a million dollars worth of land in the Everglades , 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) , before the engineer 's report had been submitted .","<unk> from Wright 's report were given to the IIF stating that eight canals would be enough to drain 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @,@ 500 km2 ) at a cost of a dollar an acre .","The <unk> were released to real estate developers who used them in their advertisements , and Wright and the USDA were pressed by the real estate industry to publicize the report as quickly as possible .","Wright 's supervisor noted errors in the report , as well as undue enthusiasm for draining , and delayed its release in 1910 .","Different unofficial versions of the report circulated — some that had been altered by real estate interests — and a version hastily put together by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher called U.S. Senate <unk> 89 included early <unk> statements , causing a <unk> of speculation .","Wright 's initial report concluded that drainage would not be difficult .","Building canals would be more cost effective than constructing a dike around Lake Okeechobee .","The soil would be fertile after drainage , the climate would not be adversely affected , and the enormous lake would be able to <unk> farmland in the dry season .","Wright based his conclusions on 15 years of weather data since the recording of precipitation began in the 1890s .","His calculations concentrated on the towns of Jupiter and Kissimmee .","Since weather data had not been recorded for any area within the Everglades , none was included in the report .","Furthermore , the heaviest year of rain on record , Wright assumed , was atypical , and he urged that canals should not be constructed to bear that amount of water due to the expense .","Wright 's calculations for what canals should be able to hold were off by 55 percent .","His most fundamental mistake , however , was designing the canals for a maximum rainfall of 4 inches ( 10 cm ) of water a day , based on flawed data for July and August rainfall , despite available data that indicated torrential <unk> of 10 inches ( 25 cm ) and 12 inches ( 30 cm ) had occurred in 24 @-@ hour periods .","Though a few voices expressed skepticism of the report 's conclusions — notably Frank Stoneman , the editor of the Miami News @-@ Record ( the forerunner of The Miami Herald ) — the report was hailed as <unk> , coming from a branch of the U.S. government .","In 1912 Florida appointed Wright to oversee the drainage , and the real estate industry <unk> misrepresented this mid @-@ level engineer as the world 's foremost authority on wetlands drainage , in charge of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation .","However , the U.S. House of Representatives investigated Wright since no report had officially been published despite the money paid for it .","Wright eventually retired when it was discovered that his colleagues disagreed with his conclusions and refused to approve the report 's publication .","One testified at the hearings : \" I regard Mr. Wright as absolutely and completely incompetent for any engineering work \" .","Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost .","Broward and his predecessor , William Jennings , were paid by Richard <unk> to tour the state to promote drainage .","Broward was elected to the Senate in 1910 , but died before he could take office .","He was <unk> across Florida for his leadership and progressive inspiration .","Rapidly growing Fort Lauderdale paid him tribute by naming Broward County after him ( the town 's original plan had been to name it Everglades County ) .","Land in the Everglades was being sold for $ 15 an acre a month after Broward died .","Meanwhile , Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them .","News of the Panama Canal inspired him to connect his rail line to the closest deep water port .","Biscayne Bay was too shallow , so Flagler sent railway scouts to explore the possibility of building the line through to the tip of mainland Florida .","The scouts reported that not enough land was present to build through the Everglades , so Flagler instead changed the plan to build to Key West in 1912 .","= = Boom and plume harvesting = = \n \n Real estate companies continued to advertise and sell land along newly dug canals .","In April 1912 — the end of the dry season — reporters from all over the U.S. were given a tour of what had recently been drained , and they returned to their papers and <unk> about the progress .","Land developers sold 20 @,@ 000 lots in a few months .","But as news about the Wright report continued to be negative , land values <unk> , and sales decreased .","Developers were sued and arrested for mail fraud when people who had spent their life savings to buy land arrived in south Florida expecting to find a dry parcel of land to build upon and instead found it completely underwater .","Advertisements promised land that would yield crops in eight weeks , but for many it took at least as long just to clear .","Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetation only to discover that the underlying peat continued to burn .","Animals and <unk> used for <unk> got <unk> in the muck and were useless .","When the muck dried , it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms .","Settlers encountered rodents , <unk> , and biting insects , and faced dangers from mosquitoes , poisonous snakes and alligators .","Though at first crops <unk> quickly and <unk> , they just as quickly <unk> and died , seemingly without reason .","It was discovered later that the peat and muck lacked copper and other trace elements .","The USDA released a pamphlet in 1915 that declared land along the New River Canal would be too costly to keep drained and fertilized ; people in <unk> .","Lauderdale responded by collecting all of the pamphlets and burning them .","With the increasing population in towns near the Everglades came hunting opportunities .","Even decades earlier , Harriet <unk> <unk> had been horrified at the hunting by visitors , and she wrote the first conservation publication for Florida in 1877 : \" [ t ] he decks of boats are crowded with men , whose only feeling amid our magnificent forests , seems to be a wild desire to shoot something and who fire at every living thing on shore . \"","<unk> and raccoons were the most widely hunted for their skins .","Otter pelts could fetch between $ 8 and $ 15 each .","<unk> , more plentiful , only warranted 75 cents each in 1915 .","Hunting often went unchecked ; on one trip , a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters .","<unk> birds were a particular target .","Their feathers were used in women 's hats from the late 19th century until the 1920s .","In 1886 , five million birds were estimated to have been killed for their feathers .","They were usually shot in the spring , when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting .","<unk> , as the plumes were called in the <unk> business , sold in 1915 for $ 32 an <unk> , also the price of gold .","<unk> was a $ 17 @-@ million @-@ a @-@ year industry that motivated plume <unk> to lie in wait at the nests of <unk> and other large birds during the nesting season , shoot the parents with small @-@ bore rifles , and leave the chicks to <unk> .","Many hunters refused to participate after watching the gruesome results of a plume hunt .","Still , plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana , New York City , London , and Paris .","A dealer in New York paid at least 60 hunters to provide him with \" almost anything that wore feathers , but particularly the Herons , <unk> , and <unk> birds \" .","Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day .","<unk> harvesting became a dangerous business .","The <unk> Society became concerned with the amount of hunting being done in <unk> in the mangrove forests .","In 1902 , they hired a <unk> , Guy Bradley , to watch the <unk> around <unk> Lake .","Bradley had lived in <unk> within the Everglades , and was murdered in 1905 by one of his neighbors after he tried to prevent him from hunting .","Protection of birds was the reason for establishing the first wildlife refuge when President Theodore Roosevelt set Pelican Island as a sanctuary in 1903 .","In the 1920s , after birds were protected and alligators hunted nearly to extinction , Prohibition created a living for those willing to smuggle alcohol into the U.S. from Cuba .","Rum @-@ runners used the vast Everglades as a hiding spot : there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it .","The advent of the fishing industry , the arrival of the railroad , and the discovery of the benefits of adding copper to Okeechobee muck soon created unprecedented numbers of residents in new towns like Moore Haven , <unk> , and Belle Glade .","By 1921 , 2 @,@ 000 people lived in 16 new towns around Lake Okeechobee .","Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in south Florida and it began to be mass @-@ produced .","Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral <unk> $ 150 million and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $ 30 @,@ 600 an acre .","Miami became cosmopolitan and experienced a renaissance of architecture and culture .","Hollywood movie stars <unk> in the area and <unk> built lavish homes .","Miami 's population multiplied <unk> , and <unk> .","Lauderdale and Palm Beach grew many times over as well .","In 1925 , Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds ( 3 @.","@ 2 kg ) , most of it real estate advertising .","<unk> property was the most highly valued .","<unk> trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view .","Acres of south Florida slash pine were taken down , some for lumber , but the wood was found to be dense and it split apart when nails were driven into it .","It was also <unk> @-@ resistant , but homes were needed quickly .","Most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development .","= = Hurricanes = = \n \n The canals proposed by Wright were unsuccessful in making the lands south of Lake Okeechobee fulfill the promises made by real estate developers to local farmers .","The winter of 1922 was <unk> wet and the region was underwater .","The town of Moore Haven received 46 inches ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) of rain in six weeks in 1924 .","Engineers were pressured to regulate the water flow , not only for farmers but also for commercial fishers , who often requested conflicting water levels in the lake .","Fred Elliot , who was in charge of building the canals after James Wright retired , commented : \" A man on one side of the canal wants it raised for his particular use and a man on the other side wants it lowered for his particular use \" .","= = = 1926 Miami Hurricane = = = \n \n The 1920s brought several favorable conditions that helped the land and population boom , one of which was an absence of any severe storms .","The last severe hurricane , in 1906 , had struck the Florida Keys .","Many homes were constructed hastily and poorly as a result of this lull in storms .","However , on September 18 , 1926 , a storm that became known as the 1926 Miami Hurricane struck with winds over 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) , and caused massive devastation .","The storm surge was as high as 15 feet ( 4 @.","@ 6 m ) in some places .","Henry Flagler 's <unk> Royal Palm Hotel was destroyed along with many other hotels and buildings .","Most people who died did so when they ran out into the street in <unk> while the eye of the hurricane passed over , not knowing the wind was coming in from the other direction . \"","The lull lasted 35 minutes , and during that time the streets of the city became crowded with people \" , wrote Richard Gray , the local weather chief . \"","As a result , many lives were lost during the second phase of the storm . \"","In Miami alone , 115 people were counted dead — although the true figure may have been as high as 175 , because death totals were racially segregated .","More than 25 @,@ 000 people were homeless in the city .","The town of Moore Haven , bordering Lake Okeechobee , was hardest hit .","A levee built of muck collapsed , drowning almost 400 of the town 's entire 1 @,@ 200 residents .","The tops of Lake Okeechobee levees were only 18 to 24 inches ( 46 to 61 cm ) above the lake itself and the engineers were aware of the danger .","Two days before the hurricane , an engineer predicted , \" [ i ] f we have a blow , even a gale , Moore Haven is going under water \" .","The engineer lost his wife and daughter in the flood .","The City of Miami responded to the hurricane by <unk> its effects and turning down aid .","The Miami Herald declared two weeks after the storm that almost everything in the city had returned to normal .","The governor supported the efforts to minimize the appearance of the destruction by refusing to call a special legislative session to appropriate emergency funds for relief .","As a result , the American Red Cross was able to collect only $ 3 million of $ 5 million needed .","The 1926 hurricane effectively ended the land boom in Miami , despite the attempts at hiding the effects .","It also forced drainage commissioners to re @-@ evaluate the effectiveness of the canals .","A $ 20 million plan to build a dike around Lake Okeechobee , to be paid by property taxes , was turned down after a skeptical constituency sued to stop it ; more than $ 14 million had been spent on canals and they were ineffective in taking away excess water or delivering it when needed .","= = = 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane = = = \n \n The weather was unremarkable for two years .","In 1928 , construction was completed on the Tamiami Trail , named because it was the only road spanning between Tampa and Miami .","The builders attempted to construct the road several times before they blasted the muck down to the limestone , filled it with rock and paved over it .","Hard rains in the summer caused Lake Okeechobee to rise several feet ; this was noticed by a local newspaper editor who demanded it be lowered .","However , on September 16 , 1928 came a massive storm , now known as the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane .","Thousands drowned when Lake Okeechobee breached its levees ; the range of estimates of the dead spanned from 1 @,@ 770 ( according to the Red Cross ) to 3 @,@ 000 or more .","Many were swept away and never recovered .","The majority of the dead were black migrant workers who had recently settled in or near Belle Glade .","The catastrophe made national news , and although the governor again refused aid , after he toured the area and counted 126 bodies still <unk> or <unk> a week after the storm , he activated the National Guard to assist in the <unk> , and declared in a telegram : \" Without exaggeration , the situation in the storm area <unk> description \" .","= = = Herbert Hoover Dike = = = \n \n The focus of government agencies quickly shifted to the control of floods rather than drainage .","The Okeechobee Flood Control District , financed by both state and federal funds , was created in 1929 .","President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and , an engineer himself , ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake .","Between 1930 and 1937 , a dike 66 miles ( 106 km ) long was built around the southern edge of the lake , and a shorter one around the northern edge .","It was 34 feet ( 10 m ) tall and 3 @.","@ 5 feet ( 1 @.","@ 1 m ) thick on the lake side , 3 feet ( 0 @.","@ 91 m ) thick on the top , and 2 feet ( 0 @.","@ 61 m ) thick toward land .","Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers : the United States declared legal limits of the lake to be 14 feet ( 4 @.","@ 3 m ) and 17 feet ( 5 @.","@ 2 m ) .","A massive canal 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide and 6 feet ( 1 @.","@ 8 m ) deep was also dug through the <unk> River ; when the lake rose too high , the excess water left through the canal to the Gulf of Mexico .","<unk> trees were planted along the north shore levee : Australian pines , Australian oaks , willows , and bamboo .","More than $ 20 million was spent on the entire project .","Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built .","The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 after World War II .","= = Drought = = \n \n The effects of the Hoover Dike were seen immediately .","An extended drought occurred in the 1930s , and with the wall preventing water leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water , the Everglades became <unk> .","<unk> turned to dust , and <unk> ocean water entered Miami 's wells .","When the city brought in an expert to investigate , he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area 's groundwater — here , it appeared on the surface .","<unk> the Everglades removed this groundwater , which was replaced by ocean water seeping into the area 's wells .","In 1939 , 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Everglades burned , and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami .","Underground peat fires burned roots of trees and plants without burning the plants in some places .","Scientists who took soil samples before draining had not taken into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades was mixed with bacteria that added little to the process of decomposition underwater because they were not mixed with oxygen .","As soon as the water was drained and oxygen mixed with the soil , the bacteria began to break down the soil .","In some places , homes had to be moved on to <unk> and 8 feet ( 2 @.","@ 4 m ) of <unk> was lost .","= = = Conservation attempts = = = \n \n <unk> concerned about the Everglades have been a vocal minority ever since Miami was a young city .","South Florida 's first and perhaps most enthusiastic naturalist was Charles <unk> Simpson , who retired from the Smithsonian Institution to Miami in 1905 when he was 53 .","Nicknamed \" the Sage of Biscayne Bay \" , Simpson wrote several books about tropical plant life around Miami .","His backyard contained a tropical hardwood <unk> , which he estimated he showed to about 50 @,@ 000 people .","Though he tended to avoid controversy regarding development , in <unk> <unk> in Florida he wrote , \" <unk> everywhere has an insane desire to waste and destroy the good and beautiful things this nature has lavished upon him \" .","Although the idea of protecting a portion of the Everglades arose in 1905 , a <unk> effort was formed in 1928 when Miami landscape designer Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association .","It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934 , but there was not enough money during the Great Depression to buy the proposed 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 km2 ) for the park .","It took another 13 years for it to be dedicated on December 6 , 1947 .","One month before the dedication of the park , the former editor of The Miami Herald and freelance writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas published her first book , The Everglades : River of Grass .","After researching the region for five years , she described the history and ecology of the south of Florida in great detail , characterizing the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp .","Douglas later wrote , \" My colleague Art Marshall said that with [ the words \" River of Grass \" ] I changed everybody 's knowledge and educated the world as to what the Everglades meant \" .","The last chapter was titled \" The <unk> Hour \" and warned that the Everglades were approaching death , although the course could be reversed .","Its first printing sold out a month after its release .","= = Flood control = = \n \n <unk> with the dedication of Everglades National Park , 1947 in south Florida saw two hurricanes and a wet season responsible for 100 inches ( 250 cm ) of rain , ending the decade @-@ long drought .","Although there were no human casualties , cattle and deer were drowned and standing water was left in suburban areas for months .","Agricultural interests lost about $ 59 million .","The embattled head of the Everglades Drainage District carried a gun for protection after being threatened .","= = = Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project = = = \n \n In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other <unk> ( C & SF ) and consolidated the Everglades Drainage District and the Okeechobee Flood Control District under this .","The C & SF used four methods in flood management : levees , water storage areas , canal improvements , and large pumps to assist gravity .","Between 1952 and 1954 in cooperation with the state of Florida it built a levee 100 miles ( 160 km ) long between the eastern Everglades and suburbs from Palm Beach to <unk> , and blocked the flow of water into populated areas .","Between 1954 and 1963 it divided the Everglades into basins .","In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas ( WCAs ) , and the Everglades Agricultural Area ( EAA ) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee .","In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park .","<unk> and pumping stations bordered each WCA , which released water in drier times and removed it and pumped it to the ocean or Gulf of Mexico in times of flood .","The WCAs took up about 37 percent of the original Everglades .","During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation .","Between 1940 and 1965 , 6 million people moved to south Florida : 1 @,@ 000 people moved to Miami every week .","Urban development between the mid @-@ 1950s and the late 1960s <unk> .","Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas .","With metropolitan growth came urban problems associated with rapid expansion : traffic jams ; school overcrowding ; crime ; <unk> sewage treatment plants ; and , for the first time in south Florida 's urban history , water shortages in times of drought .","The C & SF constructed over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of canals , and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades .","It produced a film , Waters of Destiny , characterized by author Michael <unk> as propaganda , that likened nature to a villainous , <unk> force of rage and declared the C & SF 's mission was to tame nature and make the Everglades useful .","Everglades National Park management and Marjory Stoneman Douglas initially supported the C & SF , as it promised to maintain the Everglades and manage the water <unk> .","However , an early report by the project reflected local attitudes about the Everglades as a priority to people in nearby developed areas : \" The aesthetic appeal of the Park can never be as strong as the demands of home and livelihood .","The <unk> and the <unk> mean something to people in an abstract way , but the former cannot line their <unk> , nor the latter fill their empty <unk> . \"","Establishment of the C & SF made Everglades National Park completely dependent upon another political entity for its survival .","One of the C & SF 's projects was Levee 29 , laid along the Tamiami Trail on the northern border of the park .","Levee 29 featured four flood control gates that controlled all the water entering Everglades National Park ; before construction , water flowed in through open drain pipes .","The period from 1962 to 1965 was one of drought for the Everglades , and Levee 29 remained closed to allow the Biscayne <unk> — the