metaphor behind blogs ( McNeill , 2005 ) may bring to an unsatisfactory representation of the context .


Most probabilistic translation model reestimation algorithms published to date are variations on the theme proposed by Brown et al. ( 1993b ) .


A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .


The significance testing is performed by paired bootstrap re-sampling ( Koehn , 2004 ) .


The system is implemented based on ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) and ( Marcu et al. 2006 ) .


IGEN uses standard chart generation techniques ( Kay , 1996 ) in its base generator to efficiently produce generation candidates .


Position , subcat frame , phrase type , first word , last word , subcat frame + , predicate , path , head word and its POS , predicate + head word , predicate + phrase type , path to BA and BEI , verb class 3 , verb class + head word , verb class + phrase type , from Xue ( 2008 ) .


The psycholinguistic studies of Martin ( 1970 ) , Allen ( 1975 ) , Hillinger et al. ( 1976 ) , Grosjean et al. ( 1979 ) , Dommergues and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , and Gee and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , responding to the idea of readjusted syntax as the source of prosodic phrasing , show that grammatical structure , even if readjusted , is not in itself a reliable predictor of prosodic phrasing : mismatches between syntax and prosody occur often and systematically , and can be related to specific nonsyntactic factors such as length and word frequency .


A number of studies ( e.g. , Hildebrandt , Katz , and Lin 2004 ) have pointed out shortcomings of the original nugget scoring model , although a number of these issues have been recently addressed ( Lin and Demner-Fushman 2005a , 2006b ) .


Nasr ( 1997 ) reported that the translation lexicon that our model induced from this tiny bitext accounted for 30 % of the word types with precision between 84 % and 90 % .


Kinyon and Prolo ( 2002 ) describe a simple tool which uses fine-grained rules to identify the arguments of verb occurrences in the Penn-II Treebank .


The contextual interpreter then uses a reference resolution approach similar to Byron ( 2002 ) , and an ontology mapping mechanism ( Dzikovska et al. , 2008a ) to produce a domain-specific semantic representation of the student 's output .


Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area .


The principle of maximum entropy states that when one searches among probability distributions that model the observed data ( evidence ) , the preferred one is the one that maximizes the entropy ( a measure of the uncertainty of the model ) ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .


In the context of word alignment , Deng and Byrne ( 2005 ) use a state-duration HMM in order to model word-to-phrase translations .


With respect to the focus on function words , our reordering model is closely related to the UALIGN system ( Hermjakob , 2009 ) .


We could also introduce new variables , e.g. , nonterminal refinements ( Matsuzaki et al. , 2005 ) , or secondary links Mid ( not constrained by TREE/PTREE ) that augment the parse with representations of control , binding , etc. ( Sleator and Temperley , 1993 ; Buch-Kromann , 2006 ) .


Selectional Preferences have also been a recent focus of researchers investigating the learning of paraphrases and inference rules ( Pantel et al. , 2007 ; Roberto et al. , 2007 ) .


Previously LDA has been successfully used to infer unsupervised joint topic distributions over words and feature norms together ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .


Something like this approach is in fact used in some systems ( e.g. , Elhadad and Robin 1992 ; PenMan 1989 ; Hovy 1988a ) .


The emphasis on narrativity takes into account the use of blogs as public diaries on the web , that is still the main current interpretation of this literary genre , or metagenre ( McNeill , 2005 ) .


For example , it would be helpful to consider strong correspondence between certain English and Chinese words , as in ( Wu , 1994 ) .


The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq [ 12 ] , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) [ 14 ] , and


We take some core ideas from our previous work on mining script information ( Regneri et al. , 2010 ) .


While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .


Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) .


â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) .


Our work on the prosodic phrase status of clause final prepositional phrases , which we discuss below , suggests the existence of a discourse-neutral phrasing that depends on syntactic constituency mediated by string adjacency and length of a potential prosodic phrase .3 Such phrasing provides us with a typical phrasing pattern analogous to the typical phrasal stress patterns examined in Liberman and Prince ( 1977 ) , which `` are often overwhelmed by the chiaroscuro of highlight and background in discourse , but retain the status of null-hypothesis patterns that emerge when Computational Linguistics Volume 16 , Number 3 , September 1990 157 J. Bachenko and E. Fitzpatrick Discourse-Neutral Prosodic Phrasing in English there is no good reason to take some other option '' ( p. 251 ) .


Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .


When objects are compared in terms of several dimensions , these dimensions can be weighed in different ways ( e.g. , Rasmusen 1989 ) .


Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .


Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


The RenTAL system automatically converts an FB-LTAG grammar into a strongly equivalent HPSG-style grammar ( Yoshinaga and Miyao , 2001 ) .


The features can be easily obtained by modifying the TAT extraction algorithm described in ( Liu et al. , 2006 ) .


Marinov and Hemming ( 2004 ) present preliminary work on the automatic extraction of subcategorization frames for Bulgarian from the BulTreeBank ( Simov , Popova , and Osenova 2002 ) .


The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


ASARES is based on a Machine Learning technique , Inductive Logic Programming ( ILP ) ( Muggleton and De-Raedt , 1994 ) , which infers general morpho-syntactic patterns from a set of examples ( this set is noted E + hereafter ) and counter-examples ( E â ) of the elements one


Baroni and Bernardini ( 2004 ) built a corpus by iteratively searching Google for a small set of seed terms .