fresh water source for South Florida — to stay filled .","Animals began to cross Tamiami Trail for the water held in WCA 3 , and many were killed by cars .","<unk> estimate the population of alligators in Everglades National Park was <unk> ; otters nearly became extinct .","The populations of wading birds had been reduced by 90 percent from the 1940s .","When park management and the U.S. Department of the Interior asked the C & SF for assistance , the C & SF offered to build a levee along the southern border of Everglades National Park to retain waters that historically flowed through the <unk> and into Florida Bay .","Though the C & SF refused to send the park more water , they constructed Canal 67 , bordering the east side of the park and carrying excess water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic .","= = = Everglades Agricultural Area = = = \n \n The C & SF established 470 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 900 km2 ) for the Everglades Agricultural Area — 27 percent of the Everglades before development .","In the late 1920s , agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of <unk> sulfate to Everglades muck produced profitable vegetable <unk> .","Adding 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of the compound was more cost effective than adding 1 short ton ( 0 @.","@ 91 t ) of <unk> .","The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane , though sod , beans , <unk> , <unk> , and rice are also grown .","Sugarcane became more consolidated an industry than did any other crop ; in 1940 the coalition of farms was renamed U.S. Sugar and this produced 86 percent of Everglades sugar .","During the 1930s the sugarcane farmers ' coalition came under investigation for labor practices that bordered on slavery .","Potential employees — primarily young black men — were lured from all over the U.S. by the promise of jobs , but they were held financially responsible for training , transportation , room and board and other costs .","<unk> while debts were owed was punishable with jail time .","By 1942 , U.S. Sugar was indicted for <unk> in federal court , though the charges were eventually dismissed on a <unk> .","U.S. Sugar benefited significantly from the U.S. embargo on Cuban goods beginning in the early 1960s .","In 1958 , before the Castro regime , 47 @,@ 000 acres ( 190 km2 ) of sugarcane were harvested in Florida ; by the 1964 – 1965 season , 228 @,@ 000 acres ( 920 km2 ) were harvested .","From 1959 to 1962 the region went from two sugar mills to six , one of which in Belle Glade set several world records for sugar production .","Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres ( 16 ha ) , on two sides bordered by canals that are connected to larger ones by which water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops .","The water level for sugarcane is ideally maintained at 20 inches ( 51 cm ) below the surface soil , and after the cane is harvested , the stalks are burned .","<unk> require more <unk> than sugarcane , though the fields may resemble the historic hydrology of the Everglades by being flooded in the wet season .","Sugarcane , however , requires water in the dry season .","The fertilizers used on vegetables , along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the by @-@ product of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production , were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA , predominantly to Everglades National Park .","The introduction of large amounts of these let exotic plants take hold in the Everglades .","One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient @-@ poor environment , and the introduction of fertilizers began to change this ecology .","= = Turning point = = \n \n A turning point for development in the Everglades came in 1969 when a replacement airport was proposed as Miami International Airport <unk> its capacities .","Developers began acquiring land , paying $ 180 an acre in 1968 , and the Dade County Port Authority ( DCPA ) bought 39 square miles ( 100 km2 ) in the Big <unk> Swamp without consulting the C & SF , management of Everglades National Park or the Department of the Interior .","Park management learned of the official purchase and agreement to build the jetport from The Miami Herald the day it was announced .","The DCPA <unk> the land it had bought , and laid a single runway it declared was for training pilots .","The new jetport was planned to be larger than O <unk> , <unk> , JFK , and <unk> airports combined ; the location chosen was 6 miles ( 9 @.","@ 7 km ) north of the Everglades National Park , within WCA 3 .","The deputy director of the DCPA declared : \" This is going to be one of the great population centers of America .","We will do our best to meet our responsibilities and the responsibilities of all men to exercise dominion over the land , sea , and air above us as the higher order of man intends . \"","The C & SF brought the jetport proposal to national attention by mailing letters about it to 100 conservation groups in the U.S.","Initial local press reaction condemned conservation groups who immediately opposed the project .","Business Week reported real estate prices jumped from $ 200 to $ 800 an acre surrounding the planned location , and Life wrote of the expectations of the commercial interests in the area .","The U.S. Geological Survey 's study of the environmental impact of the jetport started , \" Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will <unk> destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park \" .","The jetport was intended to support a community of a million people and employ 60 @,@ 000 .","The DCPA director was reported in Time saying , \" I 'm more interested in people than alligators .","This is the ideal place as far as aviation is concerned . \"","When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of raw sewage a day and 10 @,@ 000 short tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) of jet engine <unk> a year , the national media snapped to attention .","Science magazine wrote , in a series on environmental protection highlighting the jetport project , \" Environmental scientists have become increasingly aware that , without careful planning , development of a region and the conservation of its natural resources do not go hand in hand \" .","The New York Times called it a \" <unk> for disaster \" , and Wisconsin senator <unk> Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition : \" It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment . \"","Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project , and the 78 @-@ year @-@ old Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it .","She established Friends of the Everglades and encouraged more than 3 @,@ 000 members to join .","Initially the U.S. Department of Transportation pledged funds to support the jetport , but after pressure , Nixon overruled the department .","He instead established Big <unk> National Preserve , announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress <unk> the 1972 Environmental Program .","Following the jetport proposition , restoration of the Everglades became not only a <unk> priority , but an international one as well .","In the 1970s the Everglades were declared an International <unk> Reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO , and a <unk> of International Importance by the <unk> Convention , making it one of only three locations on earth that have appeared on all three lists ."],"string":"[\n \" = <unk> and development of the Everglades = \\n \\n The history of draining and development of the Everglades dates back to the 19th century .\",\n \"During the Second Seminole War beginning in 1836 , the United States military 's mission was to seek out Seminole people in the Everglades and capture or kill them .\",\n \"Those missions gave the military the opportunity to map land that seemed to <unk> and <unk> them at every turn .\",\n \"A national push for expansion and progress toward the latter part of the 19th century stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use .\",\n \"According to historians , \\\" From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century , the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned .\",\n \"Indeed , it was considered the proper thing to do . \\\"\",\n \"A pattern of political and financial motivation , and a lack of understanding of the geography and ecology of the Everglades have plagued the history of drainage projects .\",\n \"The Everglades are a part of a massive watershed that originates near Orlando and drains into Lake Okeechobee , a vast and shallow lake .\",\n \"As the lake exceeds its capacity in the wet season , the water forms a flat and very wide river , about 100 miles ( 160 km ) long and 60 miles ( 97 km ) wide .\",\n \"As the land from Lake Okeechobee slopes gradually to Florida Bay , water flows at a rate of half a mile ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 km ) a day .\",\n \"Before human activity in the Everglades , the system comprised the lower third of the Florida peninsula .\",\n \"The first attempt to drain the region was made by real estate developer Hamilton Disston in 1881 .\",\n \"Disston 's sponsored canals were unsuccessful , but the land he purchased for them stimulated economic and population growth that attracted railway developer Henry Flagler .\",\n \"Flagler built a railroad along the east coast of Florida and eventually to Key West ; towns grew and farmland was cultivated along the rail line .\",\n \"During his 1904 campaign to be elected governor , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward promised to drain the Everglades , and his later projects were more effective than Disston 's .\",\n \"Broward 's promises sparked a land boom facilitated by blatant errors in an engineer 's report , pressure from real estate developers , and the burgeoning tourist industry throughout south Florida .\",\n \"The increased population brought hunters who went unchecked and had a devastating impact on the numbers of wading birds ( hunted for their plumes ) , alligators , and other Everglades animals .\",\n \"Severe hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused catastrophic damage and flooding from Lake Okeechobee that prompted the Army Corps of Engineers to build a dike around the lake .\",\n \"Further floods in 1947 prompted an unprecedented construction of canals throughout southern Florida .\",\n \"Following another population boom after World War II , and the creation of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project , the Everglades was divided into sections separated by canals and water control devices that delivered water to agricultural and newly developed urban areas .\",\n \"However , in the late 1960s , following a proposal to construct a massive airport next to Everglades National Park , national attention turned from developing the land to restoring the Everglades .\",\n \"= = Exploration = = \\n \\n American involvement in the Everglades began during the Second Seminole War ( 1836 – 42 ) , a costly and very unpopular conflict .\",\n \"The United States spent between $ 30 million and $ 40 million and lost between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 lives .\",\n \"The U.S. military drove the Seminoles into the Everglades and were charged with the task of finding them , defeating them , and moving them to Oklahoma Indian territory .\",\n \"Almost 4 @,@ 000 Seminoles were killed in the war or were removed .\",\n \"The U.S. military was completely unprepared for the conditions they found in the Everglades .\",\n \"They tore their clothes on sawgrass , ruined their boots on the uneven limestone floor , and were plagued by mosquitoes .\",\n \"Soldiers ' legs , feet , and arms were cut open on the sawgrass and <unk> infection set in , taking many lives and limbs .\",\n \"Many died of <unk> @-@ borne illness .\",\n \"After <unk> through mud , one private died in his tracks of exhaustion in 1842 .\",\n \"General Thomas <unk> admitted the military was overwhelmed by the terrain when he wrote to the Secretary of War in 1838 , trying to dissuade him from prolonging the war .\",\n \"<unk> about the value of Florida to the Union was mixed : some thought it a useless land of swamps and horrible animals , while others thought it a gift from God for national prosperity .\",\n \"In 1838 comments in The Army and Navy Chronicle supported future development of southern Florida : \\n [ The ] climate [ is ] most delightful ; but , from want of actual observation , [ it ] could not speak so confidently of the soil , although , from the appearance of the surrounding vegetation , a portion of it , at least , must be rich .\",\n \"Whenever the <unk> shall be forced from their <unk> , as eventually they must be , the <unk> spirit of our countrymen will very soon discover the sections best adapted to cultivation , and the now barren or <unk> everglades will be made to blossom like a garden .\",\n \"It is the general impression that these everglades are <unk> during the summer months , by reason of their being overflowed by the abundant rains of the season ; but if it should prove that these <unk> are caused or increased by obstructions to the natural courses of the rivers , as outlets to the numerous lakes , American industry will remove these obstructions .\",\n \"The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood part of the country .\",\n \"As late as 1823 , official reports doubted the existence of a large inland lake , until the military met the Seminoles at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee in 1837 .\",\n \"To avenge repeated surprise attacks on himself and ammunition stores , Colonel William Harney led an expedition into the Everglades in 1840 , to hunt for a chief named <unk> .\",\n \"With Harney were 90 soldiers in 16 canoes .\",\n \"One soldier 's account of the trip in the St. Augustine News was the first printed description of the Everglades available to the general public .\",\n \"The anonymous writer described the hunt for <unk> and the terrain they were crossing : \\\" No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it ; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees , and <unk> intended as a retreat for the <unk> Indian , from which the white man would never seek to drive them \\\" .\",\n \"The final blame for the military stalemate was determined to lie not in military preparation , supplies , leadership , or superior tactics by the Seminoles , but in Florida 's impenetrable terrain .\",\n \"An army surgeon wrote : \\\" It is in fact a most hideous region to live in , a perfect <unk> for Indians , alligators , serpents , frogs , and every other kind of <unk> reptile . \\\"\",\n \"The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of wonder or hatred .\",\n \"In 1870 , an author described the mangrove forests as a \\\" waste of nature 's grandest exhibition to have these carnivals of splendid vegetation occurring in isolated places where it is but seldom they are seen . \\\"\",\n \"A band of hunters , naturalists , and collectors ventured through in 1885 , taking along with them the 17 @-@ year @-@ old grandson of an early resident of Miami .\",\n \"The landscape <unk> the young man shortly after he entered the Shark River : \\\" The place looked wild and lonely .\",\n \"About three o <unk> it seemed to get on Henry 's nerves and we saw him crying , he would not tell us why , he was just plain scared . \\\"\",\n \"In 1897 , an explorer named Hugh Willoughby spent eight days <unk> with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to the Miami River .\",\n \"He wrote about his observations and sent them back to the New Orleans Times @-@ Democrat .\",\n \"Willoughby described the water as healthy and <unk> , with numerous springs , and 10 @,@ 000 alligators \\\" more or less \\\" in Lake Okeechobee .\",\n \"The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River , \\\" killing hundreds , but they continued to return \\\" .\",\n \"Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been mapped and explored except for this part of Florida , writing , \\\" ( w ) e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa . \\\"\",\n \"= = Drainage = = \\n \\n As early as 1837 , a visitor to the Everglades suggested the value of the land without the water : \\n Could it be drained by deepening the natural outlets ?\",\n \"Would it not open to cultivation immense tracts of rich vegetable soil ?\",\n \"Could the <unk> , obtained by draining , be improved to any useful purpose ?\",\n \"Would such draining render the country unhealthy ?\",\n \"...\",\n \"Many queries like these passed through our minds .\",\n \"They can only be solved by a thorough examination of the whole country .\",\n \"Could the waters be lowered ten feet , it would probably drain six hundred thousand acres ; should this prove to be a rich soil , as would seem probable , what a field it would open for tropical productions !\",\n \"What facilities for commerce !\",\n \"Territorial representative David Levy proposed a resolution that was passed in Congress in 1842 : \\\" that the Secretary of War be directed to place before this House such information as can be obtained in relation to the <unk> and probable expense of draining the everglades of Florida . \\\"\",\n \"From this directive Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker requested Thomas Buckingham Smith from St. Augustine to consult those with experience in the Everglades on the feasibility of draining them , saying that he had been told two or three canals to the Gulf of Mexico would be sufficient .\",\n \"Smith asked officers who had served in the Seminole Wars to respond , and many favored the idea , promoting the land as a future agricultural asset to the South .\",\n \"A few disagreed , such as Captain John Sprague , who wrote he \\\" never supposed the country would excite an inquiry , other than as a hiding place for Indians , and had it occurred to me that so great an undertaking , one so utterly <unk> , as draining the Ever Glades was to be discussed , I should not have destroyed the scratch of pen upon a subject so fruitful , and which cannot be understood but by those who have <unk> the water belly deep and examined carefully the western coast by land and by water . \\\"\",\n \"Nevertheless , Smith returned a report to the Secretary of the Treasury asking for $ 500 @,@ 000 to do the job .\",\n \"The report is the first published study on the topic of the Everglades , and concluded with the statement : \\n The Ever Glades are now suitable only for the haunt of <unk> <unk> or the resort of <unk> reptiles .\",\n \"The statesman whose <unk> shall cause the millions of acres they contain , now worse than worthless , to <unk> with the products of agricultural industry ; that man who thus adds to the resources of his country ... will merit a high place in public favor , not only with his own generation , but with <unk> .\",\n \"He will have created a State !\",\n \"Smith suggested cutting through the rim of the Everglades ( known today as the Atlantic Coastal Ridge ) , connecting the heads of rivers to the coastline so that 4 feet ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 2 m ) of water would be drained from the area .\",\n \"The result , Smith hoped , would yield farmland suitable for corn , sugar , rice , cotton , and tobacco .\",\n \"In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries .\",\n \"The Swamp and <unk> Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into <unk> .\",\n \"Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for such attempts , though attention and funds were diverted owing to the Civil War and Reconstruction .\",\n \"Not until after 1877 did attention return to the Everglades .\",\n \"= = = Hamilton Disston 's canals = = = \\n \\n After the Civil War , an agency named the Internal <unk> Fund ( IIF ) , charged with using grant money to improve Florida 's infrastructure through canals , rail lines , and roads , was eager to be rid of the debt incurred by the Civil War .\",\n \"IIF trustees found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disston who was interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture .\",\n \"Disston was persuaded to buy 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land for $ 1 million in 1881 .\",\n \"The New York Times declared it the largest purchase of land ever by any individual .\",\n \"Disston began building canals near St.\",\n \"Cloud to lower the basin of the <unk> and Kissimmee Rivers .\",\n \"His workers and engineers faced conditions similar to those of the soldiers during the Seminole Wars ; it was <unk> , <unk> labor in dangerous conditions .\",\n \"The canals seemed at first to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers .\",\n \"Another dredged waterway between the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Okeechobee was built , opening the region to steamboat traffic .\",\n \"Disston 's engineers focused on Lake Okeechobee as well .\",\n \"As one colleague put it , \\\" Okeechobee is the point to attack \\\" ; the canals were to be \\\" equal or greater than the inflow from the Kissimmee valley , which is the source of all the evil . \\\"\",\n \"Disston sponsored the digging of a canal 11 miles ( 18 km ) long from Lake Okeechobee towards Miami , but it was abandoned when the rock proved denser than the engineers had expected .\",\n \"Though the canals lowered the groundwater , their capacity was inadequate for the wet season .\",\n \"A report that evaluated the failure of the project concluded : \\\" The reduction of the waters is simply a question of sufficient capacity in the canals which may be dug for their relief \\\" .\",\n \"Though Disston 's canals did not drain , his purchase <unk> the economy of Florida .\",\n \"It made news and attracted tourists and land <unk> alike .\",\n \"Within four years property values doubled , and the population increased significantly .\",\n \"One newcomer was the inventor Thomas Edison , who bought a home in Fort Myers .\",\n \"Disston opened real estate offices throughout the United States and Europe , and sold tracts of land for $ 5 an acre , establishing towns on the west coast and in central Florida .\",\n \"English tourists in particular were targeted and responded in large numbers .\",\n \"Florida passed its first water laws to \\\" build drains , ditches , or water courses upon petition of two or more landowners \\\" in 1893 .\",\n \"= = = Henry Flagler 's railroads = = = \\n \\n Due to Disston 's purchase , the IIF was able to sponsor railroad projects , and the opportunity presented itself when oil <unk> Henry Flagler became <unk> with St. Augustine during a vacation .\",\n \"He built the <unk> <unk> de León Hotel in St. Augustine in 1888 , and began buying land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida , first from Jacksonville to <unk> , then as far south as Palm Beach in 1893 .\",\n \"Flagler 's establishment of \\\" the <unk> \\\" , a settlement for hotel and rail line workers across the river from the barrier island containing Palm Beach , became West Palm Beach .\",\n \"Along the way he built resort hotels , transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations and the land bordering the rail lines into citrus farms .\",\n \"The winter of 1894 – 1895 produced a bitter <unk> that killed citrus trees as far south as Palm Beach .\",\n \"Miami resident Julia Tuttle sent Flagler a pristine orange blossom and an invitation to visit Miami , to persuade him to build the railroad farther south .\",\n \"Although he had earlier turned her down several times , Flagler finally agreed , and by 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay .\",\n \"Three months after the first train arrived , the residents of Miami , 512 in all , voted to incorporate the town .\",\n \"Flagler publicized Miami as a \\\" Magic City \\\" throughout the United States and it became a prime destination for the extremely wealthy after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened .\",\n \"Legal battles ensued between the State of Florida and the railroad owners about who owned the rights to sell reclaimed land in the Everglades .\",\n \"In 1904 gubernatorial campaigning , the strongest candidate , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward , made draining the Everglades a major plank .\",\n \"He called the future of south Florida the \\\" Empire of the Everglades \\\" and compared its potential to that of Holland and Egypt : \\\" It would indeed be a commentary on the intelligence and energy of the State of Florida to confess that so simple an engineering feat as the drainage of a body of land above the sea was above their power \\\" , he wrote to voters .\",\n \"Soon after his election , he fulfilled his promise to \\\" drain that <unk> pestilence @-@ ridden swamp \\\" and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee <unk> of flooded lands .\",\n \"They began by taxing counties that would be affected by the drainage attempts , at 5 cents an acre , and formed the Everglades Drainage District in 1907 .\",\n \"Broward asked James O. Wright — an engineer on loan to the State of Florida from the USDA 's Bureau of Drainage Investigations — to draw up plans for drainage in 1906 .\",\n \"Two dredges were built by 1908 , but had cut only 6 miles ( 9 @.\",\n \"@ 7 km ) of canals .\",\n \"The project quickly ran out of money , so Broward sold real estate developer Richard J.\",\n \"<unk> a million dollars worth of land in the Everglades , 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) , before the engineer 's report had been submitted .\",\n \"<unk> from Wright 's report were given to the IIF stating that eight canals would be enough to drain 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @,@ 500 km2 ) at a cost of a dollar an acre .\",\n \"The <unk> were released to real estate developers who used them in their advertisements , and Wright and the USDA were pressed by the real estate industry to publicize the report as quickly as possible .\",\n \"Wright 's supervisor noted errors in the report , as well as undue enthusiasm for draining , and delayed its release in 1910 .\",\n \"Different unofficial versions of the report circulated — some that had been altered by real estate interests — and a version hastily put together by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher called U.S. Senate <unk> 89 included early <unk> statements , causing a <unk> of speculation .\",\n \"Wright 's initial report concluded that drainage would not be difficult .\",\n \"Building canals would be more cost effective than constructing a dike around Lake Okeechobee .\",\n \"The soil would be fertile after drainage , the climate would not be adversely affected , and the enormous lake would be able to <unk> farmland in the dry season .\",\n \"Wright based his conclusions on 15 years of weather data since the recording of precipitation began in the 1890s .\",\n \"His calculations concentrated on the towns of Jupiter and Kissimmee .\",\n \"Since weather data had not been recorded for any area within the Everglades , none was included in the report .\",\n \"Furthermore , the heaviest year of rain on record , Wright assumed , was atypical , and he urged that canals should not be constructed to bear that amount of water due to the expense .\",\n \"Wright 's calculations for what canals should be able to hold were off by 55 percent .\",\n \"His most fundamental mistake , however , was designing the canals for a maximum rainfall of 4 inches ( 10 cm ) of water a day , based on flawed data for July and August rainfall , despite available data that indicated torrential <unk> of 10 inches ( 25 cm ) and 12 inches ( 30 cm ) had occurred in 24 @-@ hour periods .\",\n \"Though a few voices expressed skepticism of the report 's conclusions — notably Frank Stoneman , the editor of the Miami News @-@ Record ( the forerunner of The Miami Herald ) — the report was hailed as <unk> , coming from a branch of the U.S. government .\",\n \"In 1912 Florida appointed Wright to oversee the drainage , and the real estate industry <unk> misrepresented this mid @-@ level engineer as the world 's foremost authority on wetlands drainage , in charge of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation .\",\n \"However , the U.S. House of Representatives investigated Wright since no report had officially been published despite the money paid for it .\",\n \"Wright eventually retired when it was discovered that his colleagues disagreed with his conclusions and refused to approve the report 's publication .\",\n \"One testified at the hearings : \\\" I regard Mr. Wright as absolutely and completely incompetent for any engineering work \\\" .\",\n \"Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost .\",\n \"Broward and his predecessor , William Jennings , were paid by Richard <unk> to tour the state to promote drainage .\",\n \"Broward was elected to the Senate in 1910 , but died before he could take office .\",\n \"He was <unk> across Florida for his leadership and progressive inspiration .\",\n \"Rapidly growing Fort Lauderdale paid him tribute by naming Broward County after him ( the town 's original plan had been to name it Everglades County ) .\",\n \"Land in the Everglades was being sold for $ 15 an acre a month after Broward died .\",\n \"Meanwhile , Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them .\",\n \"News of the Panama Canal inspired him to connect his rail line to the closest deep water port .\",\n \"Biscayne Bay was too shallow , so Flagler sent railway scouts to explore the possibility of building the line through to the tip of mainland Florida .\",\n \"The scouts reported that not enough land was present to build through the Everglades , so Flagler instead changed the plan to build to Key West in 1912 .\",\n \"= = Boom and plume harvesting = = \\n \\n Real estate companies continued to advertise and sell land along newly dug canals .\",\n \"In April 1912 — the end of the dry season — reporters from all over the U.S. were given a tour of what had recently been drained , and they returned to their papers and <unk> about the progress .\",\n \"Land developers sold 20 @,@ 000 lots in a few months .\",\n \"But as news about the Wright report continued to be negative , land values <unk> , and sales decreased .\",\n \"Developers were sued and arrested for mail fraud when people who had spent their life savings to buy land arrived in south Florida expecting to find a dry parcel of land to build upon and instead found it completely underwater .\",\n \"Advertisements promised land that would yield crops in eight weeks , but for many it took at least as long just to clear .\",\n \"Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetation only to discover that the underlying peat continued to burn .\",\n \"Animals and <unk> used for <unk> got <unk> in the muck and were useless .\",\n \"When the muck dried , it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms .\",\n \"Settlers encountered rodents , <unk> , and biting insects , and faced dangers from mosquitoes , poisonous snakes and alligators .\",\n \"Though at first crops <unk> quickly and <unk> , they just as quickly <unk> and died , seemingly without reason .\",\n \"It was discovered later that the peat and muck lacked copper and other trace elements .\",\n \"The USDA released a pamphlet in 1915 that declared land along the New River Canal would be too costly to keep drained and fertilized ; people in <unk> .\",\n \"Lauderdale responded by collecting all of the pamphlets and burning them .\",\n \"With the increasing population in towns near the Everglades came hunting opportunities .\",\n \"Even decades earlier , Harriet <unk> <unk> had been horrified at the hunting by visitors , and she wrote the first conservation publication for Florida in 1877 : \\\" [ t ] he decks of boats are crowded with men , whose only feeling amid our magnificent forests , seems to be a wild desire to shoot something and who fire at every living thing on shore . \\\"\",\n \"<unk> and raccoons were the most widely hunted for their skins .\",\n \"Otter pelts could fetch between $ 8 and $ 15 each .\",\n \"<unk> , more plentiful , only warranted 75 cents each in 1915 .\",\n \"Hunting often went unchecked ; on one trip , a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters .\",\n \"<unk> birds were a particular target .\",\n \"Their feathers were used in women 's hats from the late 19th century until the 1920s .\",\n \"In 1886 , five million birds were estimated to have been killed for their feathers .\",\n \"They were usually shot in the spring , when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting .\",\n \"<unk> , as the plumes were called in the <unk> business , sold in 1915 for $ 32 an <unk> , also the price of gold .\",\n \"<unk> was a $ 17 @-@ million @-@ a @-@ year industry that motivated plume <unk> to lie in wait at the nests of <unk> and other large birds during the nesting season , shoot the parents with small @-@ bore rifles , and leave the chicks to <unk> .\",\n \"Many hunters refused to participate after watching the gruesome results of a plume hunt .\",\n \"Still , plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana , New York City , London , and Paris .\",\n \"A dealer in New York paid at least 60 hunters to provide him with \\\" almost anything that wore feathers , but particularly the Herons , <unk> , and <unk> birds \\\" .\",\n \"Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day .\",\n \"<unk> harvesting became a dangerous business .\",\n \"The <unk> Society became concerned with the amount of hunting being done in <unk> in the mangrove forests .\",\n \"In 1902 , they hired a <unk> , Guy Bradley , to watch the <unk> around <unk> Lake .\",\n \"Bradley had lived in <unk> within the Everglades , and was murdered in 1905 by one of his neighbors after he tried to prevent him from hunting .\",\n \"Protection of birds was the reason for establishing the first wildlife refuge when President Theodore Roosevelt set Pelican Island as a sanctuary in 1903 .\",\n \"In the 1920s , after birds were protected and alligators hunted nearly to extinction , Prohibition created a living for those willing to smuggle alcohol into the U.S. from Cuba .\",\n \"Rum @-@ runners used the vast Everglades as a hiding spot : there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it .\",\n \"The advent of the fishing industry , the arrival of the railroad , and the discovery of the benefits of adding copper to Okeechobee muck soon created unprecedented numbers of residents in new towns like Moore Haven , <unk> , and Belle Glade .\",\n \"By 1921 , 2 @,@ 000 people lived in 16 new towns around Lake Okeechobee .\",\n \"Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in south Florida and it began to be mass @-@ produced .\",\n \"Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral <unk> $ 150 million and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $ 30 @,@ 600 an acre .\",\n \"Miami became cosmopolitan and experienced a renaissance of architecture and culture .\",\n \"Hollywood movie stars <unk> in the area and <unk> built lavish homes .\",\n \"Miami 's population multiplied <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"Lauderdale and Palm Beach grew many times over as well .\",\n \"In 1925 , Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 2 kg ) , most of it real estate advertising .\",\n \"<unk> property was the most highly valued .\",\n \"<unk> trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view .\",\n \"Acres of south Florida slash pine were taken down , some for lumber , but the wood was found to be dense and it split apart when nails were driven into it .\",\n \"It was also <unk> @-@ resistant , but homes were needed quickly .\",\n \"Most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development .\",\n \"= = Hurricanes = = \\n \\n The canals proposed by Wright were unsuccessful in making the lands south of Lake Okeechobee fulfill the promises made by real estate developers to local farmers .\",\n \"The winter of 1922 was <unk> wet and the region was underwater .\",\n \"The town of Moore Haven received 46 inches ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) of rain in six weeks in 1924 .\",\n \"Engineers were pressured to regulate the water flow , not only for farmers but also for commercial fishers , who often requested conflicting water levels in the lake .\",\n \"Fred Elliot , who was in charge of building the canals after James Wright retired , commented : \\\" A man on one side of the canal wants it raised for his particular use and a man on the other side wants it lowered for his particular use \\\" .\",\n \"= = = 1926 Miami Hurricane = = = \\n \\n The 1920s brought several favorable conditions that helped the land and population boom , one of which was an absence of any severe storms .\",\n \"The last severe hurricane , in 1906 , had struck the Florida Keys .\",\n \"Many homes were constructed hastily and poorly as a result of this lull in storms .\",\n \"However , on September 18 , 1926 , a storm that became known as the 1926 Miami Hurricane struck with winds over 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) , and caused massive devastation .\",\n \"The storm surge was as high as 15 feet ( 4 @.\",\n \"@ 6 m ) in some places .\",\n \"Henry Flagler 's <unk> Royal Palm Hotel was destroyed along with many other hotels and buildings .\",\n \"Most people who died did so when they ran out into the street in <unk> while the eye of the hurricane passed over , not knowing the wind was coming in from the other direction . \\\"\",\n \"The lull lasted 35 minutes , and during that time the streets of the city became crowded with people \\\" , wrote Richard Gray , the local weather chief . \\\"\",\n \"As a result , many lives were lost during the second phase of the storm . \\\"\",\n \"In Miami alone , 115 people were counted dead — although the true figure may have been as high as 175 , because death totals were racially segregated .\",\n \"More than 25 @,@ 000 people were homeless in the city .\",\n \"The town of Moore Haven , bordering Lake Okeechobee , was hardest hit .\",\n \"A levee built of muck collapsed , drowning almost 400 of the town 's entire 1 @,@ 200 residents .\",\n \"The tops of Lake Okeechobee levees were only 18 to 24 inches ( 46 to 61 cm ) above the lake itself and the engineers were aware of the danger .\",\n \"Two days before the hurricane , an engineer predicted , \\\" [ i ] f we have a blow , even a gale , Moore Haven is going under water \\\" .\",\n \"The engineer lost his wife and daughter in the flood .\",\n \"The City of Miami responded to the hurricane by <unk> its effects and turning down aid .\",\n \"The Miami Herald declared two weeks after the storm that almost everything in the city had returned to normal .\",\n \"The governor supported the efforts to minimize the appearance of the destruction by refusing to call a special legislative session to appropriate emergency funds for relief .\",\n \"As a result , the American Red Cross was able to collect only $ 3 million of $ 5 million needed .\",\n \"The 1926 hurricane effectively ended the land boom in Miami , despite the attempts at hiding the effects .\",\n \"It also forced drainage commissioners to re @-@ evaluate the effectiveness of the canals .\",\n \"A $ 20 million plan to build a dike around Lake Okeechobee , to be paid by property taxes , was turned down after a skeptical constituency sued to stop it ; more than $ 14 million had been spent on canals and they were ineffective in taking away excess water or delivering it when needed .\",\n \"= = = 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane = = = \\n \\n The weather was unremarkable for two years .\",\n \"In 1928 , construction was completed on the Tamiami Trail , named because it was the only road spanning between Tampa and Miami .\",\n \"The builders attempted to construct the road several times before they blasted the muck down to the limestone , filled it with rock and paved over it .\",\n \"Hard rains in the summer caused Lake Okeechobee to rise several feet ; this was noticed by a local newspaper editor who demanded it be lowered .\",\n \"However , on September 16 , 1928 came a massive storm , now known as the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane .\",\n \"Thousands drowned when Lake Okeechobee breached its levees ; the range of estimates of the dead spanned from 1 @,@ 770 ( according to the Red Cross ) to 3 @,@ 000 or more .\",\n \"Many were swept away and never recovered .\",\n \"The majority of the dead were black migrant workers who had recently settled in or near Belle Glade .\",\n \"The catastrophe made national news , and although the governor again refused aid , after he toured the area and counted 126 bodies still <unk> or <unk> a week after the storm , he activated the National Guard to assist in the <unk> , and declared in a telegram : \\\" Without exaggeration , the situation in the storm area <unk> description \\\" .\",\n \"= = = Herbert Hoover Dike = = = \\n \\n The focus of government agencies quickly shifted to the control of floods rather than drainage .\",\n \"The Okeechobee Flood Control District , financed by both state and federal funds , was created in 1929 .\",\n \"President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and , an engineer himself , ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake .\",\n \"Between 1930 and 1937 , a dike 66 miles ( 106 km ) long was built around the southern edge of the lake , and a shorter one around the northern edge .\",\n \"It was 34 feet ( 10 m ) tall and 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 feet ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 1 m ) thick on the lake side , 3 feet ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 91 m ) thick on the top , and 2 feet ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 61 m ) thick toward land .\",\n \"Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers : the United States declared legal limits of the lake to be 14 feet ( 4 @.\",\n \"@ 3 m ) and 17 feet ( 5 @.\",\n \"@ 2 m ) .\",\n \"A massive canal 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide and 6 feet ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 8 m ) deep was also dug through the <unk> River ; when the lake rose too high , the excess water left through the canal to the Gulf of Mexico .\",\n \"<unk> trees were planted along the north shore levee : Australian pines , Australian oaks , willows , and bamboo .\",\n \"More than $ 20 million was spent on the entire project .\",\n \"Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built .\",\n \"The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 after World War II .\",\n \"= = Drought = = \\n \\n The effects of the Hoover Dike were seen immediately .\",\n \"An extended drought occurred in the 1930s , and with the wall preventing water leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water , the Everglades became <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> turned to dust , and <unk> ocean water entered Miami 's wells .\",\n \"When the city brought in an expert to investigate , he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area 's groundwater — here , it appeared on the surface .\",\n \"<unk> the Everglades removed this groundwater , which was replaced by ocean water seeping into the area 's wells .\",\n \"In 1939 , 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Everglades burned , and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami .\",\n \"Underground peat fires burned roots of trees and plants without burning the plants in some places .\",\n \"Scientists who took soil samples before draining had not taken into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades was mixed with bacteria that added little to the process of decomposition underwater because they were not mixed with oxygen .\",\n \"As soon as the water was drained and oxygen mixed with the soil , the bacteria began to break down the soil .\",\n \"In some places , homes had to be moved on to <unk> and 8 feet ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 4 m ) of <unk> was lost .\",\n \"= = = Conservation attempts = = = \\n \\n <unk> concerned about the Everglades have been a vocal minority ever since Miami was a young city .\",\n \"South Florida 's first and perhaps most enthusiastic naturalist was Charles <unk> Simpson , who retired from the Smithsonian Institution to Miami in 1905 when he was 53 .\",\n \"Nicknamed \\\" the Sage of Biscayne Bay \\\" , Simpson wrote several books about tropical plant life around Miami .\",\n \"His backyard contained a tropical hardwood <unk> , which he estimated he showed to about 50 @,@ 000 people .\",\n \"Though he tended to avoid controversy regarding development , in <unk> <unk> in Florida he wrote , \\\" <unk> everywhere has an insane desire to waste and destroy the good and beautiful things this nature has lavished upon him \\\" .\",\n \"Although the idea of protecting a portion of the Everglades arose in 1905 , a <unk> effort was formed in 1928 when Miami landscape designer Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association .\",\n \"It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934 , but there was not enough money during the Great Depression to buy the proposed 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 km2 ) for the park .\",\n \"It took another 13 years for it to be dedicated on December 6 , 1947 .\",\n \"One month before the dedication of the park , the former editor of The Miami Herald and freelance writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas published her first book , The Everglades : River of Grass .\",\n \"After researching the region for five years , she described the history and ecology of the south of Florida in great detail , characterizing the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp .\",\n \"Douglas later wrote , \\\" My colleague Art Marshall said that with [ the words \\\" River of Grass \\\" ] I changed everybody 's knowledge and educated the world as to what the Everglades meant \\\" .\",\n \"The last chapter was titled \\\" The <unk> Hour \\\" and warned that the Everglades were approaching death , although the course could be reversed .\",\n \"Its first printing sold out a month after its release .\",\n \"= = Flood control = = \\n \\n <unk> with the dedication of Everglades National Park , 1947 in south Florida saw two hurricanes and a wet season responsible for 100 inches ( 250 cm ) of rain , ending the decade @-@ long drought .\",\n \"Although there were no human casualties , cattle and deer were drowned and standing water was left in suburban areas for months .\",\n \"Agricultural interests lost about $ 59 million .\",\n \"The embattled head of the Everglades Drainage District carried a gun for protection after being threatened .