Expanding on a suggestion of Michiels ( 1982 ) , we classify verbs as Subject Equi , Object Equi , Subject Raising or Object Raising for each sense which has a predicate complement code associated with it .


This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .


For more information on CATiB , see Habash and Roth ( 2009 ) and Habash , Faraj , and Roth ( 2009 ) .


With the exception of ( Fung , 1995b ) , previous methods for automatically constructing statistical translation models begin by looking at word cooccurrence frequencies in bitexts ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Kumano & Hirakawa , 1994 ; Fung , 1995a ; Melamed , 1995 ) .


Experiments ( Section 5 ) show that forestbased extraction improves BLEU score by over 1 point on a state-of-the-art tree-to-string system ( Liu et al. , 2006 ; Mi et al. , 2008 ) , which is also 0.5 points better than ( and twice as fast as ) extracting on 30-best parses .


Our approach to extract and classify social events builds on our previous work ( Agarwal and Rambow , 2010 ) , which in turn builds on work from the relation extraction community ( Nguyen et al. , 2009 ) .


Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit


For example , speech repairs , particle omission , and fillers can be dealt with in the framework of unification grammar ( Nakano et al. , 1994 ; Nakano and Shimazu , 1999 ) .


Levenberg et al. ( 2012 ) employed a Bayesian method to learn discontinuous SCFG rules .


Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( Ebell et al. 2004 ) .


We use the same splits as Garrette et al. ( 2014 ) .


These results are slightly worse than those obtained in previous studies using the same annotation scheme ( Jokinen et al. , 2008 ) , but are still sat -


In Chomsky and Halle ( 1968 ) , this flattening process is not part of the grammar .


MEDLINE , the authoritative repository of abstracts from the medical and biomedical primary literature maintained by the National Library of Medicine , provides the clinically relevant sources for answering physicians ' questions , and is commonly used in that capacity ( Cogdill and Moore 1997 ; De Groote and Dorsch 2003 ) .


There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; Frost et al. , 1997 ; Grainger , et al. , 1991 ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) .


He lists , classifies , and discusses various types of inference , by which he means , generally , `` the linguistic-logical notions of consequent and presupposition '' Crothers ( 1979:112 ) have collected convincing evidence of the existence of language chunks -- real structures , not just orthographic conventions -- that are smaller than a discourse , larger than a sentence , generally composed of sentences , and recursive in nature ( like sentences ) .


For this research , we used a coreference resolution system ( ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) ) that implements different sets of heuristics corresponding to various forms of coreference .


The work that is most similar to ours is that of Chang et al. ( 2007 ) , who introduced the Constraint Driven Learning algorithm ( CODL ) .


For example , in ordinary HMM training , xi = E * and represents a completely hidden state sequence ( cfXXX Ristad ( 1998 ) , who allows any regular set ) , while yi is a single string representing a completely observed emission sequence .11 What to optimize ?


Fraser ( 2009 ) tried to solve the inflection prediction problem by simply building an SMT system for translating from stems to inflected forms .


As shown in ( Okanohara and Tsujii , 2007 ) , using this representation , a linear classifier can not distinguish sentences sampled from a trigram and real sentences .


Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .


This framework , where the `` semantic load '' is spread more evenly throughout the lexicon to lexical categories not typically thought to bear semantic content , is essentially the model advocated by Pustejovsky ( 1991a ) , among many others .


Xia ( 1999 ) also presents a similar method for the extraction of a TAG from the Penn Treebank .


To a first approximation , a CURRENT-FOCUS reaches only nodes that are c-commanded ( Chomsky 1977 ) by its generator .


A previous work along this line is Sproat et al. ( 1996 ) , which is based on weighted finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) .


Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .


Berger et al ( 1996 ) describe an efficient algorithm for accomplishing this in which approximations to Pst ( TIS ) are computed in parallel for all ( new ) features ft by holding all weights in the existing model fixed and optimizing only over a8t .


As suggested in Rapp & Zock ( 2010 ) this can be done by looking up the ranks of each of the four given words ( i.e. the words occurring in a particular word equation ) within the association vector of a translation candidate , and by multiplying these ranks .


32 In certain cases an extension of the constraint language with named disjunctions or contexted constraints ( Maxwell and Kaplan 1989 ; Eisele and Dorre 1990 ; Griffith 1996 ) can be used to circumvent constraint propagation .


This article represents an extension of our previous work on unsupervised event coreference resolution ( Bejan et al. 2009 ; Bejan and Harabagiu 2010 ) .


These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) .


See , among others , ( Ramakrishnan et al. 1992 ) .


In Table 2 , lem refers to the LTAG parser ( Sarkar et al. , 2000 ) , ANSI C implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs the head corner parsing ( van Noord , 1994 ) without features ( phase 1 ) , and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) .


Burkett and Klein ( 2008 ) and Burkett et al. ( 2010 ) focused on joint parsing and alignment .