\",\n \"= = = Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project = = = \\n \\n In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other <unk> ( C & SF ) and consolidated the Everglades Drainage District and the Okeechobee Flood Control District under this .\",\n \"The C & SF used four methods in flood management : levees , water storage areas , canal improvements , and large pumps to assist gravity .\",\n \"Between 1952 and 1954 in cooperation with the state of Florida it built a levee 100 miles ( 160 km ) long between the eastern Everglades and suburbs from Palm Beach to <unk> , and blocked the flow of water into populated areas .\",\n \"Between 1954 and 1963 it divided the Everglades into basins .\",\n \"In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas ( WCAs ) , and the Everglades Agricultural Area ( EAA ) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee .\",\n \"In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park .\",\n \"<unk> and pumping stations bordered each WCA , which released water in drier times and removed it and pumped it to the ocean or Gulf of Mexico in times of flood .\",\n \"The WCAs took up about 37 percent of the original Everglades .\",\n \"During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation .\",\n \"Between 1940 and 1965 , 6 million people moved to south Florida : 1 @,@ 000 people moved to Miami every week .\",\n \"Urban development between the mid @-@ 1950s and the late 1960s <unk> .\",\n \"Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas .\",\n \"With metropolitan growth came urban problems associated with rapid expansion : traffic jams ; school overcrowding ; crime ; <unk> sewage treatment plants ; and , for the first time in south Florida 's urban history , water shortages in times of drought .\",\n \"The C & SF constructed over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of canals , and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades .\",\n \"It produced a film , Waters of Destiny , characterized by author Michael <unk> as propaganda , that likened nature to a villainous , <unk> force of rage and declared the C & SF 's mission was to tame nature and make the Everglades useful .\",\n \"Everglades National Park management and Marjory Stoneman Douglas initially supported the C & SF , as it promised to maintain the Everglades and manage the water <unk> .\",\n \"However , an early report by the project reflected local attitudes about the Everglades as a priority to people in nearby developed areas : \\\" The aesthetic appeal of the Park can never be as strong as the demands of home and livelihood .\",\n \"The <unk> and the <unk> mean something to people in an abstract way , but the former cannot line their <unk> , nor the latter fill their empty <unk> . \\\"\",\n \"Establishment of the C & SF made Everglades National Park completely dependent upon another political entity for its survival .\",\n \"One of the C & SF 's projects was Levee 29 , laid along the Tamiami Trail on the northern border of the park .\",\n \"Levee 29 featured four flood control gates that controlled all the water entering Everglades National Park ; before construction , water flowed in through open drain pipes .\",\n \"The period from 1962 to 1965 was one of drought for the Everglades , and Levee 29 remained closed to allow the Biscayne <unk> — the fresh water source for South Florida — to stay filled .\",\n \"Animals began to cross Tamiami Trail for the water held in WCA 3 , and many were killed by cars .\",\n \"<unk> estimate the population of alligators in Everglades National Park was <unk> ; otters nearly became extinct .\",\n \"The populations of wading birds had been reduced by 90 percent from the 1940s .\",\n \"When park management and the U.S. Department of the Interior asked the C & SF for assistance , the C & SF offered to build a levee along the southern border of Everglades National Park to retain waters that historically flowed through the <unk> and into Florida Bay .\",\n \"Though the C & SF refused to send the park more water , they constructed Canal 67 , bordering the east side of the park and carrying excess water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic .\",\n \"= = = Everglades Agricultural Area = = = \\n \\n The C & SF established 470 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 900 km2 ) for the Everglades Agricultural Area — 27 percent of the Everglades before development .\",\n \"In the late 1920s , agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of <unk> sulfate to Everglades muck produced profitable vegetable <unk> .\",\n \"Adding 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of the compound was more cost effective than adding 1 short ton ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 91 t ) of <unk> .\",\n \"The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane , though sod , beans , <unk> , <unk> , and rice are also grown .\",\n \"Sugarcane became more consolidated an industry than did any other crop ; in 1940 the coalition of farms was renamed U.S. Sugar and this produced 86 percent of Everglades sugar .\",\n \"During the 1930s the sugarcane farmers ' coalition came under investigation for labor practices that bordered on slavery .\",\n \"Potential employees — primarily young black men — were lured from all over the U.S. by the promise of jobs , but they were held financially responsible for training , transportation , room and board and other costs .\",\n \"<unk> while debts were owed was punishable with jail time .\",\n \"By 1942 , U.S. Sugar was indicted for <unk> in federal court , though the charges were eventually dismissed on a <unk> .\",\n \"U.S. Sugar benefited significantly from the U.S. embargo on Cuban goods beginning in the early 1960s .\",\n \"In 1958 , before the Castro regime , 47 @,@ 000 acres ( 190 km2 ) of sugarcane were harvested in Florida ; by the 1964 – 1965 season , 228 @,@ 000 acres ( 920 km2 ) were harvested .\",\n \"From 1959 to 1962 the region went from two sugar mills to six , one of which in Belle Glade set several world records for sugar production .\",\n \"Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres ( 16 ha ) , on two sides bordered by canals that are connected to larger ones by which water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops .\",\n \"The water level for sugarcane is ideally maintained at 20 inches ( 51 cm ) below the surface soil , and after the cane is harvested , the stalks are burned .\",\n \"<unk> require more <unk> than sugarcane , though the fields may resemble the historic hydrology of the Everglades by being flooded in the wet season .\",\n \"Sugarcane , however , requires water in the dry season .\",\n \"The fertilizers used on vegetables , along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the by @-@ product of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production , were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA , predominantly to Everglades National Park .\",\n \"The introduction of large amounts of these let exotic plants take hold in the Everglades .\",\n \"One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient @-@ poor environment , and the introduction of fertilizers began to change this ecology .\",\n \"= = Turning point = = \\n \\n A turning point for development in the Everglades came in 1969 when a replacement airport was proposed as Miami International Airport <unk> its capacities .\",\n \"Developers began acquiring land , paying $ 180 an acre in 1968 , and the Dade County Port Authority ( DCPA ) bought 39 square miles ( 100 km2 ) in the Big <unk> Swamp without consulting the C & SF , management of Everglades National Park or the Department of the Interior .\",\n \"Park management learned of the official purchase and agreement to build the jetport from The Miami Herald the day it was announced .\",\n \"The DCPA <unk> the land it had bought , and laid a single runway it declared was for training pilots .\",\n \"The new jetport was planned to be larger than O <unk> , <unk> , JFK , and <unk> airports combined ; the location chosen was 6 miles ( 9 @.\",\n \"@ 7 km ) north of the Everglades National Park , within WCA 3 .\",\n \"The deputy director of the DCPA declared : \\\" This is going to be one of the great population centers of America .\",\n \"We will do our best to meet our responsibilities and the responsibilities of all men to exercise dominion over the land , sea , and air above us as the higher order of man intends . \\\"\",\n \"The C & SF brought the jetport proposal to national attention by mailing letters about it to 100 conservation groups in the U.S.\",\n \"Initial local press reaction condemned conservation groups who immediately opposed the project .\",\n \"Business Week reported real estate prices jumped from $ 200 to $ 800 an acre surrounding the planned location , and Life wrote of the expectations of the commercial interests in the area .\",\n \"The U.S. Geological Survey 's study of the environmental impact of the jetport started , \\\" Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will <unk> destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park \\\" .\",\n \"The jetport was intended to support a community of a million people and employ 60 @,@ 000 .\",\n \"The DCPA director was reported in Time saying , \\\" I 'm more interested in people than alligators .\",\n \"This is the ideal place as far as aviation is concerned . \\\"\",\n \"When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of raw sewage a day and 10 @,@ 000 short tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) of jet engine <unk> a year , the national media snapped to attention .\",\n \"Science magazine wrote , in a series on environmental protection highlighting the jetport project , \\\" Environmental scientists have become increasingly aware that , without careful planning , development of a region and the conservation of its natural resources do not go hand in hand \\\" .\",\n \"The New York Times called it a \\\" <unk> for disaster \\\" , and Wisconsin senator <unk> Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition : \\\" It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment . \\\"\",\n \"Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project , and the 78 @-@ year @-@ old Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it .\",\n \"She established Friends of the Everglades and encouraged more than 3 @,@ 000 members to join .\",\n \"Initially the U.S. Department of Transportation pledged funds to support the jetport , but after pressure , Nixon overruled the department .\",\n \"He instead established Big <unk> National Preserve , announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress <unk> the 1972 Environmental Program .\",\n \"Following the jetport proposition , restoration of the Everglades became not only a <unk> priority , but an international one as well .\",\n \"In the 1970s the Everglades were declared an International <unk> Reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO , and a <unk> of International Importance by the <unk> Convention , making it one of only three locations on earth that have appeared on all three lists .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":88,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = DuMont Television Network = \n \n The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) <unk> / <unk> / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , <unk> NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA .","It began operation in the United States in 1946 .","It was owned by DuMont Laboratories , a television equipment and set manufacturer .","The network was hindered by the <unk> cost of broadcasting , by regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) which restricted the company 's growth , and even by the company 's partner , Paramount Pictures .","Despite several innovations in broadcasting and the creation of one of television 's biggest stars of the 1950s ( Jackie Gleason ) , the network never found itself on solid financial ground .","Forced to expand on UHF channels during an era when UHF was not yet a standard feature on television sets , DuMont fought an uphill battle for program clearances outside of their three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations in New York , Washington and Pittsburgh , finally ending network operations in 1956 .","DuMont 's latter @-@ day obscurity , caused mainly by the destruction of its extensive program archive by the 1970s , has prompted TV historian David Weinstein to refer to it as the \" Forgotten Network \" or \" Network Is Long Gone \" .","A few popular DuMont programs , such as Cavalcade of Stars and Emmy Award winner Life Is Worth Living , appear in television <unk> or are mentioned briefly in books about U.S. television history .","= = History = = \n \n \n = = = Origins = = = \n \n DuMont Laboratories was founded in 1931 by Dr. Allen B. DuMont with only $ 1 @,@ 000 , and a laboratory in his basement .","He and his staff were responsible for many early technical innovations , including the first consumer all @-@ electronic television set in 1938 .","The company 's television sets soon became the gold standard of the industry .","In 1942 , DuMont worked with the Army in developing radar technology during World War II .","This ended up bringing in $ 5 million in capital for the company .","Early sales of television sets were hampered by the lack of regularly scheduled programming being broadcast .","A few months after selling his first set in 1938 , DuMont opened his own New York area experimental television station ( <unk> ) in <unk> , New Jersey .","In 1940 , the station moved to Manhattan as <unk> on channel 4 .","Unlike CBS and NBC , which reduced their hours of television broadcasting during World War II , DuMont continued full @-@ scale experimental and commercial broadcasts throughout the war .","In 1944 , <unk> became WABD ( <unk> derived from DuMont 's initials ) moving to channel 5 in 1945 , the third commercial television station in New York .","On May 19 , 1945 , DuMont opened experimental W3XWT in Washington , DC .","A minority shareholder in DuMont Laboratories was Paramount Pictures , which had advanced $ 400 @,@ 000 in 1939 for a 40 % share in the company .","Paramount had television interests of its own , having launched experimental stations in Los Angeles in 1939 and Chicago in 1940 , and DuMont 's association with Paramount ultimately proved to be a mistake .","Soon after his experimental Washington station signed on , DuMont began experimental coaxial cable <unk> between his laboratories in <unk> , New Jersey , and his two stations .","It is said that one of those broadcasts on the <unk> announced that the U.S. had dropped an atomic bomb on <unk> , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 .","This was later considered to be the official beginning of the DuMont Network by both Thomas T. Goldsmith , the network 's chief engineer and DuMont 's best friend , and DuMont himself .","Regular network service began on August 15 , 1946 , on WABD and W3XWT .","In 1947 , W3XWT became WTTG , named after Goldsmith .","The pair were joined in 1949 by WDTV ( channel 3 ) in Pittsburgh .","Although NBC in New York was known to have station @-@ to @-@ station television links as early as 1940 with <unk> ( now <unk> ) in Philadelphia and <unk> <unk> , NY , DuMont received its station licenses before NBC resumed its previously sporadic network broadcasts after the war .","ABC had just come into existence as a radio network in 1943 and did not enter network television until 1948 , when it signed on a flagship station in New York City , <unk> @-@ TV ( now <unk> @-@ TV ) .","CBS also waited until 1948 to begin network operations because it was waiting for the Federal Communications Commission to approve its color television system ( which it eventually did not ) .","Other companies – including <unk> , the Yankee Network , and Paramount itself – were interested in starting television networks , but were prevented from successfully doing so by restrictive FCC regulations ; however , at least the Paramount Television Network actually did have some limited success in network operations in the late 1940s and early 1950s .","= = = Programming = = = \n \n Despite no history of radio programming or stable of radio stars to draw on and perennial cash shortages , DuMont was an innovative and creative network .","Without the radio revenues that supported mighty NBC and CBS , DuMont <unk> relied on their <unk> and on connections with Broadway .","Eventually , the network provided original programs that are remembered more than 60 years later .","The network largely ignored the standard business model of 1950s TV , in which one <unk> sponsored an entire show , enabling it to have complete control over its content .","Instead , DuMont sold commercials to many different advertisers , freeing producers of its shows from the veto power held by sole sponsors .","This eventually became the standard model for US television .","Some commercial time was sold regionally on a co @-@ op basis , while other spots were sold network @-@ wide .","DuMont also holds another important place in American TV history .","WDTV 's sign @-@ on made it possible for stations in the Midwest to receive live network programming from stations on the East Coast , and vice versa .","Before then , the networks relied on separate regional networks in the two time zones for live programming , and the West Coast received network programming from kinescopes ( films shot directly from live television screens ) originating from the East Coast .","On January 11 , 1949 , the coaxial cable linking East and Midwest ( known in television circles as \" the Golden Spike , \" in reference to the Golden spike that united the First Transcontinental Railroad ) was activated .","The ceremony , hosted by DuMont and WDTV , was carried on all four networks .","<unk> @-@ TV ( channel 9 ) in Chicago and WABD in New York were able to share programs through a live coaxial cable feed when WDTV signed on in Pittsburgh , because the station completed the East Coast @-@ to @-@ Midwest chain , allowing stations in both regions to air the same program simultaneously , which is still the standard for US TV .","It was another two years before the West Coast got live programming from the East ( and the East able to get live programming from the West ) , but this was the beginning of the modern era of network television .","The first broadcasts came from DuMont 's 515 Madison Avenue headquarters , and it soon found additional space , including a fully functioning theater , in the New York branch of <unk> 's department store at <unk> Street and Broadway .","Later , a lease on the Adelphi Theatre on 54th Street and the Ambassador Theatre on West 49th Street gave the network a site for variety shows , and in 1954 , the lavish DuMont <unk> @-@ Centre opened in the former Jacob Ruppert 's Central Opera House at 205 East 67th Street .","DuMont was the first network to broadcast a film production for TV : Talk Fast , <unk> , produced by RKO in 1944 .","DuMont also aired the first TV situation comedy , Mary Kay and Johnny , as well as the first network @-@ televised soap opera , <unk> Hill .","Cavalcade of Stars , a variety show hosted by Jackie Gleason , was the birthplace of The Honeymooners ( Gleason took his variety show to CBS in 1952 , but filmed the \" Classic 39 \" Honeymooners episodes at DuMont 's Adelphi Theater studio in 1955 @-@ 56 ) .","Bishop Fulton J. Sheen 's devotional program Life Is Worth Living went up against Milton Berle in many cities , and was the first show to compete successfully in the ratings against \" Mr. Television \" .","In 1952 , Sheen won an Emmy Award for \" Most Outstanding Personality \" .","The network 's other notable programs include : \n Ted Mack 's The Original Amateur Hour , which began on radio in the 1930s under original host Edward Bowes \n The Morey Amsterdam Show , a comedy / variety show hosted by Morey Amsterdam , which started on CBS before moving to DuMont in 1949 \n Captain Video and His Video Rangers , a hugely popular kids ' science fiction series \n The Arthur Murray Party , a dance program \n Down You Go , a popular panel show \n Rocky King , Inside Detective , a private eye series starring <unk> <unk> \n The <unk> , a camera 's @-@ eye @-@ view detective series \n Live coverage of boxing and professional wrestling , the latter featuring matches staged by the Capitol Wrestling Corporation , the predecessor to WWE \n The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a Peabody Award @-@ winning education program \n Cash and Carry , the first network @-@ televised game show \n The Ernie Kovacs Show , the first truly innovative show in what was then visual radio , not television .","The network was a pioneer in TV programming aimed at minority audiences and featuring minority performers , at a time when the other American networks aired few television series for non @-@ whites .","Among DuMont 's minority programs were The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ <unk> , starring Asian American film actress Anna May <unk> , the first US TV show to star an Asian American , and The Hazel Scott Show , starring pianist and singer Hazel Scott , the first US network TV series to be hosted by a black woman .","Although DuMont 's programming pre @-@ dated videotape , many DuMont offerings were recorded on kinescopes .","These kinescopes were said to be stored in a warehouse until the 1970s .","Actress Edie Adams , the wife of comedian Ernie Kovacs ( both regular performers on early television ) testified in 1996 before a panel of the Library of Congress on the preservation of television and video .","Adams claimed that so little value was given to these films that the stored kinescopes were loaded into three trucks and dumped into Upper New York Bay .","Nevertheless , a number of DuMont programs survive at The Paley Center for Media in New York City , the UCLA Film and Television Archive in Los Angeles , in the Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia , and the Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago .","Although nearly the entire DuMont film archive was destroyed , several surviving DuMont shows have been released on DVD .","A large number of episodes of Life Is Worth Living have been saved , and they are now aired weekly on Catholic @-@ oriented cable network , the <unk> Word Television Network , which also makes a collection of them available on DVD ( in the biographical information about Fulton J. Sheen added to the end of many episodes , a still image of Bishop Sheen looking into a DuMont Television camera can be seen ) .","Several companies that distribute DVDs over the Internet have released a small number of episodes of Cavalcade of Stars and The Morey Amsterdam Show .","Two more DuMont programs , Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Rocky King , Inside Detective , have had a small amount of surviving episodes released commercially by at least one major distributor of public domain programming .","= = = = Awards = = = = \n \n DuMont programs were by necessity low @-@ budget affairs , and the network received relatively few awards from the TV industry .","Most awards during the 1950s went to NBC and CBS , who were able to out @-@ spend other companies and draw on their extensive history of radio broadcasting in the relatively new television medium .","DuMont , however , did win a number of awards during its years of operation .","During the 1952 – 53 TV season , Bishop Fulton J. Sheen , host of Life Is Worth Living , won an Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Personality .","Sheen beat out CBS 's Arthur Godfrey , Edward R. <unk> and Lucille Ball , who were also nominated for the same award .","Sheen was also nominated for – but did not win – consecutive Public Service <unk> in 1952 , 1953 , and 1954 .","DuMont received an Emmy nomination for Down You Go , a popular game show during the 1952 – 53 television season ( in the category Best <unk> <unk> , <unk> , or Panel Program ) .","The network was nominated twice for its coverage of professional football during the 1953 – 54 and 1954 – 55 television seasons .","The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a DuMont public affairs program , was awarded a Peabody Award in 1952 in the Education category .","Sheen 's Emmy and the Science Review Peabody were the only national awards the DuMont Network received .","Though DuMont series and performers continued to win local TV awards , by the mid @-@ 1950s the DuMont network no longer had a national presence .","= = = = Ratings = = = = \n \n The earliest measurements of TV audiences were performed by the C. E. Hooper company of New York .","DuMont performed well in the Hooper ratings ; in fact , DuMont 's talent program , The Original Amateur Hour , was the most popular series of the 1947 – 48 season .","Variety ranked DuMont 's popular variety series Cavalcade of Stars as the tenth most popular series two seasons later .","In February 1950 , Hooper 's competitor A. C. Nielsen bought out the <unk> system .","DuMont did not fare well with the change : none of its shows appeared on Nielsen 's annual top 20 lists of the most popular series .","One of the DuMont Network 's biggest hits of the 1950s , Life is Worth Living , received Nielsen ratings of up to 11 @.","@ 1 , attracting more than 10 million viewers .","Sheen 's one @-@ man program – in which he discussed philosophy , psychology and other fields of thought from a Christian perspective – was the most widely viewed religious series in the history of television .","169 local television stations aired Life , and for three years the program competed successfully against NBC 's popular The Milton Berle Show .","The ABC and CBS programs which aired in the same timeslot were cancelled .","Life is Worth Living was not the only DuMont program to achieve double @-@ digit ratings .","In 1952 , Time magazine reported that popular DuMont game show Down You Go had attracted an audience estimated at 16 million viewers .","Similarly , DuMont 's summer 1954 replacement series , The <unk> , achieved audiences estimated at 10 million .","Still , these series were only moderately popular compared to NBC 's and CBS 's highest @-@ rated programs .","Nielsen was not the only company to report TV ratings , however .","Companies such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> had also measured TV viewership .","The adjacent chart comes from <unk> 's August 1950 ratings breakdown , as reported in Billboard magazine .","= = = <unk> with AT & T and Paramount = = = \n \n DuMont struggled to get its programs aired in many parts of the country , in part due to technical limitations of network lines maintained by the telephone company AT & T Corporation .","During the 1940s and 1950s , television signals were sent between stations via coaxial cable and <unk> links which were owned by AT & T. The service provider did not have enough cable lines and <unk> circuits to provide signal relay service from all four networks to all of their affiliates at the same time , so AT & T allocated times when each network could offer live programs to their affiliates .","In 1950 , AT & T allotted NBC and CBS each over 100 hours of live prime time network service , but gave ABC only 53 hours , and DuMont just 37 .","AT & T also required each television network to lease both radio and television lines .","DuMont was the only television network without a radio network , but was forced to pay for a service it did not use .","DuMont protested AT & T 's actions with the Federal Communications Commission , and eventually received a compromise .","DuMont 's biggest corporate hurdle , however , may have been with the company 's own partner , Paramount .","Relations between the two companies were strained as early as 1939 , when Paramount opened experimental television stations in Los Angeles and Chicago without DuMont .","Dr. DuMont claimed that the original 1937 acquisition proposal required Paramount to expand its television interests \" through DuMont \" .","Paramount representative Paul <unk> , who also was a member of DuMont 's board of directors , denied that any such restriction had ever been discussed ( Dr. DuMont was vindicated on this point by a 1953 examination of the original draft document ) .","DuMont aspired to grow beyond its three stations , applying for new television station licenses in Cincinnati and Cleveland in 1947 .","This would give the network five owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( O & Os ) , the maximum allowed by the FCC at the time .","However , DuMont was hampered by Paramount 's two stations , <unk> ( channel 5 ) in Los Angeles and <unk> ( channel 4 , now <unk> @-@ TV on channel 2 ) in Chicago – the descendants of the two experimental stations that rankled DuMont in 1940 .","Although these stations never carried DuMont programming ( with the exception of <unk> for one year from 1947 to 1948 ) , and in fact competed against DuMont 's affiliates in those cities , the FCC ruled that Paramount essentially controlled DuMont , which effectively placed the network at the five @-@ station cap .","Paramount 's exertion of influence over the network 's management and the power of its voting stock brought the FCC to its conclusion .","Thus , DuMont was unable to open additional stations as long as Paramount owned stations or owned a portion of DuMont .","Paramount refused to sell .","In 1949 , Paramount Pictures launched the Paramount Television Network , a service which provided local television stations with filmed television programs ; Paramount 's network \" undercut the company that it had invested in . \"","Paramount did not share its stars , big budgets or filmed programs with DuMont ; the company had stopped financially supporting DuMont in 1941 .","Although Paramount executives indicated they would produce programs for DuMont , the studio never supplied the network with programs or technical assistance .","The <unk> relationship between Paramount and DuMont came to a head during the 1953 FCC hearings regarding the ABC – United Paramount Theaters merger when Paul <unk> , an executive at Paramount , publicly derided the quality of DuMont television sets in court testimony .","= = = Trouble from the start = = = \n \n DuMont began with one basic disadvantage : unlike NBC , CBS and ABC , it did not have a radio network from which to draw big @-@ name talent , affiliate loyalty or radio profits to <unk> television operations until the television medium itself became profitable .","Most early television licenses were granted to established radio broadcasters , and many longtime relationships with radio networks carried over to the new medium .","As CBS and NBC ( and to a lesser extent , ABC ) gained their footing , they began to offer programming that drew on their radio backgrounds , bringing over the most popular radio stars .","Early television station owners , when deciding which network would receive their main affiliation , were more likely to choose CBS 's roster of Lucille Ball , Jack Benny and Ed Sullivan , or NBC 's lineup of Milton Berle and Sid Caesar over DuMont , which offered a then @-@ unknown Jackie Gleason and Bishop Fulton J. Sheen .","In smaller markets , with a limited number of stations , DuMont and ABC were often relegated to secondary status , so their programs got clearance only if the primary network was off the air or delayed via <unk> recording ( \" <unk> \" in DuMont <unk> ) .","Adding to DuMont 's troubles was the FCC 's 1948 \" freeze \" on television license applications .","This was done to sort out the thousands of applications that had come streaming in , but also to rethink the allocation and technical standards laid down prior to World War II .","It became clear soon after the war that 12 channels ( \" channel 1 \" had been removed from television broadcasting use because storms and other types of interference could severely affect the quality of signals on this channel ) were not nearly enough for national television service .","What was to be a six @-@ month freeze lasted until 1952 , when the FCC opened the UHF spectrum .","The FCC , however , did not require television manufacturers to include UHF capability .","In order to see UHF stations , most people had to buy an expensive <unk> .","Even then , the picture quality was marginal at best .","<unk> to this was a decision to restrict VHF <unk> in <unk> and smaller @-@ sized markets .","Television sets were not required to have all @-@ channel tuning until 1964 .","Forced to rely on UHF to expand , DuMont saw one station after another go dark due to <unk> ratings .","It bought small , distressed UHF station <unk> ( channel 50 ) in Kansas City , Missouri in 1954 , but ran it for just three months before shutting it down at a considerable loss after attempting to compete with three established VHF stations .","The FCC 's Dr. Hyman <unk> said in 1960 , \" If there had been four VHF outlets in the top markets , there 's no question DuMont would have lived and would have eventually turned the corner in terms of profitability . \"","= = = The end = = = \n \n During the early years of television , there was some measure of cooperation among the four major U.S. television networks .","However , as television grew into a profitable business , an intense rivalry developed between the networks , just as it had in radio .","NBC and CBS competed fiercely for viewers and advertising dollars , a contest neither <unk> DuMont nor ABC could hope to win .","According to author Dennis <unk> , \" NBC tried to make an arrangement with ABC and CBS to destroy the DuMont network . \"","The plan was for NBC and CBS to exclusively offer ABC their most popular series after they had aired on the bigger networks .","ABC would become a network of re @-@ runs , but DuMont would be shut out .","ABC president Leonard Goldenson rejected NBC executive David <unk> 's proposal , but \" did not report it to the Justice Department \" .","DuMont survived the early 1950s only because of WDTV in Pittsburgh , the lone commercial VHF station in what was then the sixth @-@ largest market .","WDTV 's only competition came from UHF stations and distant stations from <unk> , Pennsylvania ; <unk> , Ohio ; and <unk> , West Virginia .","No other commercial VHF station signed on in Pittsburgh until 1957 , giving WDTV a de facto monopoly on television in the area .","Since WDTV carried secondary affiliations with the other three networks , DuMont used this as a <unk> chip to get its programs cleared in other large markets .","Despite its severe financial <unk> , by 1953 , DuMont appeared to be on its way to establishing itself as the third national network .","DuMont programs aired live on 16 stations , but it could count on only seven primary stations – its three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( \" O & Os \" ) , plus <unk> @-@ TV in Chicago , <unk> ( channel 11 ) in Los Angeles , <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 2 , now <unk> @-@ TV ) in Denver and <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 6 , now <unk> ) in Columbus , Ohio .","In contrast , ABC had a full complement of five O & Os , augmented by nine primary affiliates .","ABC also had a radio network ( it was descended from NBC 's Blue Network ) from which to draw talent , affiliate loyalty and a profit stream to subsidize television operations .","However , ABC had only 14 primary stations , while CBS and NBC had over 40 each .","By 1951 , ABC was badly <unk> and on the verge of bankruptcy .","That year , the company announced a merger with United Paramount Theaters ( the former theater division of Paramount Pictures , which was spun off as a result of the United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc. <unk> decision ) , but it was not until 1953 that the FCC approved the merger .","By this time , DuMont had begun to differentiate itself from NBC and CBS .","It allowed its advertisers to choose the locations where their advertising ran , potentially saving them millions of dollars .","By contrast , ABC operated like CBS and NBC even though it was only a fourth as large , forcing advertisers to purchase a large \" must @-@ buy \" list of stations .","ABC 's fortunes were dramatically altered in February 1953 , when the FCC cleared the way for UPT to buy the network .","The merger provided ABC with a badly needed cash infusion , giving it the resources to mount \" top shelf \" programming and to provide a national television service on a scale approaching that of CBS and NBC .","Through UPT president Leonard Goldenson , ABC also gained ties with the Hollywood studios that more than matched those DuMont 's producers had with Broadway .","Realizing that the ABC @-@ UPT deal put DuMont near extinction , network officials were receptive to a merger offer from ABC .","Goldenson quickly brokered a deal with Ted Bergmann , DuMont 's managing director , under which the merged network would have been called \" ABC @-@ DuMont \" until at least 1958 and would have honored all of DuMont 's network commitments .","In return , DuMont would get $ 5 million in cash , guaranteed advertising time for DuMont sets and a secure future for its staff .","A merged ABC @-@ DuMont would have been a <unk> <unk> CBS and NBC , as it would have owned stations in five of the six largest U.S. television markets ( excluding only Philadelphia ) as well as ABC 's radio network .","It also would have inherited DuMont 's de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , and would have been one of two networks to have full ownership of a station in the nation 's capital ( the other being NBC ) .","However , it would have had to sell a New York station – either DuMont 's WABD or ABC flagship <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 7 , now <unk> @-@ TV ) , probably the former .","It also would have had to sell two other stations – most likely ABC 's two smallest O & Os , <unk> @-@ TV in Detroit and <unk> @-@ TV in San Francisco ( both broadcasting on channel 7 ) – to get under the FCC 's limit of five stations per owner .","However , Paramount vetoed the plan almost out of hand due to <unk> concerns .","A few months earlier , the FCC had ruled that Paramount controlled DuMont , and there were still some questions about whether UPT had really separated from Paramount .","With no other way to readily obtain cash , DuMont sold WDTV to Westinghouse Electric Corporation for $ 9 @.","@ 75 million in late 1954 .","While this gave DuMont a short @-@ term cash infusion , it eliminated the leverage the network had to get program clearances in other markets .","Without its de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , the company 's advertising revenue shrank to less than half that of 1953 .","By February 1955 , DuMont executives realized the company could not continue as a television network .","The decision was made to shut down network operations and operate WABD and WTTG as independent stations .","On April 1 , 1955 , most of DuMont 's entertainment programs were dropped .","Bishop Sheen aired his last program on DuMont on April 26 and later moved to ABC .","By May , just eight programs were left on the network , with only inexpensive shows and sporting events keeping what was left of the network going through the summer .","The network also largely abandoned the use of the intercity network coaxial cable , on which it had spent $ 3 million in 1954 to transmit shows that mostly lacked station clearance .","The company only retained network links for live sports programming and utilizing the company 's <unk> process to produce studio @-@ based programming .","Ironically , <unk> is best remembered for being used by Jackie Gleason 's producers for the 39 @-@ half @-@ hour episodes of The Honeymooners that aired on CBS during the 1955 @-@ 56 television season .","In August , Paramount , with the help of other <unk> , seized full control of DuMont Laboratories .","The last non @-@ sports program on DuMont , the game show What 's the Story , aired on September 23 , 1955 .","After that , DuMont 's network feed was used only for occasional sporting events .","DuMont 's last broadcast , a boxing match , aired on August 6 , 1956 .","The date has also been reported as April 1950 , September 1955 , or August 4 , 1958 .","According to one source , the final program aired on only five stations nationwide .","It appears that the boxing show was syndicated to a few other east coast stations until 1958 , but likely not as a production of DuMont or its successor company .","DuMont spun off WABD and WTTG as the \" DuMont Broadcasting Corporation \" .","The name was later changed to \" Metropolitan Broadcasting Company \" to distance the company from what was seen as a complete failure .","In 1958 , John <unk> bought Paramount 's shares for $ 4 million , and renamed the company Metromedia in 1960 .","WABD became <unk> @-@ TV and later <unk> ; WTTG still broadcasts under its original call letters as a Fox affiliate .","For 50 years , DuMont was the only major broadcast television network to cease operations , until CBS Corporation and Time Warner shut down two other struggling networks , UPN and The WB , in September 2006 to create The CW Television Network – whose schedule was originally composed largely of programs from both of its predecessor networks .","= = Fate of the DuMont stations = = \n \n All three DuMont @-@ owned stations are still operating and <unk> , all three are owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations of their respective networks , just as when they were part of DuMont .","Of the three , only Washington 's WTTG still has its original call letters .","WTTG and New York 's WABD ( later <unk> @-@ TV , and now <unk> ) survived as Metromedia @-@ owned <unk> until 1986 , when Metromedia was purchased by the News Corporation to form the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company .","Clarke Ingram , who maintained a DuMont memorial site , has suggested that Fox can be considered a revival , or at least a linear descendant , of DuMont .","Westinghouse changed WDTV 's call letters to <unk> @-@ TV after the pioneering radio station of the same name , and switched its primary affiliation to CBS immediately after the sale .","Westinghouse 's acquisition of CBS in 1995 made <unk> @-@ TV a CBS owned @-@ and @-@ operated station .","= = DuMont programming library = = \n \n DuMont produced more than 20 @,@ 000 television episodes during the decade from 1946 to 1956 .","Because the shows were created prior to the launch of <unk> 's electronic videotape recorder in late 1956 , all of them were initially broadcast live in black and white , then recorded on film <unk> for <unk> and for West Coast <unk> .","By the early 1970s , their vast library of 35mm and <unk> kinescopes eventually wound up in the hands of \" a successor network , \" who reportedly disposed of all of them in New York City 's East River to make room for more recent @-@ vintage <unk> in a warehouse .","Other kinescopes were put through a silver <unk> process , because of the microscopic amounts of silver that made up the <unk> of black @-@ and @-@ white film during this time .","It is estimated that only about 350 complete DuMont television shows survive today , the most famous being virtually all of Jackie Gleason 's Honeymooners comedy sketches .","Most of the existing episodes are believed to have come from the personal archives of DuMont 's hosts , such as Gleason and Dennis James .","= = <unk> = = \n \n At its peak in 1954 , DuMont was affiliated with around 200 television stations .","In those days , television stations were free to \" cherry @-@ pick \" which programs they would air , and many stations affiliated with multiple networks , depending mainly on the number of commercial television stations available in a market at a given time ( markets where only one commercial station was available carried programming from all four major networks ) .","Many of DuMont 's \" affiliates \" carried very little DuMont programming , choosing to air one or two more popular programs ( such as Life Is Worth Living ) and / or sports programming on the weekends .","Few stations carried the full DuMont program lineup .","In its later years , DuMont was carried mostly on poorly watched UHF channels or had only secondary affiliations on VHF stations .","DuMont ended most operations on April 1 , 1955 , but honored network commitments until August 1956 .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n <unk> of DuMont Network programs , from the Internet Archive : The Adventures of <unk> Queen , Captain Video and His Video Rangers , Cavalcade of Stars , Life Is Worth Living , Miss U.S. Television 1950 Contest , The Morey Amsterdam Show , The Old American Barn Dance , Okay Mother , On Your Way , Public Prosecutor , Rocky King — Detective , School House , They Stand <unk> and A DuMont Network identification"],"string":"[\n \" = DuMont Television Network = \\n \\n The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) <unk> / <unk> / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , <unk> NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA .\",\n \"It began operation in the United States in 1946 .\",\n \"It was owned by DuMont Laboratories , a television equipment and set manufacturer .\",\n \"The network was hindered by the <unk> cost of broadcasting , by regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) which restricted the company 's growth , and even by the company 's partner , Paramount Pictures .\",\n \"Despite several innovations in broadcasting and the creation of one of television 's biggest stars of the 1950s ( Jackie Gleason ) , the network never found itself on solid financial ground .\",\n \"Forced to expand on UHF channels during an era when UHF was not yet a standard feature on television sets , DuMont fought an uphill battle for program clearances outside of their three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations in New York , Washington and Pittsburgh , finally ending network operations in 1956 .\",\n \"DuMont 's latter @-@ day obscurity , caused mainly by the destruction of its extensive program archive by the 1970s , has prompted TV historian David Weinstein to refer to it as the \\\" Forgotten Network \\\" or \\\" Network Is Long Gone \\\" .\",\n \"A few popular DuMont programs , such as Cavalcade of Stars and Emmy Award winner Life Is Worth Living , appear in television <unk> or are mentioned briefly in books about U.S. television history .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Origins = = = \\n \\n DuMont Laboratories was founded in 1931 by Dr. Allen B. DuMont with only $ 1 @,@ 000 , and a laboratory in his basement .\",\n \"He and his staff were responsible for many early technical innovations , including the first consumer all @-@ electronic television set in 1938 .\",\n \"The company 's television sets soon became the gold standard of the industry .