In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


For example , when books should n't be copied by hand any longer , authors took the advantage and start writing original books and evaluation -- i.e. literary criticism -- unlike in the previous times ( Eisenstein , 1983 ) .


Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( Aronson , 2001 ) for concept identification and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman , 2003 ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks .


Since the language generation module works in parallel with the language understanding module , utterance generation is possible even while the system is listening to user utterances and that utterance understanding is possible even while it is speaking ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) .


This idea was expanded to include nouns and their modifiers through verb nominalizations ( Chomsky , 1970 ; Quirk et al. , 1985 ) .


For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) define a kernel over parse trees and apply it to re-ranking the output of a parser , but the resulting feature space is restricted by the need to compute the kernel efficiently , and the results are not as good as Collins ' previous work on re-ranking using a finite set of features ( Collins , 2000 ) .


9 We only use the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) here to reduce the complexity of the sampler .


FBLTAG ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism .


In addition to headwords , dictionary search through the pronunciation field is available ; Carter ( 1987 ) has merged information from the pronunciation and hyphenation fields , creating an enhanced phonological representation which allows access to entries by broad phonetic class and syllable structure ( Huttenlocher and Zue , 1983 ) .


Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .


Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .


results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( Tiedemann 2007 ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En â Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( Koehn 2005 ) .


A statistical technique which has recently become popular for NLP is Maximum Entropy/Minimum Divergence ( MEMD ) modeling ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .


Our baseline coreference system uses the C4 .5 decision tree learner ( Quinlan , 1993 ) to acquire a classifier on the training texts for determining whether two NPs are coreferent .


This alignment is obtained by following the same set of rules learned from the development dataset as in ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) .


Developed Systems Our developed system is built on the work by Chang et al. ( 2013 ) , using Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) as our mention-pair coreference model in the joint framework10 .


The best performance on the Brown corpus , a 0.2 % error rate , was reported by Riley ( 1989 ) , who trained a decision tree classifier on a 25-million-word corpus .


Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .


These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) .


The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed .


Bolter ( 1991 ) was the first scholar who stressed the impact of the digital revolution to the medium of writing .


A similar problem is discussed in the psycholinguistics of interpretation ( Sedivy et al. 1999 ) : Interpretation is widely assumed to proceed incrementally , but vague descriptions resist strict incrementality , since an adjective in a vague description can only be fully interpreted when its comparison set is known .


Much of theoretical linguistics can be formulated in a very natural manner as stating correspondences ( translations ) between layers of representation structures ( Rambow & Satta , 1996 ) .


In our previous work ( Tomuro , 2000 ) , we applied this method to a small subset of WordNet nouns and showed potential applicability .


Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input .


the mention sub-type , which is a sub-category of the mention type ( ACE , 2004 ) ( e.g. OrgGovernmental , FacilityPath , etc. ) .


For more details on the proprieties of SSTC , see Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) .


This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; Popovic and Willett , 1992 ; Ekmekc Â¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; Pirkola , 2001 ) .


Specifically , we used Decision Graphs ( Oliver 1993 ) for Doc-Pred , and SVMs ( Vapnik 1998 ) for Sent-Pred .11 Additionally , we used unigrams for clustering documents and sentences , and unigrams and bigrams for predicting document clusters and sentence clusters ( Sections 3.1.2 and 3.2.2 ) .


To prepare SMT outputs for post-editing , the creators of the corpus used their own WMT10 system ( Potet et al. , 2010 ) , based on the Moses phrase-based decoder ( Koehn et al. , 2007 ) with dense features .


To model o ( Li , S â T ) , o ( Ri , S â T ) , i.e. the reordering of the neighboring phrases of a function word , we employ the orientation model introduced by Setiawan et al. ( 2007 ) .


The syntactic structures of the input data are produced by a parser with good coverage and detailed syntactic information , DIPETT ( Delisle and Szpakowicz , 1995 ) .


In particular , ( Gross , 1989 ) lists the converses of some 3 500 predicative nouns .


This is similar to the `` deletion '' strategy employed by Zettlemoyer and Collins ( 2007 ) , but we do it directly in the grammar .


Although this study falls under the general topic of discourse modeling , our work differs from previous attempts to characterize text in terms of domainindependent rhetorical elements ( McKeown , 1985 ; Marcu and Echihabi , 2002 ) .


Many NLP applications require knowledge about semantic relatedness rather than just similarity ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) .


Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) .


It has been shown ( Roland and Jurafsky 1998 ) that the subcategorization tendencies of verbs vary across linguistic domains .


In the system , we extract both the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) , and the rules of SPMT Model 1 ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) with phrases up to length L = 5 on the source side .


Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed .


One of the better-known approaches is described in Grefenstette and Tapanainen ( 1994 ) , which suggested that abbreviations first be extracted from a corpus using abbreviation-guessing heuristics akin to those described in Section 6 and then reused in further processing .


Unlike the models proposed by Brown et al. ( 1993b ) , this model is symmetric , because both word bags are generated together from a joint probability distribution .


We apply two different priming experiments namely , the cross modal priming and masked priming experiment discussed in ( Forster and Davis , 1984 ; Rastle et al. , 2000 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ) for Bangla morphologically complex words .


( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .


Our work extends directions taken in systems such as Ariane ( Vauquois and Boitet , 1985 ) , FoG ( Kittredge and Polguere , 1991 ) , JOYCE ( Rambow and Korelsky , 1992 ) , and LFS ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1992 ) .


Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) .


Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .


Association Norms ( AN ) is a collection of association norms collected by Schulte im Walde et al. ( 2012 ) .


Stanford University is developing the English Resource Grammar , an HPSG grammar for English , as a part of the Linguistic Grammars Online ( LinGO ) project ( Flickinger , 2000 ) .


The changes made were inspired by those described in Stetina and Nagao ( 1997 , page 75 ) .


The grammar code system used in LDOCE is based quite closely on the descriptive grammatical framework of Quirk et al. ( 1972 , 1985 ) .


Our task was made possible by the fact that while far from being a database in the accepted sense of the word , the LDOCE typesetting tape is the only truly computerised dictionary of English ( Michiels , 1983 ) .


A detailed description of the kinds of expectation mechanisms appearing in these systems appears in Fink ( 1983 ) .


Using the GHKM algorithm ( Galley et al. 2004 ) , we can get two different STSG derivations from the two U-trees based on the fixed word alignment .


The need for information systems to support physicians at the point of care has been well studied ( Covell et al. , 1985 ; Gorman et al. , 1994 ; Ely et al. , 2005 ) .


Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .


Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .


Our HDP extension is also inspired from the Bayesian model proposed by Haghighi and Klein ( 2007 ) .


The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs .


To combine the phrasal matching scores obtained at each n-gram level , and optimize their relative weights , we trained a Support Vector Machine classifier , SVMlight ( Joachims , 1999 ) , using each score as a feature .


Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .


For an overview of systems designed to answer open-domain factoid questions , the TREC QA track overview papers are a good place to start ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ) .


Another interesting extension is to broaden the definition of a `` word '' to include multi-word lexical units ( Smadja , 1992 ) .


For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers .


From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .


This approach has occasionally been taken , as in Kantrowitz and Bates ( 1992 ) and Danlos ( 1987 ) and , at least implicitly , in Paris and Scott ( 1994 ) and Delin et al. ( 1994 ) ; however , under this approach , all of the flexibility and simplicity of modular design is lost .


Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) .


In this paper , we use the Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) described in Chang et al. ( 2013 ) in our experiments .


We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( Culotta et al. , 2007 ; Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) .


Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( Chen and Vijay-Shanker 2000 ; Xia 1999 ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) .


An alternative representation based on Liberman and Prince ( 1977 ) is presented in Selkirk ( 1984 ) , which contends that prosody , including prosodic phrasing , is more properly represented as a grid instead of a tree .


For the joint segmentation and POS-tagging task , we present a novel solution using the framework in this article , and show that it gives comparable accuracies to our previous work ( Zhang and Clark 2008a ) , while being more than an order of magnitude faster .


According to the data available from 1990 U.S. Census Bureau , only 90,000 different names are shared by 100 million people ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ) .


Since then this idea has been applied to several tasks , including word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky 1995 ) and named-entity recognition ( Cucerzan and Yarowsky 1999 ) .


â¢ History-based feature models for predicting the next parser action ( Black et al. , 1992 ) .


For each co-occurring pair of word types u and v , these likelihoods are initially set proportional to their co-occurrence frequency ( â , v ) and inversely proportional to their marginal frequencies n ( u ) and n ( v ) 1 , following ( Dunning , 1993 ) 2 .


However , rather than output this wrong translation directly , we use a post hoc validation and ( if required ) correction process based on Grefenstette ( 1999 ) .


Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .


The powerful mechanism of lexical rules ( Carpenter 1991 ) has been used in many natural language processing systems .


The version proposed here combines a basic insight from Lewin ( 1990 ) with higher-order unification to give an analysis that has a strong resemblance to that proposed in Pereira ( 1990 , 1991 ) , with some differences that are commented on below .


Liang et al. ( 2006 ) presented a perceptron-based algorithm for learning the phrase-translation parameters in a statistical machine translation system .


NLG has to do more than select a distinguishing description ( i.e. , one that unambiguously denotes its referent ; Dale 1989 ) : The selected expression should also be felicitous .


Juola ( 1994 , 1997 ) conducts some small experiments using his METLA system to show the viability of this approach for English â > French and English â > Urdu .


This idea of preserving properties can be considered an instance of the well-known frame problem in AT ( McCarthy and Hayes 1969 ) , and we will therefore refer to the specifications left implicit by the linguist as the frame specification , or simply frame , of a lexical rule .


All experiments have been performed using MaltParser ( Nivre et al. , 2006 ) , version 0.4 , which is made available together with the suite of programs used for preand post-processing .1


One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; Malouf 2000 ) .


Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) for self training .


Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process .


Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; Purpura and Hillard , 2006 ) .


We chose to follow Ng and Low ( 2004 ) and split the sentences evenly to facilitate further comparison .


That is , a document that contains terms al , a2 and a3 may be ranked higher than a document which contains terms al and b.f. However , the second document is more likely to be relevant since correct translations of the query terms are more likely to co-occur ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ) .


The last years have seen considerable advances in the field of anaphora resolution , but a number of outstanding issues either remain unsolved or need more attention and , as a consequence , represent major challenges to the further development of the field ( Mitkov 2001a ) .