\",\n \"In 1942 , DuMont worked with the Army in developing radar technology during World War II .\",\n \"This ended up bringing in $ 5 million in capital for the company .\",\n \"Early sales of television sets were hampered by the lack of regularly scheduled programming being broadcast .\",\n \"A few months after selling his first set in 1938 , DuMont opened his own New York area experimental television station ( <unk> ) in <unk> , New Jersey .\",\n \"In 1940 , the station moved to Manhattan as <unk> on channel 4 .\",\n \"Unlike CBS and NBC , which reduced their hours of television broadcasting during World War II , DuMont continued full @-@ scale experimental and commercial broadcasts throughout the war .\",\n \"In 1944 , <unk> became WABD ( <unk> derived from DuMont 's initials ) moving to channel 5 in 1945 , the third commercial television station in New York .\",\n \"On May 19 , 1945 , DuMont opened experimental W3XWT in Washington , DC .\",\n \"A minority shareholder in DuMont Laboratories was Paramount Pictures , which had advanced $ 400 @,@ 000 in 1939 for a 40 % share in the company .\",\n \"Paramount had television interests of its own , having launched experimental stations in Los Angeles in 1939 and Chicago in 1940 , and DuMont 's association with Paramount ultimately proved to be a mistake .\",\n \"Soon after his experimental Washington station signed on , DuMont began experimental coaxial cable <unk> between his laboratories in <unk> , New Jersey , and his two stations .\",\n \"It is said that one of those broadcasts on the <unk> announced that the U.S. had dropped an atomic bomb on <unk> , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 .\",\n \"This was later considered to be the official beginning of the DuMont Network by both Thomas T. Goldsmith , the network 's chief engineer and DuMont 's best friend , and DuMont himself .\",\n \"Regular network service began on August 15 , 1946 , on WABD and W3XWT .\",\n \"In 1947 , W3XWT became WTTG , named after Goldsmith .\",\n \"The pair were joined in 1949 by WDTV ( channel 3 ) in Pittsburgh .\",\n \"Although NBC in New York was known to have station @-@ to @-@ station television links as early as 1940 with <unk> ( now <unk> ) in Philadelphia and <unk> <unk> , NY , DuMont received its station licenses before NBC resumed its previously sporadic network broadcasts after the war .\",\n \"ABC had just come into existence as a radio network in 1943 and did not enter network television until 1948 , when it signed on a flagship station in New York City , <unk> @-@ TV ( now <unk> @-@ TV ) .\",\n \"CBS also waited until 1948 to begin network operations because it was waiting for the Federal Communications Commission to approve its color television system ( which it eventually did not ) .\",\n \"Other companies – including <unk> , the Yankee Network , and Paramount itself – were interested in starting television networks , but were prevented from successfully doing so by restrictive FCC regulations ; however , at least the Paramount Television Network actually did have some limited success in network operations in the late 1940s and early 1950s .\",\n \"= = = Programming = = = \\n \\n Despite no history of radio programming or stable of radio stars to draw on and perennial cash shortages , DuMont was an innovative and creative network .\",\n \"Without the radio revenues that supported mighty NBC and CBS , DuMont <unk> relied on their <unk> and on connections with Broadway .\",\n \"Eventually , the network provided original programs that are remembered more than 60 years later .\",\n \"The network largely ignored the standard business model of 1950s TV , in which one <unk> sponsored an entire show , enabling it to have complete control over its content .\",\n \"Instead , DuMont sold commercials to many different advertisers , freeing producers of its shows from the veto power held by sole sponsors .\",\n \"This eventually became the standard model for US television .\",\n \"Some commercial time was sold regionally on a co @-@ op basis , while other spots were sold network @-@ wide .\",\n \"DuMont also holds another important place in American TV history .\",\n \"WDTV 's sign @-@ on made it possible for stations in the Midwest to receive live network programming from stations on the East Coast , and vice versa .\",\n \"Before then , the networks relied on separate regional networks in the two time zones for live programming , and the West Coast received network programming from kinescopes ( films shot directly from live television screens ) originating from the East Coast .\",\n \"On January 11 , 1949 , the coaxial cable linking East and Midwest ( known in television circles as \\\" the Golden Spike , \\\" in reference to the Golden spike that united the First Transcontinental Railroad ) was activated .\",\n \"The ceremony , hosted by DuMont and WDTV , was carried on all four networks .\",\n \"<unk> @-@ TV ( channel 9 ) in Chicago and WABD in New York were able to share programs through a live coaxial cable feed when WDTV signed on in Pittsburgh , because the station completed the East Coast @-@ to @-@ Midwest chain , allowing stations in both regions to air the same program simultaneously , which is still the standard for US TV .\",\n \"It was another two years before the West Coast got live programming from the East ( and the East able to get live programming from the West ) , but this was the beginning of the modern era of network television .\",\n \"The first broadcasts came from DuMont 's 515 Madison Avenue headquarters , and it soon found additional space , including a fully functioning theater , in the New York branch of <unk> 's department store at <unk> Street and Broadway .\",\n \"Later , a lease on the Adelphi Theatre on 54th Street and the Ambassador Theatre on West 49th Street gave the network a site for variety shows , and in 1954 , the lavish DuMont <unk> @-@ Centre opened in the former Jacob Ruppert 's Central Opera House at 205 East 67th Street .\",\n \"DuMont was the first network to broadcast a film production for TV : Talk Fast , <unk> , produced by RKO in 1944 .\",\n \"DuMont also aired the first TV situation comedy , Mary Kay and Johnny , as well as the first network @-@ televised soap opera , <unk> Hill .\",\n \"Cavalcade of Stars , a variety show hosted by Jackie Gleason , was the birthplace of The Honeymooners ( Gleason took his variety show to CBS in 1952 , but filmed the \\\" Classic 39 \\\" Honeymooners episodes at DuMont 's Adelphi Theater studio in 1955 @-@ 56 ) .\",\n \"Bishop Fulton J. Sheen 's devotional program Life Is Worth Living went up against Milton Berle in many cities , and was the first show to compete successfully in the ratings against \\\" Mr. Television \\\" .\",\n \"In 1952 , Sheen won an Emmy Award for \\\" Most Outstanding Personality \\\" .\",\n \"The network 's other notable programs include : \\n Ted Mack 's The Original Amateur Hour , which began on radio in the 1930s under original host Edward Bowes \\n The Morey Amsterdam Show , a comedy / variety show hosted by Morey Amsterdam , which started on CBS before moving to DuMont in 1949 \\n Captain Video and His Video Rangers , a hugely popular kids ' science fiction series \\n The Arthur Murray Party , a dance program \\n Down You Go , a popular panel show \\n Rocky King , Inside Detective , a private eye series starring <unk> <unk> \\n The <unk> , a camera 's @-@ eye @-@ view detective series \\n Live coverage of boxing and professional wrestling , the latter featuring matches staged by the Capitol Wrestling Corporation , the predecessor to WWE \\n The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a Peabody Award @-@ winning education program \\n Cash and Carry , the first network @-@ televised game show \\n The Ernie Kovacs Show , the first truly innovative show in what was then visual radio , not television .\",\n \"The network was a pioneer in TV programming aimed at minority audiences and featuring minority performers , at a time when the other American networks aired few television series for non @-@ whites .\",\n \"Among DuMont 's minority programs were The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ <unk> , starring Asian American film actress Anna May <unk> , the first US TV show to star an Asian American , and The Hazel Scott Show , starring pianist and singer Hazel Scott , the first US network TV series to be hosted by a black woman .\",\n \"Although DuMont 's programming pre @-@ dated videotape , many DuMont offerings were recorded on kinescopes .\",\n \"These kinescopes were said to be stored in a warehouse until the 1970s .\",\n \"Actress Edie Adams , the wife of comedian Ernie Kovacs ( both regular performers on early television ) testified in 1996 before a panel of the Library of Congress on the preservation of television and video .\",\n \"Adams claimed that so little value was given to these films that the stored kinescopes were loaded into three trucks and dumped into Upper New York Bay .\",\n \"Nevertheless , a number of DuMont programs survive at The Paley Center for Media in New York City , the UCLA Film and Television Archive in Los Angeles , in the Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia , and the Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago .\",\n \"Although nearly the entire DuMont film archive was destroyed , several surviving DuMont shows have been released on DVD .\",\n \"A large number of episodes of Life Is Worth Living have been saved , and they are now aired weekly on Catholic @-@ oriented cable network , the <unk> Word Television Network , which also makes a collection of them available on DVD ( in the biographical information about Fulton J. Sheen added to the end of many episodes , a still image of Bishop Sheen looking into a DuMont Television camera can be seen ) .\",\n \"Several companies that distribute DVDs over the Internet have released a small number of episodes of Cavalcade of Stars and The Morey Amsterdam Show .\",\n \"Two more DuMont programs , Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Rocky King , Inside Detective , have had a small amount of surviving episodes released commercially by at least one major distributor of public domain programming .\",\n \"= = = = Awards = = = = \\n \\n DuMont programs were by necessity low @-@ budget affairs , and the network received relatively few awards from the TV industry .\",\n \"Most awards during the 1950s went to NBC and CBS , who were able to out @-@ spend other companies and draw on their extensive history of radio broadcasting in the relatively new television medium .\",\n \"DuMont , however , did win a number of awards during its years of operation .\",\n \"During the 1952 – 53 TV season , Bishop Fulton J. Sheen , host of Life Is Worth Living , won an Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Personality .\",\n \"Sheen beat out CBS 's Arthur Godfrey , Edward R. <unk> and Lucille Ball , who were also nominated for the same award .\",\n \"Sheen was also nominated for – but did not win – consecutive Public Service <unk> in 1952 , 1953 , and 1954 .\",\n \"DuMont received an Emmy nomination for Down You Go , a popular game show during the 1952 – 53 television season ( in the category Best <unk> <unk> , <unk> , or Panel Program ) .\",\n \"The network was nominated twice for its coverage of professional football during the 1953 – 54 and 1954 – 55 television seasons .\",\n \"The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a DuMont public affairs program , was awarded a Peabody Award in 1952 in the Education category .\",\n \"Sheen 's Emmy and the Science Review Peabody were the only national awards the DuMont Network received .\",\n \"Though DuMont series and performers continued to win local TV awards , by the mid @-@ 1950s the DuMont network no longer had a national presence .\",\n \"= = = = Ratings = = = = \\n \\n The earliest measurements of TV audiences were performed by the C. E. Hooper company of New York .\",\n \"DuMont performed well in the Hooper ratings ; in fact , DuMont 's talent program , The Original Amateur Hour , was the most popular series of the 1947 – 48 season .\",\n \"Variety ranked DuMont 's popular variety series Cavalcade of Stars as the tenth most popular series two seasons later .\",\n \"In February 1950 , Hooper 's competitor A. C. Nielsen bought out the <unk> system .\",\n \"DuMont did not fare well with the change : none of its shows appeared on Nielsen 's annual top 20 lists of the most popular series .\",\n \"One of the DuMont Network 's biggest hits of the 1950s , Life is Worth Living , received Nielsen ratings of up to 11 @.\",\n \"@ 1 , attracting more than 10 million viewers .\",\n \"Sheen 's one @-@ man program – in which he discussed philosophy , psychology and other fields of thought from a Christian perspective – was the most widely viewed religious series in the history of television .\",\n \"169 local television stations aired Life , and for three years the program competed successfully against NBC 's popular The Milton Berle Show .\",\n \"The ABC and CBS programs which aired in the same timeslot were cancelled .\",\n \"Life is Worth Living was not the only DuMont program to achieve double @-@ digit ratings .\",\n \"In 1952 , Time magazine reported that popular DuMont game show Down You Go had attracted an audience estimated at 16 million viewers .\",\n \"Similarly , DuMont 's summer 1954 replacement series , The <unk> , achieved audiences estimated at 10 million .\",\n \"Still , these series were only moderately popular compared to NBC 's and CBS 's highest @-@ rated programs .\",\n \"Nielsen was not the only company to report TV ratings , however .\",\n \"Companies such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> had also measured TV viewership .\",\n \"The adjacent chart comes from <unk> 's August 1950 ratings breakdown , as reported in Billboard magazine .\",\n \"= = = <unk> with AT & T and Paramount = = = \\n \\n DuMont struggled to get its programs aired in many parts of the country , in part due to technical limitations of network lines maintained by the telephone company AT & T Corporation .\",\n \"During the 1940s and 1950s , television signals were sent between stations via coaxial cable and <unk> links which were owned by AT & T. The service provider did not have enough cable lines and <unk> circuits to provide signal relay service from all four networks to all of their affiliates at the same time , so AT & T allocated times when each network could offer live programs to their affiliates .\",\n \"In 1950 , AT & T allotted NBC and CBS each over 100 hours of live prime time network service , but gave ABC only 53 hours , and DuMont just 37 .\",\n \"AT & T also required each television network to lease both radio and television lines .\",\n \"DuMont was the only television network without a radio network , but was forced to pay for a service it did not use .\",\n \"DuMont protested AT & T 's actions with the Federal Communications Commission , and eventually received a compromise .\",\n \"DuMont 's biggest corporate hurdle , however , may have been with the company 's own partner , Paramount .\",\n \"Relations between the two companies were strained as early as 1939 , when Paramount opened experimental television stations in Los Angeles and Chicago without DuMont .\",\n \"Dr. DuMont claimed that the original 1937 acquisition proposal required Paramount to expand its television interests \\\" through DuMont \\\" .\",\n \"Paramount representative Paul <unk> , who also was a member of DuMont 's board of directors , denied that any such restriction had ever been discussed ( Dr. DuMont was vindicated on this point by a 1953 examination of the original draft document ) .\",\n \"DuMont aspired to grow beyond its three stations , applying for new television station licenses in Cincinnati and Cleveland in 1947 .\",\n \"This would give the network five owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( O & Os ) , the maximum allowed by the FCC at the time .\",\n \"However , DuMont was hampered by Paramount 's two stations , <unk> ( channel 5 ) in Los Angeles and <unk> ( channel 4 , now <unk> @-@ TV on channel 2 ) in Chicago – the descendants of the two experimental stations that rankled DuMont in 1940 .\",\n \"Although these stations never carried DuMont programming ( with the exception of <unk> for one year from 1947 to 1948 ) , and in fact competed against DuMont 's affiliates in those cities , the FCC ruled that Paramount essentially controlled DuMont , which effectively placed the network at the five @-@ station cap .\",\n \"Paramount 's exertion of influence over the network 's management and the power of its voting stock brought the FCC to its conclusion .\",\n \"Thus , DuMont was unable to open additional stations as long as Paramount owned stations or owned a portion of DuMont .\",\n \"Paramount refused to sell .\",\n \"In 1949 , Paramount Pictures launched the Paramount Television Network , a service which provided local television stations with filmed television programs ; Paramount 's network \\\" undercut the company that it had invested in . \\\"\",\n \"Paramount did not share its stars , big budgets or filmed programs with DuMont ; the company had stopped financially supporting DuMont in 1941 .\",\n \"Although Paramount executives indicated they would produce programs for DuMont , the studio never supplied the network with programs or technical assistance .\",\n \"The <unk> relationship between Paramount and DuMont came to a head during the 1953 FCC hearings regarding the ABC – United Paramount Theaters merger when Paul <unk> , an executive at Paramount , publicly derided the quality of DuMont television sets in court testimony .\",\n \"= = = Trouble from the start = = = \\n \\n DuMont began with one basic disadvantage : unlike NBC , CBS and ABC , it did not have a radio network from which to draw big @-@ name talent , affiliate loyalty or radio profits to <unk> television operations until the television medium itself became profitable .\",\n \"Most early television licenses were granted to established radio broadcasters , and many longtime relationships with radio networks carried over to the new medium .\",\n \"As CBS and NBC ( and to a lesser extent , ABC ) gained their footing , they began to offer programming that drew on their radio backgrounds , bringing over the most popular radio stars .\",\n \"Early television station owners , when deciding which network would receive their main affiliation , were more likely to choose CBS 's roster of Lucille Ball , Jack Benny and Ed Sullivan , or NBC 's lineup of Milton Berle and Sid Caesar over DuMont , which offered a then @-@ unknown Jackie Gleason and Bishop Fulton J. Sheen .\",\n \"In smaller markets , with a limited number of stations , DuMont and ABC were often relegated to secondary status , so their programs got clearance only if the primary network was off the air or delayed via <unk> recording ( \\\" <unk> \\\" in DuMont <unk> ) .\",\n \"Adding to DuMont 's troubles was the FCC 's 1948 \\\" freeze \\\" on television license applications .\",\n \"This was done to sort out the thousands of applications that had come streaming in , but also to rethink the allocation and technical standards laid down prior to World War II .\",\n \"It became clear soon after the war that 12 channels ( \\\" channel 1 \\\" had been removed from television broadcasting use because storms and other types of interference could severely affect the quality of signals on this channel ) were not nearly enough for national television service .\",\n \"What was to be a six @-@ month freeze lasted until 1952 , when the FCC opened the UHF spectrum .\",\n \"The FCC , however , did not require television manufacturers to include UHF capability .\",\n \"In order to see UHF stations , most people had to buy an expensive <unk> .\",\n \"Even then , the picture quality was marginal at best .\",\n \"<unk> to this was a decision to restrict VHF <unk> in <unk> and smaller @-@ sized markets .\",\n \"Television sets were not required to have all @-@ channel tuning until 1964 .\",\n \"Forced to rely on UHF to expand , DuMont saw one station after another go dark due to <unk> ratings .\",\n \"It bought small , distressed UHF station <unk> ( channel 50 ) in Kansas City , Missouri in 1954 , but ran it for just three months before shutting it down at a considerable loss after attempting to compete with three established VHF stations .\",\n \"The FCC 's Dr. Hyman <unk> said in 1960 , \\\" If there had been four VHF outlets in the top markets , there 's no question DuMont would have lived and would have eventually turned the corner in terms of profitability . \\\"\",\n \"= = = The end = = = \\n \\n During the early years of television , there was some measure of cooperation among the four major U.S. television networks .\",\n \"However , as television grew into a profitable business , an intense rivalry developed between the networks , just as it had in radio .\",\n \"NBC and CBS competed fiercely for viewers and advertising dollars , a contest neither <unk> DuMont nor ABC could hope to win .\",\n \"According to author Dennis <unk> , \\\" NBC tried to make an arrangement with ABC and CBS to destroy the DuMont network . \\\"\",\n \"The plan was for NBC and CBS to exclusively offer ABC their most popular series after they had aired on the bigger networks .\",\n \"ABC would become a network of re @-@ runs , but DuMont would be shut out .\",\n \"ABC president Leonard Goldenson rejected NBC executive David <unk> 's proposal , but \\\" did not report it to the Justice Department \\\" .\",\n \"DuMont survived the early 1950s only because of WDTV in Pittsburgh , the lone commercial VHF station in what was then the sixth @-@ largest market .\",\n \"WDTV 's only competition came from UHF stations and distant stations from <unk> , Pennsylvania ; <unk> , Ohio ; and <unk> , West Virginia .\",\n \"No other commercial VHF station signed on in Pittsburgh until 1957 , giving WDTV a de facto monopoly on television in the area .\",\n \"Since WDTV carried secondary affiliations with the other three networks , DuMont used this as a <unk> chip to get its programs cleared in other large markets .\",\n \"Despite its severe financial <unk> , by 1953 , DuMont appeared to be on its way to establishing itself as the third national network .\",\n \"DuMont programs aired live on 16 stations , but it could count on only seven primary stations – its three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( \\\" O & Os \\\" ) , plus <unk> @-@ TV in Chicago , <unk> ( channel 11 ) in Los Angeles , <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 2 , now <unk> @-@ TV ) in Denver and <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 6 , now <unk> ) in Columbus , Ohio .\",\n \"In contrast , ABC had a full complement of five O & Os , augmented by nine primary affiliates .\",\n \"ABC also had a radio network ( it was descended from NBC 's Blue Network ) from which to draw talent , affiliate loyalty and a profit stream to subsidize television operations .\",\n \"However , ABC had only 14 primary stations , while CBS and NBC had over 40 each .\",\n \"By 1951 , ABC was badly <unk> and on the verge of bankruptcy .\",\n \"That year , the company announced a merger with United Paramount Theaters ( the former theater division of Paramount Pictures , which was spun off as a result of the United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc. <unk> decision ) , but it was not until 1953 that the FCC approved the merger .\",\n \"By this time , DuMont had begun to differentiate itself from NBC and CBS .