Using an accumulator passing technique ( O'Keefe 1990 ) , we ensure that upon execution of a call to the interaction predicate q_1 a new lexical entry is derived as the result of successive application of a number of lexical rules .


However , most strategies are based on `` internal '' or `` external methods '' ( Grabar and Zweigenbaum , 2002 ) , i.e. methods that rely on the form of terms or on the information gathered from contexts .


With the exception of ( Fung , 1995b ) , previous methods for automatically constructing statistical translation models begin by looking at word cooccurrence frequencies in bitexts ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Kumano & Hirakawa , 1994 ; Fung , 1995a ; Melamed , 1995 ) .


A substring in the sentence that corresponds to a node in the representation tree is denoted by assigning the interval of the substring to SNODE of 2 These definitions are based on the discussion in ( Tang , 1994 ) and Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) .


The Web People Search task , as defined in the first WePS evaluation campaign ( Artiles et al. , 2007 ) , consists of grouping search results for a given name according to the different people that share it .


Although this is only true in cases where y occurs in an upward monotone context ( MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ) , in practice genuine contradictions between y-values sharing a meronym relationship are extremely rare .


We use the same data setting with Xue ( 2008 ) , however a bit different from Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) .


Erk ( 2007 ) compared a number of techniques for creating similar-word sets and found that both the Jaccard coefficient and Lin ( 1998a ) 's information-theoretic metric work best .


We previously showed that incorporating this intuition into a Bayesian prior can help train a CCG supertagger ( Garrette et al. , 2014 ) .


4 To turn this likelihood into a certainty , one can add a test at the end of the algorithm , which adds a type-related property if none is present yet ( cfXXX , Dale and Reiter 1995 ) .


For descriptions of SMT systems see for example ( Germann et al. , 2001 ; Och et al. , 1999 ; Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ; Vogel et al. , 2000 ; Wang and Waibel , 1997 ) .


Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ) and machine translation ( Knight and Al-Onaizan , 1998 ) .


It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) .


The ConTroll grammar development system as described in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997b ) implements the above mentioned techniques for compiling an HPSG theory into typed feature grammars .


After calculating the raw score of each sentence , we use a modified version of the Adaptive Greedy Algorithm by Filatova and Hatzivassiloglou ( 2004 ) to penalize redundant sentences in cohesive clusters .


If each word 's translation is treated as a sense tag ( Resnik and Yarowsky 1997 ) , then `` translational '' collocations have the unique property that the collocate and the word sense are one and the same !


The values of a vector correspond to the presence or absence of each ( lemmatized ) corpus word in the document in question ( after removing stop-words and words with very low frequency ) .4 The predictive model is a Decision Graph ( Oliver 1993 ) , which , like Snob , is based on the MML principle .


Therefore , in order to be able to incorporate long-range dependencies in our models , we chose to adopt a re-ranking approach ( Collins 2000 ) , which selects from likely assignments generated by a model which makes stronger independence assumptions .


However , it is possible to think about constraining linguistic or logical predicates by simulating physical experiences ( cfXXX Woods 1987 ) .


One , the VOYAGER domain ( Zue et al. 1990 ) , answers questions about places of interest in an urban area , in our case , the vicinity of MIT and Harvard University .


Our task is closer to the work of Teufel and Moens ( 2000 ) , who looked at the problem of intellectual attribution in scientific texts .


In the seminal work by Rubenstein and Goodenough ( 1965 ) , similarity judgments were obtained from 51 test subjects on 65 noun pairs written on paper cards .


( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .


Jackendoff ( 1983 , p. 14 ) writes `` it would be perverse not to take as a working assumption that language is a relatively efficient and accurate encoding of the information it conveys . ''


See also ( Colmerauer , 1982 ; Naish , 1986 ) .


Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description .


We parsed the 3 GB AQUAINT corpus ( Voorhees , 2002 ) using Minipar ( Lin , 1998b ) , and collected verb-object and verb-subject frequencies , building an empirical MI model from this data .


More specifically , we use LIBSVM ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) with a quadratic kernel K ( xZ , xj ) = ( - yxT xj + r ) 2 and the built-in one-versus-all strategy for multi-class classification .


It is wasteful to compute ti as suggested earlier , by minimizing ( cxxi ) of o ( yixE ) , since then the real work is done by an c-closure step ( Mohri , 2002 ) that implements the all-pairs version of algebraic path , whereas all we need is the single-source version .


positional features that have been employed by highwe can see , the baseline achieves an F-measure of performing resolvers such as Ng and Cardie ( 2002 ) 57.0 and a resolution accuracy of 48.4 .


Such a component would serve as the first stage of a clinical question answering system ( Demner-Fushman and Lin , 2005 ) or summarization system ( McKeown et al. , 2003 ) .


Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) predefine 163 verbal subcategorization frames , obtained by manually merging the classes exemplified in the COMLEX ( MacLeod , Grishman , and Meyers 1994 ) and ANLT ( Boguraev et al. 1987 ) dictionaries and adding around 30 frames found by manual inspection .


The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) .


It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .


For example , the suite of LT tools ( Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Grover et al. , 2000 ) perform tokenization , tagging and chunking on XML marked-up text directly .


It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; Artiles et al. , 2007 ) .


To retrieve translation examples for a test sentence , ( Watanabe and Sumita , 2003 ) defined a metric based on the combination of edit distance and TF-IDF ( Manning and Sch Â¨ utze , 1999 ) as follows :


By using the EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) , they can guarantee convergence towards the globally optimum parameter set .


â¢ use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , â¢ use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , â¢ a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) , â¢ a `` conditioning '' facility as described by Fink et al. ( 1985 ) , â¢ implementation of new types of paraphrasing , â¢ checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and â¢ examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns .


Previous work has developed various approaches for grounded semantics mainly for the reference resolution task , i.e. , identifying visual objects in the environment given language descriptions ( Dhande , 2003 ; Gorniak and Roy , 2004 ; Tenbrink and Moratz , 2003 ; Siebert and Schlangen , 2008 ; Liu et al. , 2012 ) .


In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .


To provide the required configurability in the static version of the code we will use policy templates ( Alexandrescu , 2001 ) , and for the dynamic version we will use configuration classes .


Lee et al. ( 2003 ) demonstrates a technique for segmenting Arabic text and uses it as a morphological processing step in machine translation .


In informal experiments described elsewhere ( Melamed 1995 ) , I found that the G2 statistic suggested by Dunning ( 1993 ) slightly outperforms 02 .


â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )


A recent study by Katz-Brown et al. ( 2011 ) also investigates the task of training parsers to improve MT reordering .


Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .


15 Hinrichs and Nakazawa ( 1996 ) show that the question of whether the application criterion of lexical rules should be a subsumption or a unification test is an important question deserving of more attention .


Latent Dirichlet Allocation ( Blei et al. , 2003 ) , or LDA , is an unsupervised Bayesian probabilistic model of text documents .


Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .


Third , the paradigm of evidence-based medicine ( Sackett et al. 2000 ) provides a task-based model of the clinical information-seeking process .


Koehn and Hoang ( 2007 ) introduced factored SMT .


Both systems are built around from the maximum-entropy technique ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .


We chose the adjectives as follows : we first compiled a list of all the polysemous adjectives mentioned in the lexical semantics literature ( Vendler , 1968 ; Pustejovsky , 1995 ) .


Most web-derived corpora have exploited raw text or HTML pages , so efforts have focussed on boilerplate removal and cleanup of these formats with tools like Hyppia-BTE , Tidy and Parcels3 ( Baroni and Sharoff , 2005 ) .


Undesirable consequences of this fact have been termed `` label bias '' ( Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) .


For the full parser , we use the one developed by Michael Collins ( Collins , 1996 ; Collins , 1997 ) -- one of the most accurate full parsers around .


Some researchers , however , including Goldberg and Elhadad ( 2010 ) , train on predicted feature values instead .


Their computational significance arises from the issue of their storage in lexical resources like WordNet ( Fellbaum , 1998 ) and raises the questions like , how to store morphologically complex words , in a lexical resource like WordNet keeping in mind the storage and access efficiency .


Fortunately , there exists a compact PCFG-reduction of DOP1 that generates the same trees with the same probabilities , as shown by Goodman ( 1996 , 2002 ) .


Crystal ( 1969 ) claims that prosodic phrase boundaries will co-occur with grammatical functions such as subject , predicate , modifier , and adjunct .


We rephrase the method of Grimley-Evans ( 1997 ) as follows : First , we construct the approximating finite automaton according to the unparameterized RTN method above .


6The analysis is reminiscent of the treatment of coordination in the Collins parser ( Collins , 1999 ) .


The work is carried out in order to assist terminographers in the enrichment of a dictionary on computing that includes collocational information ( L'Homme , 2004 ) .


CornmandTalk ( Moore et al. , 1997 ) , Circuit Fix-It Shop ( Smith , 1997 ) and TRAINS-96 ( Traum and Allen , 1994 ; Traum and Andersen , 1999 ) are spoken language systems but they interface to simulation or help facilities rather than semi-autonomous agents .


The annotation procedure is dependent on locating the head daughter , for which an amended version of Magerman ( 1994 ) is used .


Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .


For instance , Divay and Vitale ( 1997 ) recently wrote : `` To our knowledge , learning algorithms , although promising , have not ( yet ) reached the level of rule sets developed by humans '' ( p. 520 ) .


Much previous work looks at the impact of using source side information ( i.e. , feature functions on the aligned English ) , such as those of Avramidis and Koehn ( 2008 ) , Yeniterzi and Oflazer ( 2010 ) and others .


We use an in-house statistical tagger ( based on ( Church , 1988 ) ) to tag the text in which the unknown word occurs .


Based on a computational grammar that associates natural language expressions with both a syntactic and a semantic representation , a paraphrastic gram ` As we shall briefly discuss in section 4 , the grammar is developed with the help of a meta-grammar ( Candito , 1999 ) thus ensuring an additional level of abstraction .


There are very few reported attempts at corpus-based automation of help-desk responses ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .


Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .


The disambiguation of person names in Web results is usually compared to two other Natural Language Processing tasks : Word Sense Disambiguation ( WSD ) ( Agirre and Edmonds , 2006 ) and Cross-document Coreference ( CDC ) ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ) .


Our own work ( Wang and Callison-Burch , 2011 ) extends the first idea to paraphrase fragment extraction on monolingual parallel and comparable corpora .


They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) .


Current state-of-the-art statistical parsers ( Collins 1999 ; Charniak 2000 ) are all trained on large annotated corpora such as the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Santorini , and Marcinkiewicz 1993 ) .


Although the parser only derives projective graphs , the fact that graphs are labeled allows non-projective dependencies to be captured using the pseudoprojective approach of Nivre and Nilsson ( 2005 ) .


The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) .


A detailed introduction to the SBD problem can be found in Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) .


Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .


The BEETLE II system architecture is designed to overcome these limitations ( Callaway et al. , 2007 ) .


For the evaluation of the results we use the BLEU score ( Papineni et al. , 2001 ) .


For an introduction to maximum entropy modeling and training procedures , the reader is referred to the corresponding literature , for instance ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) or ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .


This design idea was adopted from TANKA ( Barker et al. , 1997b ) .


The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .


In addition to its explanatory capacity , this symbolic acquisition technique has obtained good results for other acquisition tasks when compared to existing statistical techniques ( Bouillon et al. , 2002 ) .


The context of a current token ti is clearly one of the most important features in predicting whether ti is a mention or not ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) .


Features using the word context ( left and right tokens ) have been shown to be very helpful in coreference resolution ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .


Here , the PET and GR kernel perform similar : this is different from the results of ( Nguyen et al. , 2009 ) where GR performed much worse than PET for ACE data .


In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies .


This is where robust syntactic systems like SATZ ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) or the POS tagger reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) , which do not heavily rely on word capitalization and are not sensitive to document length , have an advantage .


Our work is inspired by the latent left-linking model in Chang et al. ( 2013 ) and the ILP formulation from Chang et al. ( 2011 ) .


For example , Radzinsky ( 1991 ) proves that Chinese numerals such as wu zhao zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao wu zhao , for the number 5000000000000000005000000000000005000000000005000000005000 , are not context-free , which implies that Chinese is not a context-free language and thus might parse in exponential worst-case time .


Barzilay and McKeown ( 2001 ) also note that the applicability of paraphrases is strongly influenced by context .


Promising features for classification include part of speech , frequency of co-occurrence , relative word position , and translational entropy ( Melamed , 1997 ) .


For descriptions of SMT systems see for example ( Germann et al. , 2001 ; Och et al. , 1999 ; Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ; Vogel et al. , 2000 ; Wang and Waibel , 1997 ) .


like information extraction ( Yates and Etzioni , 2009 ) and textual entailment ( Berant et al. , 2010 ) .


In a final processing stage , we generalize over the marker lexicon following a process found in Block ( 2000 ) .


One approach to this problem consists in defining , within the Cut-free atomic-id space , normal form derivations in which the succession of rule application is regulated ( Konig 1989 , Hepple 1990 , Hendriks 1993 ) .


The SPR uses rules automatically learned from training data , using techniques similar to ( Collins , 2000 ; Freund et al. , 1998 ) .


McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .


For complementing this database and for converse constructions , the LADL tables ( Gross , 1975 ) can furthermore be resorted to , which list detailed syntactico-semantic descriptions for 5 000 verbs and 25 000 verbal expressions .


These operations are not domain-specific and are similar to those of previous aggregation components ( Rambow and Korelsky ,1992 ; Shaw , 1998 ; Danlos , 2000 ) , although the various MERGE operations are , to our knowledge , novel in this form .


Following construction of the marker lexicon , the ( source , target ) chunks are generalized further using a methodology based on Block ( 2000 ) to permit a limited form of insertion in the translation process .


ment ( Sarkar and Wintner , 1999 ; Doran et al. , 2000 ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) .


The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .


Recent developments in linguistics , and especially on grammatical theory -- for example , Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar ( GPSG ) ( Gazdar et al. , 1985 ) , Lexical Functional Grammar ( LFG ) ( Kaplan and Bresnan , 1982 ) -- and on natural language parsing frameworks -- for example , Functional Unification Grammar ( FUG ) ( Kay , 1984a ) , PATR-II ( Shieber , 1984 ) -- make it feasible to consider the implementation of efficient systems for the syntactic analysis of substantial fragments of natural language .


The latter question is tackled by applicationspecific evaluation , where a measure is tested within the framework of a certain application , e.g. word sense disambiguation ( Patwardhan et al. , 2003 ) or malapropism detection ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) .


Lebart and Rajman ( 2000 ) argue for application-specific evaluation of similarity measures , because measures are always used for some task .


The first direct application of parse forest in translation is our previous work ( Mi et al. , 2008 ) which translates a packed forest from a parser ; it is also the base system in our experiments ( see below ) .


4 This interpretation of the signature is sometimes referred to as closed world ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; Gerdemann 1995 ) .


In their Gaijin system , Veale and Way ( 1997 ) give a result of 63 % accurate translations obtained for English â > German on a test set of 791 sentences from CorelDRAW manuals .