\",\n \"It allowed its advertisers to choose the locations where their advertising ran , potentially saving them millions of dollars .\",\n \"By contrast , ABC operated like CBS and NBC even though it was only a fourth as large , forcing advertisers to purchase a large \\\" must @-@ buy \\\" list of stations .\",\n \"ABC 's fortunes were dramatically altered in February 1953 , when the FCC cleared the way for UPT to buy the network .\",\n \"The merger provided ABC with a badly needed cash infusion , giving it the resources to mount \\\" top shelf \\\" programming and to provide a national television service on a scale approaching that of CBS and NBC .\",\n \"Through UPT president Leonard Goldenson , ABC also gained ties with the Hollywood studios that more than matched those DuMont 's producers had with Broadway .\",\n \"Realizing that the ABC @-@ UPT deal put DuMont near extinction , network officials were receptive to a merger offer from ABC .\",\n \"Goldenson quickly brokered a deal with Ted Bergmann , DuMont 's managing director , under which the merged network would have been called \\\" ABC @-@ DuMont \\\" until at least 1958 and would have honored all of DuMont 's network commitments .\",\n \"In return , DuMont would get $ 5 million in cash , guaranteed advertising time for DuMont sets and a secure future for its staff .\",\n \"A merged ABC @-@ DuMont would have been a <unk> <unk> CBS and NBC , as it would have owned stations in five of the six largest U.S. television markets ( excluding only Philadelphia ) as well as ABC 's radio network .\",\n \"It also would have inherited DuMont 's de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , and would have been one of two networks to have full ownership of a station in the nation 's capital ( the other being NBC ) .\",\n \"However , it would have had to sell a New York station – either DuMont 's WABD or ABC flagship <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 7 , now <unk> @-@ TV ) , probably the former .\",\n \"It also would have had to sell two other stations – most likely ABC 's two smallest O & Os , <unk> @-@ TV in Detroit and <unk> @-@ TV in San Francisco ( both broadcasting on channel 7 ) – to get under the FCC 's limit of five stations per owner .\",\n \"However , Paramount vetoed the plan almost out of hand due to <unk> concerns .\",\n \"A few months earlier , the FCC had ruled that Paramount controlled DuMont , and there were still some questions about whether UPT had really separated from Paramount .\",\n \"With no other way to readily obtain cash , DuMont sold WDTV to Westinghouse Electric Corporation for $ 9 @.\",\n \"@ 75 million in late 1954 .\",\n \"While this gave DuMont a short @-@ term cash infusion , it eliminated the leverage the network had to get program clearances in other markets .\",\n \"Without its de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , the company 's advertising revenue shrank to less than half that of 1953 .\",\n \"By February 1955 , DuMont executives realized the company could not continue as a television network .\",\n \"The decision was made to shut down network operations and operate WABD and WTTG as independent stations .\",\n \"On April 1 , 1955 , most of DuMont 's entertainment programs were dropped .\",\n \"Bishop Sheen aired his last program on DuMont on April 26 and later moved to ABC .\",\n \"By May , just eight programs were left on the network , with only inexpensive shows and sporting events keeping what was left of the network going through the summer .\",\n \"The network also largely abandoned the use of the intercity network coaxial cable , on which it had spent $ 3 million in 1954 to transmit shows that mostly lacked station clearance .\",\n \"The company only retained network links for live sports programming and utilizing the company 's <unk> process to produce studio @-@ based programming .\",\n \"Ironically , <unk> is best remembered for being used by Jackie Gleason 's producers for the 39 @-@ half @-@ hour episodes of The Honeymooners that aired on CBS during the 1955 @-@ 56 television season .\",\n \"In August , Paramount , with the help of other <unk> , seized full control of DuMont Laboratories .\",\n \"The last non @-@ sports program on DuMont , the game show What 's the Story , aired on September 23 , 1955 .\",\n \"After that , DuMont 's network feed was used only for occasional sporting events .\",\n \"DuMont 's last broadcast , a boxing match , aired on August 6 , 1956 .\",\n \"The date has also been reported as April 1950 , September 1955 , or August 4 , 1958 .\",\n \"According to one source , the final program aired on only five stations nationwide .\",\n \"It appears that the boxing show was syndicated to a few other east coast stations until 1958 , but likely not as a production of DuMont or its successor company .\",\n \"DuMont spun off WABD and WTTG as the \\\" DuMont Broadcasting Corporation \\\" .\",\n \"The name was later changed to \\\" Metropolitan Broadcasting Company \\\" to distance the company from what was seen as a complete failure .\",\n \"In 1958 , John <unk> bought Paramount 's shares for $ 4 million , and renamed the company Metromedia in 1960 .\",\n \"WABD became <unk> @-@ TV and later <unk> ; WTTG still broadcasts under its original call letters as a Fox affiliate .\",\n \"For 50 years , DuMont was the only major broadcast television network to cease operations , until CBS Corporation and Time Warner shut down two other struggling networks , UPN and The WB , in September 2006 to create The CW Television Network – whose schedule was originally composed largely of programs from both of its predecessor networks .\",\n \"= = Fate of the DuMont stations = = \\n \\n All three DuMont @-@ owned stations are still operating and <unk> , all three are owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations of their respective networks , just as when they were part of DuMont .\",\n \"Of the three , only Washington 's WTTG still has its original call letters .\",\n \"WTTG and New York 's WABD ( later <unk> @-@ TV , and now <unk> ) survived as Metromedia @-@ owned <unk> until 1986 , when Metromedia was purchased by the News Corporation to form the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company .\",\n \"Clarke Ingram , who maintained a DuMont memorial site , has suggested that Fox can be considered a revival , or at least a linear descendant , of DuMont .\",\n \"Westinghouse changed WDTV 's call letters to <unk> @-@ TV after the pioneering radio station of the same name , and switched its primary affiliation to CBS immediately after the sale .\",\n \"Westinghouse 's acquisition of CBS in 1995 made <unk> @-@ TV a CBS owned @-@ and @-@ operated station .\",\n \"= = DuMont programming library = = \\n \\n DuMont produced more than 20 @,@ 000 television episodes during the decade from 1946 to 1956 .\",\n \"Because the shows were created prior to the launch of <unk> 's electronic videotape recorder in late 1956 , all of them were initially broadcast live in black and white , then recorded on film <unk> for <unk> and for West Coast <unk> .\",\n \"By the early 1970s , their vast library of 35mm and <unk> kinescopes eventually wound up in the hands of \\\" a successor network , \\\" who reportedly disposed of all of them in New York City 's East River to make room for more recent @-@ vintage <unk> in a warehouse .\",\n \"Other kinescopes were put through a silver <unk> process , because of the microscopic amounts of silver that made up the <unk> of black @-@ and @-@ white film during this time .\",\n \"It is estimated that only about 350 complete DuMont television shows survive today , the most famous being virtually all of Jackie Gleason 's Honeymooners comedy sketches .\",\n \"Most of the existing episodes are believed to have come from the personal archives of DuMont 's hosts , such as Gleason and Dennis James .\",\n \"= = <unk> = = \\n \\n At its peak in 1954 , DuMont was affiliated with around 200 television stations .\",\n \"In those days , television stations were free to \\\" cherry @-@ pick \\\" which programs they would air , and many stations affiliated with multiple networks , depending mainly on the number of commercial television stations available in a market at a given time ( markets where only one commercial station was available carried programming from all four major networks ) .\",\n \"Many of DuMont 's \\\" affiliates \\\" carried very little DuMont programming , choosing to air one or two more popular programs ( such as Life Is Worth Living ) and / or sports programming on the weekends .\",\n \"Few stations carried the full DuMont program lineup .\",\n \"In its later years , DuMont was carried mostly on poorly watched UHF channels or had only secondary affiliations on VHF stations .\",\n \"DuMont ended most operations on April 1 , 1955 , but honored network commitments until August 1956 .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n <unk> of DuMont Network programs , from the Internet Archive : The Adventures of <unk> Queen , Captain Video and His Video Rangers , Cavalcade of Stars , Life Is Worth Living , Miss U.S. Television 1950 Contest , The Morey Amsterdam Show , The Old American Barn Dance , Okay Mother , On Your Way , Public Prosecutor , Rocky King — Detective , School House , They Stand <unk> and A DuMont Network identification\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["By 1951 , ABC was badly <unk> and on the verge of bankruptcy ."],"string":"[\n \"By 1951 , ABC was badly <unk> and on the verge of bankruptcy .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = DuMont Television Network = \n \n The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) <unk> / <unk> / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , <unk> NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA .","It began operation in the United States in 1946 .","It was owned by DuMont Laboratories , a television equipment and set manufacturer .","The network was hindered by the <unk> cost of broadcasting , by regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) which restricted the company 's growth , and even by the company 's partner , Paramount Pictures .","Despite several innovations in broadcasting and the creation of one of television 's biggest stars of the 1950s ( Jackie Gleason ) , the network never found itself on solid financial ground .","Forced to expand on UHF channels during an era when UHF was not yet a standard feature on television sets , DuMont fought an uphill battle for program clearances outside of their three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations in New York , Washington and Pittsburgh , finally ending network operations in 1956 .","DuMont 's latter @-@ day obscurity , caused mainly by the destruction of its extensive program archive by the 1970s , has prompted TV historian David Weinstein to refer to it as the \" Forgotten Network \" or \" Network Is Long Gone \" .","A few popular DuMont programs , such as Cavalcade of Stars and Emmy Award winner Life Is Worth Living , appear in television <unk> or are mentioned briefly in books about U.S. television history .","= = History = = \n \n \n = = = Origins = = = \n \n DuMont Laboratories was founded in 1931 by Dr. Allen B. DuMont with only $ 1 @,@ 000 , and a laboratory in his basement .","He and his staff were responsible for many early technical innovations , including the first consumer all @-@ electronic television set in 1938 .","The company 's television sets soon became the gold standard of the industry .","In 1942 , DuMont worked with the Army in developing radar technology during World War II .","This ended up bringing in $ 5 million in capital for the company .","Early sales of television sets were hampered by the lack of regularly scheduled programming being broadcast .","A few months after selling his first set in 1938 , DuMont opened his own New York area experimental television station ( <unk> ) in <unk> , New Jersey .","In 1940 , the station moved to Manhattan as <unk> on channel 4 .","Unlike CBS and NBC , which reduced their hours of television broadcasting during World War II , DuMont continued full @-@ scale experimental and commercial broadcasts throughout the war .","In 1944 , <unk> became WABD ( <unk> derived from DuMont 's initials ) moving to channel 5 in 1945 , the third commercial television station in New York .","On May 19 , 1945 , DuMont opened experimental W3XWT in Washington , DC .","A minority shareholder in DuMont Laboratories was Paramount Pictures , which had advanced $ 400 @,@ 000 in 1939 for a 40 % share in the company .","Paramount had television interests of its own , having launched experimental stations in Los Angeles in 1939 and Chicago in 1940 , and DuMont 's association with Paramount ultimately proved to be a mistake .","Soon after his experimental Washington station signed on , DuMont began experimental coaxial cable <unk> between his laboratories in <unk> , New Jersey , and his two stations .","It is said that one of those broadcasts on the <unk> announced that the U.S. had dropped an atomic bomb on <unk> , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 .","This was later considered to be the official beginning of the DuMont Network by both Thomas T. Goldsmith , the network 's chief engineer and DuMont 's best friend , and DuMont himself .","Regular network service began on August 15 , 1946 , on WABD and W3XWT .","In 1947 , W3XWT became WTTG , named after Goldsmith .","The pair were joined in 1949 by WDTV ( channel 3 ) in Pittsburgh .","Although NBC in New York was known to have station @-@ to @-@ station television links as early as 1940 with <unk> ( now <unk> ) in Philadelphia and <unk> <unk> , NY , DuMont received its station licenses before NBC resumed its previously sporadic network broadcasts after the war .","ABC had just come into existence as a radio network in 1943 and did not enter network television until 1948 , when it signed on a flagship station in New York City , <unk> @-@ TV ( now <unk> @-@ TV ) .","CBS also waited until 1948 to begin network operations because it was waiting for the Federal Communications Commission to approve its color television system ( which it eventually did not ) .","Other companies – including <unk> , the Yankee Network , and Paramount itself – were interested in starting television networks , but were prevented from successfully doing so by restrictive FCC regulations ; however , at least the Paramount Television Network actually did have some limited success in network operations in the late 1940s and early 1950s .","= = = Programming = = = \n \n Despite no history of radio programming or stable of radio stars to draw on and perennial cash shortages , DuMont was an innovative and creative network .","Without the radio revenues that supported mighty NBC and CBS , DuMont <unk> relied on their <unk> and on connections with Broadway .","Eventually , the network provided original programs that are remembered more than 60 years later .","The network largely ignored the standard business model of 1950s TV , in which one <unk> sponsored an entire show , enabling it to have complete control over its content .","Instead , DuMont sold commercials to many different advertisers , freeing producers of its shows from the veto power held by sole sponsors .","This eventually became the standard model for US television .","Some commercial time was sold regionally on a co @-@ op basis , while other spots were sold network @-@ wide .","DuMont also holds another important place in American TV history .","WDTV 's sign @-@ on made it possible for stations in the Midwest to receive live network programming from stations on the East Coast , and vice versa .","Before then , the networks relied on separate regional networks in the two time zones for live programming , and the West Coast received network programming from kinescopes ( films shot directly from live television screens ) originating from the East Coast .","On January 11 , 1949 , the coaxial cable linking East and Midwest ( known in television circles as \" the Golden Spike , \" in reference to the Golden spike that united the First Transcontinental Railroad ) was activated .","The ceremony , hosted by DuMont and WDTV , was carried on all four networks .","<unk> @-@ TV ( channel 9 ) in Chicago and WABD in New York were able to share programs through a live coaxial cable feed when WDTV signed on in Pittsburgh , because the station completed the East Coast @-@ to @-@ Midwest chain , allowing stations in both regions to air the same program simultaneously , which is still the standard for US TV .","It was another two years before the West Coast got live programming from the East ( and the East able to get live programming from the West ) , but this was the beginning of the modern era of network television .","The first broadcasts came from DuMont 's 515 Madison Avenue headquarters , and it soon found additional space , including a fully functioning theater , in the New York branch of <unk> 's department store at <unk> Street and Broadway .","Later , a lease on the Adelphi Theatre on 54th Street and the Ambassador Theatre on West 49th Street gave the network a site for variety shows , and in 1954 , the lavish DuMont <unk> @-@ Centre opened in the former Jacob Ruppert 's Central Opera House at 205 East 67th Street .","DuMont was the first network to broadcast a film production for TV : Talk Fast , <unk> , produced by RKO in 1944 .","DuMont also aired the first TV situation comedy , Mary Kay and Johnny , as well as the first network @-@ televised soap opera , <unk> Hill .","Cavalcade of Stars , a variety show hosted by Jackie Gleason , was the birthplace of The Honeymooners ( Gleason took his variety show to CBS in 1952 , but filmed the \" Classic 39 \" Honeymooners episodes at DuMont 's Adelphi Theater studio in 1955 @-@ 56 ) .","Bishop Fulton J. Sheen 's devotional program Life Is Worth Living went up against Milton Berle in many cities , and was the first show to compete successfully in the ratings against \" Mr. Television \" .","In 1952 , Sheen won an Emmy Award for \" Most Outstanding Personality \" .","The network 's other notable programs include : \n Ted Mack 's The Original Amateur Hour , which began on radio in the 1930s under original host Edward Bowes \n The Morey Amsterdam Show , a comedy / variety show hosted by Morey Amsterdam , which started on CBS before moving to DuMont in 1949 \n Captain Video and His Video Rangers , a hugely popular kids ' science fiction series \n The Arthur Murray Party , a dance program \n Down You Go , a popular panel show \n Rocky King , Inside Detective , a private eye series starring <unk> <unk> \n The <unk> , a camera 's @-@ eye @-@ view detective series \n Live coverage of boxing and professional wrestling , the latter featuring matches staged by the Capitol Wrestling Corporation , the predecessor to WWE \n The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a Peabody Award @-@ winning education program \n Cash and Carry , the first network @-@ televised game show \n The Ernie Kovacs Show , the first truly innovative show in what was then visual radio , not television .","The network was a pioneer in TV programming aimed at minority audiences and featuring minority performers , at a time when the other American networks aired few television series for non @-@ whites .","Among DuMont 's minority programs were The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ <unk> , starring Asian American film actress Anna May <unk> , the first US TV show to star an Asian American , and The Hazel Scott Show , starring pianist and singer Hazel Scott , the first US network TV series to be hosted by a black woman .","Although DuMont 's programming pre @-@ dated videotape , many DuMont offerings were recorded on kinescopes .","These kinescopes were said to be stored in a warehouse until the 1970s .","Actress Edie Adams , the wife of comedian Ernie Kovacs ( both regular performers on early television ) testified in 1996 before a panel of the Library of Congress on the preservation of television and video .","Adams claimed that so little value was given to these films that the stored kinescopes were loaded into three trucks and dumped into Upper New York Bay .","Nevertheless , a number of DuMont programs survive at The Paley Center for Media in New York City , the UCLA Film and Television Archive in Los Angeles , in the Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia , and the Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago .","Although nearly the entire DuMont film archive was destroyed , several surviving DuMont shows have been released on DVD .","A large number of episodes of Life Is Worth Living have been saved , and they are now aired weekly on Catholic @-@ oriented cable network , the <unk> Word Television Network , which also makes a collection of them available on DVD ( in the biographical information about Fulton J. Sheen added to the end of many episodes , a still image of Bishop Sheen looking into a DuMont Television camera can be seen ) .","Several companies that distribute DVDs over the Internet have released a small number of episodes of Cavalcade of Stars and The Morey Amsterdam Show .","Two more DuMont programs , Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Rocky King , Inside Detective , have had a small amount of surviving episodes released commercially by at least one major distributor of public domain programming .","= = = = Awards = = = = \n \n DuMont programs were by necessity low @-@ budget affairs , and the network received relatively few awards from the TV industry .","Most awards during the 1950s went to NBC and CBS , who were able to out @-@ spend other companies and draw on their extensive history of radio broadcasting in the relatively new television medium .","DuMont , however , did win a number of awards during its years of operation .","During the 1952 – 53 TV season , Bishop Fulton J. Sheen , host of Life Is Worth Living , won an Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Personality .","Sheen beat out CBS 's Arthur Godfrey , Edward R. <unk> and Lucille Ball , who were also nominated for the same award .","Sheen was also nominated for – but did not win – consecutive Public Service <unk> in 1952 , 1953 , and 1954 .","DuMont received an Emmy nomination for Down You Go , a popular game show during the 1952 – 53 television season ( in the category Best <unk> <unk> , <unk> , or Panel Program ) .","The network was nominated twice for its coverage of professional football during the 1953 – 54 and 1954 – 55 television seasons .","The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a DuMont public affairs program , was awarded a Peabody Award in 1952 in the Education category .","Sheen 's Emmy and the Science Review Peabody were the only national awards the DuMont Network received .","Though DuMont series and performers continued to win local TV awards , by the mid @-@ 1950s the DuMont network no longer had a national presence .","= = = = Ratings = = = = \n \n The earliest measurements of TV audiences were performed by the C. E. Hooper company of New York .","DuMont performed well in the Hooper ratings ; in fact , DuMont 's talent program , The Original Amateur Hour , was the most popular series of the 1947 – 48 season .","Variety ranked DuMont 's popular variety series Cavalcade of Stars as the tenth most popular series two seasons later .","In February 1950 , Hooper 's competitor A. C. Nielsen bought out the <unk> system .","DuMont did not fare well with the change : none of