This method can be generalized , inspired by Stolcke and Segal ( 1994 ) , who derive N-gram probabilities from stochastic context-free grammars .


The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed .


The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( Nash 1950 ; cfXXX Gorniak and Roy 2003 ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) .


The paraphrase dictionary that we use was generated for us by Chris Callison-Burch , using the technique described in Callison-Burch ( 2008 ) , which exploits a parallel corpus and methods developed for statistical machine translation .


To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .


This approach has now gained wide usage , as exemplified by the work of Collins ( 1996 , 1999 ) , Charniak ( 1996 , 1997 ) , Johnson ( 1998 ) , Chiang ( 2000 ) , and many others .


For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


Increasingly , corpus researchers are tapping the Web to overcome the sparse data problem ( Keller et al. , 2002 ) .


As such it resembles the parser of the grammar development system Attribute Language Engine ( ALE ) of ( Carpenter and Penn , 1994 ) .


de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements .


Research that is more similar in goal to that outlined in this paper is Vosse ( Vosse , 1992 ) .


Mani and MacMillan ( 1995 ) pointed out that little attention had been paid in the named-entity recognition field to the discourse properties of proper names .


Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( Ebell et al. 2004 ) .


While we have observed reasonable results with both G2 and Fisher 's exact test , we have not yet discussed how these results compare to the results that can be obtained with a technique commonly used in corpus linguistics based on the mutual information ( MI ) measure ( Church and Hanks 1990 ) :


Following Ponzetto and Strube ( 2006 ) , we consider an anaphoric reference , NPi , correctly resolved if NPi and its closest antecedent are in the same coreference chain in the resulting partition .


From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .


The Gsearch system ( Corley et al. , 2001 ) also selects sentences by syntactic criteria from large on-line text collections .


Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


See also the work of Byrd and Chodorow ( 1985 ) , which considers computer-based pronunciation by analogy but does not mention the possible application to text-to-speech synthesis .


The resulting list of POS-tagged lemmas is weighted using the SMART ` ltc ' 8 tf.idf-weighting scheme ( Salton , 1989 ) .


The psycholinguistic studies of Martin ( 1970 ) , Allen ( 1975 ) , Hillinger et al. ( 1976 ) , Grosjean et al. ( 1979 ) , Dommergues and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , and Gee and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , responding to the idea of readjusted syntax as the source of prosodic phrasing , show that grammatical structure , even if readjusted , is not in itself a reliable predictor of prosodic phrasing : mismatches between syntax and prosody occur often and systematically , and can be related to specific nonsyntactic factors such as length and word frequency .


Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .


Numerous previous pseudodisambiguation evaluations only include arguments that occur between 30 and 3000 times ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .


â¢ cross-language information retrieval ( e.g. , McCarley 1999 ) , â¢ multilingual document filtering ( e.g. , Oard 1997 ) , â¢ computer-assisted language learning ( e.g. , Nerbonne et al. 1997 ) , â¢ certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. , Macklovitch 1994 ; Melamed 1996a ) , â¢ concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( e.g. , Catizone , Russell , and Warwick 1989 ; Gale and Church 1991 ) ,


One would think that the type information ti , which is more specific than that 16 A linguistic example based on the signature given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 ) would be a lexical rule deriving predicative signs from nonpredicative ones , i.e. , changing the PRD value of substantive signs from -- to - F , much like the lexical rule for NPs given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , p. 360 , fn .


â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )


Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .


As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al. ( 2004 ) ) or Wikipedia ( Ponzetto and Strube , 2006 ) , and the contextual role played by an NP ( see Bean and Riloff ( 2004 ) ) .


An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in Bond and Hayes ( 1983 ) .


Alternatively , we may think of user-centered comparative studies ( Hersh et al. , 1995 ) .


Crothers ( 1979 , p. 112 ) , for example , bemoans the fact that his `` theory lacks a world knowledge component , a mental ` encyclopedia , ' which could be invoked to generate inferences ... '' .


However , more recent work ( Cahill et al. 2002 ; Cahill , McCarthy , et al. 2004 ) has presented efforts in evolving and scaling up annotation techniques to the Penn-II Treebank ( Marcus et al. 1994 ) , containing more than 1,000,000 words and 49,000 sentences .


The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .


It also shows the structural identity to bilingual grammars as used in ( Wu , 1996 ) .


Relationships between the unlabeled items Carvalho and Cohen ( 2005 ) consider sequential relations between different types of emails ( e.g. , between requests and satisfactions thereof ) to classify messages , and thus also explicitly exploit the structure of conversations .


100000 word stems of German ( Neumann et al. , 1997 ) .


The computational treatment of lexical rules proposed can be seen as an extension to the principled method discussed by Gotz and Meurers ( 1995 , 1996 , 1997b ) for encoding the main building block of HPSG grammars -- the implicative constraints -- as a logic program .


Identical to the standard perceptron proof , e.g. , Collins ( 2002 ) , by inserting in loss-separability for normal separability .


The goal of the JAVOX toolkit is to speech-enable traditional desktop applications -- this is similar to the goals of the MELISSA project ( Schmidt et al. , 1998 ) .


The simplest strategy for ordering adjectives is what Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) call the direct evidence method .


The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large .