its shows appeared on Nielsen 's annual top 20 lists of the most popular series .","One of the DuMont Network 's biggest hits of the 1950s , Life is Worth Living , received Nielsen ratings of up to 11 @.","@ 1 , attracting more than 10 million viewers .","Sheen 's one @-@ man program – in which he discussed philosophy , psychology and other fields of thought from a Christian perspective – was the most widely viewed religious series in the history of television .","169 local television stations aired Life , and for three years the program competed successfully against NBC 's popular The Milton Berle Show .","The ABC and CBS programs which aired in the same timeslot were cancelled .","Life is Worth Living was not the only DuMont program to achieve double @-@ digit ratings .","In 1952 , Time magazine reported that popular DuMont game show Down You Go had attracted an audience estimated at 16 million viewers .","Similarly , DuMont 's summer 1954 replacement series , The <unk> , achieved audiences estimated at 10 million .","Still , these series were only moderately popular compared to NBC 's and CBS 's highest @-@ rated programs .","Nielsen was not the only company to report TV ratings , however .","Companies such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> had also measured TV viewership .","The adjacent chart comes from <unk> 's August 1950 ratings breakdown , as reported in Billboard magazine .","= = = <unk> with AT & T and Paramount = = = \n \n DuMont struggled to get its programs aired in many parts of the country , in part due to technical limitations of network lines maintained by the telephone company AT & T Corporation .","During the 1940s and 1950s , television signals were sent between stations via coaxial cable and <unk> links which were owned by AT & T. The service provider did not have enough cable lines and <unk> circuits to provide signal relay service from all four networks to all of their affiliates at the same time , so AT & T allocated times when each network could offer live programs to their affiliates .","In 1950 , AT & T allotted NBC and CBS each over 100 hours of live prime time network service , but gave ABC only 53 hours , and DuMont just 37 .","AT & T also required each television network to lease both radio and television lines .","DuMont was the only television network without a radio network , but was forced to pay for a service it did not use .","DuMont protested AT & T 's actions with the Federal Communications Commission , and eventually received a compromise .","DuMont 's biggest corporate hurdle , however , may have been with the company 's own partner , Paramount .","Relations between the two companies were strained as early as 1939 , when Paramount opened experimental television stations in Los Angeles and Chicago without DuMont .","Dr. DuMont claimed that the original 1937 acquisition proposal required Paramount to expand its television interests \" through DuMont \" .","Paramount representative Paul <unk> , who also was a member of DuMont 's board of directors , denied that any such restriction had ever been discussed ( Dr. DuMont was vindicated on this point by a 1953 examination of the original draft document ) .","DuMont aspired to grow beyond its three stations , applying for new television station licenses in Cincinnati and Cleveland in 1947 .","This would give the network five owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( O & Os ) , the maximum allowed by the FCC at the time .","However , DuMont was hampered by Paramount 's two stations , <unk> ( channel 5 ) in Los Angeles and <unk> ( channel 4 , now <unk> @-@ TV on channel 2 ) in Chicago – the descendants of the two experimental stations that rankled DuMont in 1940 .","Although these stations never carried DuMont programming ( with the exception of <unk> for one year from 1947 to 1948 ) , and in fact competed against DuMont 's affiliates in those cities , the FCC ruled that Paramount essentially controlled DuMont , which effectively placed the network at the five @-@ station cap .","Paramount 's exertion of influence over the network 's management and the power of its voting stock brought the FCC to its conclusion .","Thus , DuMont was unable to open additional stations as long as Paramount owned stations or owned a portion of DuMont .","Paramount refused to sell .","In 1949 , Paramount Pictures launched the Paramount Television Network , a service which provided local television stations with filmed television programs ; Paramount 's network \" undercut the company that it had invested in . \"","Paramount did not share its stars , big budgets or filmed programs with DuMont ; the company had stopped financially supporting DuMont in 1941 .","Although Paramount executives indicated they would produce programs for DuMont , the studio never supplied the network with programs or technical assistance .","The <unk> relationship between Paramount and DuMont came to a head during the 1953 FCC hearings regarding the ABC – United Paramount Theaters merger when Paul <unk> , an executive at Paramount , publicly derided the quality of DuMont television sets in court testimony .","= = = Trouble from the start = = = \n \n DuMont began with one basic disadvantage : unlike NBC , CBS and ABC , it did not have a radio network from which to draw big @-@ name talent , affiliate loyalty or radio profits to <unk> television operations until the television medium itself became profitable .","Most early television licenses were granted to established radio broadcasters , and many longtime relationships with radio networks carried over to the new medium .","As CBS and NBC ( and to a lesser extent , ABC ) gained their footing , they began to offer programming that drew on their radio backgrounds , bringing over the most popular radio stars .","Early television station owners , when deciding which network would receive their main affiliation , were more likely to choose CBS 's roster of Lucille Ball , Jack Benny and Ed Sullivan , or NBC 's lineup of Milton Berle and Sid Caesar over DuMont , which offered a then @-@ unknown Jackie Gleason and Bishop Fulton J. Sheen .","In smaller markets , with a limited number of stations , DuMont and ABC were often relegated to secondary status , so their programs got clearance only if the primary network was off the air or delayed via <unk> recording ( \" <unk> \" in DuMont <unk> ) .","Adding to DuMont 's troubles was the FCC 's 1948 \" freeze \" on television license applications .","This was done to sort out the thousands of applications that had come streaming in , but also to rethink the allocation and technical standards laid down prior to World War II .","It became clear soon after the war that 12 channels ( \" channel 1 \" had been removed from television broadcasting use because storms and other types of interference could severely affect the quality of signals on this channel ) were not nearly enough for national television service .","What was to be a six @-@ month freeze lasted until 1952 , when the FCC opened the UHF spectrum .","The FCC , however , did not require television manufacturers to include UHF capability .","In order to see UHF stations , most people had to buy an expensive <unk> .","Even then , the picture quality was marginal at best .","<unk> to this was a decision to restrict VHF <unk> in <unk> and smaller @-@ sized markets .","Television sets were not required to have all @-@ channel tuning until 1964 .","Forced to rely on UHF to expand , DuMont saw one station after another go dark due to <unk> ratings .","It bought small , distressed UHF station <unk> ( channel 50 ) in Kansas City , Missouri in 1954 , but ran it for just three months before shutting it down at a considerable loss after attempting to compete with three established VHF stations .","The FCC 's Dr. Hyman <unk> said in 1960 , \" If there had been four VHF outlets in the top markets , there 's no question DuMont would have lived and would have eventually turned the corner in terms of profitability . \"","= = = The end = = = \n \n During the early years of television , there was some measure of cooperation among the four major U.S. television networks .","However , as television grew into a profitable business , an intense rivalry developed between the networks , just as it had in radio .","NBC and CBS competed fiercely for viewers and advertising dollars , a contest neither <unk> DuMont nor ABC could hope to win .","According to author Dennis <unk> , \" NBC tried to make an arrangement with ABC and CBS to destroy the DuMont network . \"","The plan was for NBC and CBS to exclusively offer ABC their most popular series after they had aired on the bigger networks .","ABC would become a network of re @-@ runs , but DuMont would be shut out .","ABC president Leonard Goldenson rejected NBC executive David <unk> 's proposal , but \" did not report it to the Justice Department \" .","DuMont survived the early 1950s only because of WDTV in Pittsburgh , the lone commercial VHF station in what was then the sixth @-@ largest market .","WDTV 's only competition came from UHF stations and distant stations from <unk> , Pennsylvania ; <unk> , Ohio ; and <unk> , West Virginia .","No other commercial VHF station signed on in Pittsburgh until 1957 , giving WDTV a de facto monopoly on television in the area .","Since WDTV carried secondary affiliations with the other three networks , DuMont used this as a <unk> chip to get its programs cleared in other large markets .","Despite its severe financial <unk> , by 1953 , DuMont appeared to be on its way to establishing itself as the third national network .","DuMont programs aired live on 16 stations , but it could count on only seven primary stations – its three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( \" O & Os \" ) , plus <unk> @-@ TV in Chicago , <unk> ( channel 11 ) in Los Angeles , <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 2 , now <unk> @-@ TV ) in Denver and <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 6 , now <unk> ) in Columbus , Ohio .","In contrast , ABC had a full complement of five O & Os , augmented by nine primary affiliates .","ABC also had a radio network ( it was descended from NBC 's Blue Network ) from which to draw talent , affiliate loyalty and a profit stream to subsidize television operations .","However , ABC had only 14 primary stations , while CBS and NBC had over 40 each .","That year , the company announced a merger with United Paramount Theaters ( the former theater division of Paramount Pictures , which was spun off as a result of the United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc. <unk> decision ) , but it was not until 1953 that the FCC approved the merger .","By this time , DuMont had begun to differentiate itself from NBC and CBS .","It allowed its advertisers to choose the locations where their advertising ran , potentially saving them millions of dollars .","By contrast , ABC operated like CBS and NBC even though it was only a fourth as large , forcing advertisers to purchase a large \" must @-@ buy \" list of stations .","ABC 's fortunes were dramatically altered in February 1953 , when the FCC cleared the way for UPT to buy the network .","The merger provided ABC with a badly needed cash infusion , giving it the resources to mount \" top shelf \" programming and to provide a national television service on a scale approaching that of CBS and NBC .","Through UPT president Leonard Goldenson , ABC also gained ties with the Hollywood studios that more than matched those DuMont 's producers had with Broadway .","Realizing that the ABC @-@ UPT deal put DuMont near extinction , network officials were receptive to a merger offer from ABC .","Goldenson quickly brokered a deal with Ted Bergmann , DuMont 's managing director , under which the merged network would have been called \" ABC @-@ DuMont \" until at least 1958 and would have honored all of DuMont 's network commitments .","In return , DuMont would get $ 5 million in cash , guaranteed advertising time for DuMont sets and a secure future for its staff .","A merged ABC @-@ DuMont would have been a <unk> <unk> CBS and NBC , as it would have owned stations in five of the six largest U.S. television markets ( excluding only Philadelphia ) as well as ABC 's radio network .","It also would have inherited DuMont 's de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , and would have been one of two networks to have full ownership of a station in the nation 's capital ( the other being NBC ) .","However , it would have had to sell a New York station – either DuMont 's WABD or ABC flagship <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 7 , now <unk> @-@ TV ) , probably the former .","It also would have had to sell two other stations – most likely ABC 's two smallest O & Os , <unk> @-@ TV in Detroit and <unk> @-@ TV in San Francisco ( both broadcasting on channel 7 ) – to get under the FCC 's limit of five stations per owner .","However , Paramount vetoed the plan almost out of hand due to <unk> concerns .","A few months earlier , the FCC had ruled that Paramount controlled DuMont , and there were still some questions about whether UPT had really separated from Paramount .","With no other way to readily obtain cash , DuMont sold WDTV to Westinghouse Electric Corporation for $ 9 @.","@ 75 million in late 1954 .","While this gave DuMont a short @-@ term cash infusion , it eliminated the leverage the network had to get program clearances in other markets .","Without its de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , the company 's advertising revenue shrank to less than half that of 1953 .","By February 1955 , DuMont executives realized the company could not continue as a television network .","The decision was made to shut down network operations and operate WABD and WTTG as independent stations .","On April 1 , 1955 , most of DuMont 's entertainment programs were dropped .","Bishop Sheen aired his last program on DuMont on April 26 and later moved to ABC .","By May , just eight programs were left on the network , with only inexpensive shows and sporting events keeping what was left of the network going through the summer .","The network also largely abandoned the use of the intercity network coaxial cable , on which it had spent $ 3 million in 1954 to transmit shows that mostly lacked station clearance .","The company only retained network links for live sports programming and utilizing the company 's <unk> process to produce studio @-@ based programming .","Ironically , <unk> is best remembered for being used by Jackie Gleason 's producers for the 39 @-@ half @-@ hour episodes of The Honeymooners that aired on CBS during the 1955 @-@ 56 television season .","In August , Paramount , with the help of other <unk> , seized full control of DuMont Laboratories .","The last non @-@ sports program on DuMont , the game show What 's the Story , aired on September 23 , 1955 .","After that , DuMont 's network feed was used only for occasional sporting events .","DuMont 's last broadcast , a boxing match , aired on August 6 , 1956 .","The date has also been reported as April 1950 , September 1955 , or August 4 , 1958 .","According to one source , the final program aired on only five stations nationwide .","It appears that the boxing show was syndicated to a few other east coast stations until 1958 , but likely not as a production of DuMont or its successor company .","DuMont spun off WABD and WTTG as the \" DuMont Broadcasting Corporation \" .","The name was later changed to \" Metropolitan Broadcasting Company \" to distance the company from what was seen as a complete failure .","In 1958 , John <unk> bought Paramount 's shares for $ 4 million , and renamed the company Metromedia in 1960 .","WABD became <unk> @-@ TV and later <unk> ; WTTG still broadcasts under its original call letters as a Fox affiliate .","For 50 years , DuMont was the only major broadcast television network to cease operations , until CBS Corporation and Time Warner shut down two other struggling networks , UPN and The WB , in September 2006 to create The CW Television Network – whose schedule was originally composed largely of programs from both of its predecessor networks .","= = Fate of the DuMont stations = = \n \n All three DuMont @-@ owned stations are still operating and <unk> , all three are owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations of their respective networks , just as when they were part of DuMont .","Of the three , only Washington 's WTTG still has its original call letters .","WTTG and New York 's WABD ( later <unk> @-@ TV , and now <unk> ) survived as Metromedia @-@ owned <unk> until 1986 , when Metromedia was purchased by the News Corporation to form the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company .","Clarke Ingram , who maintained a DuMont memorial site , has suggested that Fox can be considered a revival , or at least a linear descendant , of DuMont .","Westinghouse changed WDTV 's call letters to <unk> @-@ TV after the pioneering radio station of the same name , and switched its primary affiliation to CBS immediately after the sale .","Westinghouse 's acquisition of CBS in 1995 made <unk> @-@ TV a CBS owned @-@ and @-@ operated station .","= = DuMont programming library = = \n \n DuMont produced more than 20 @,@ 000 television episodes during the decade from 1946 to 1956 .","Because the shows were created prior to the launch of <unk> 's electronic videotape recorder in late 1956 , all of them were initially broadcast live in black and white , then recorded on film <unk> for <unk> and for West Coast <unk> .","By the early 1970s , their vast library of 35mm and <unk> kinescopes eventually wound up in the hands of \" a successor network , \" who reportedly disposed of all of them in New York City 's East River to make room for more recent @-@ vintage <unk> in a warehouse .","Other kinescopes were put through a silver <unk> process , because of the microscopic amounts of silver that made up the <unk> of black @-@ and @-@ white film during this time .","It is estimated that only about 350 complete DuMont television shows survive today , the most famous being virtually all of Jackie Gleason 's Honeymooners comedy sketches .","Most of the existing episodes are believed to have come from the personal archives of DuMont 's hosts , such as Gleason and Dennis James .","= = <unk> = = \n \n At its peak in 1954 , DuMont was affiliated with around 200 television stations .","In those days , television stations were free to \" cherry @-@ pick \" which programs they would air , and many stations affiliated with multiple networks , depending mainly on the number of commercial television stations available in a market at a given time ( markets where only one commercial station was available carried programming from all four major networks ) .","Many of DuMont 's \" affiliates \" carried very little DuMont programming , choosing to air one or two more popular programs ( such as Life Is Worth Living ) and / or sports programming on the weekends .","Few stations carried the full DuMont program lineup .","In its later years , DuMont was carried mostly on poorly watched UHF channels or had only secondary affiliations on VHF stations .","DuMont ended most operations on April 1 , 1955 , but honored network commitments until August 1956 .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n <unk> of DuMont Network programs , from the Internet Archive : The Adventures of <unk> Queen , Captain Video and His Video Rangers , Cavalcade of Stars , Life Is Worth Living , Miss U.S. Television 1950 Contest , The Morey Amsterdam Show , The Old American Barn Dance , Okay Mother , On Your Way , Public Prosecutor , Rocky King — Detective , School House , They Stand <unk> and A DuMont Network identification"],"string":"[\n \" = DuMont Television Network = \\n \\n The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) <unk> / <unk> / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , <unk> NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA .\",\n \"It began operation in the United States in 1946 .\",\n \"It was owned by DuMont Laboratories , a television equipment and set manufacturer .\",\n \"The network was hindered by the <unk> cost of broadcasting , by regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) which restricted the company 's growth , and even by the company 's partner , Paramount Pictures .\",\n \"Despite several innovations in broadcasting and the creation of one of television 's biggest stars of the 1950s ( Jackie Gleason ) , the network never found itself on solid financial ground .\",\n \"Forced to expand on UHF channels during an era when UHF was not yet a standard feature on television sets , DuMont fought an uphill battle for program clearances outside of their three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations in New York , Washington and Pittsburgh , finally ending network operations in 1956 .\",\n \"DuMont 's latter @-@ day obscurity , caused mainly by the destruction of its extensive program archive by the 1970s , has prompted TV historian David Weinstein to refer to it as the \\\" Forgotten Network \\\" or \\\" Network Is Long Gone \\\" .\",\n \"A few popular DuMont programs , such as Cavalcade of Stars and Emmy Award winner Life Is Worth Living , appear in television <unk> or are mentioned briefly in books about U.S. television history .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Origins = = = \\n \\n DuMont Laboratories was founded in 1931 by Dr. Allen B. DuMont with only $ 1 @,@ 000 , and a laboratory in his basement .\",\n \"He and his staff were responsible for many early technical innovations , including the first consumer all @-@ electronic television set in 1938 .\",\n \"The company 's television sets soon became the gold standard of the industry .\",\n \"In 1942 , DuMont worked with the Army in developing radar technology during World War II .\",\n \"This ended up bringing in $ 5 million in capital for the company .\",\n \"Early sales of television sets were hampered by the lack of regularly scheduled programming being broadcast .\",\n \"A few months after selling his first set in 1938 , DuMont opened his own New York area experimental television station ( <unk> ) in <unk> , New Jersey .\",\n \"In 1940 , the station moved to Manhattan as <unk> on channel 4 .\",\n \"Unlike CBS and NBC , which reduced their hours of television broadcasting during World War II , DuMont continued full @-@ scale experimental and commercial broadcasts throughout the war .\",\n \"In 1944 , <unk> became WABD ( <unk> derived from DuMont 's initials ) moving to channel 5 in 1945 , the third commercial television station in New York .\",\n \"On May 19 , 1945 , DuMont opened experimental W3XWT in Washington , DC .\",\n \"A minority shareholder in DuMont Laboratories was Paramount Pictures , which had advanced $ 400 @,@ 000 in 1939 for a 40 % share in the company .\",\n \"Paramount had television interests of its own , having launched experimental stations in Los Angeles in 1939 and Chicago in 1940 , and DuMont 's association with Paramount ultimately proved to be a mistake .\",\n \"Soon after his experimental Washington station signed on , DuMont began experimental coaxial cable <unk> between his laboratories in <unk> , New Jersey , and his two stations .\",\n \"It is said that one of those broadcasts on the <unk> announced that the U.S. had dropped an atomic bomb on <unk> , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 .\",\n \"This was later considered to be the official beginning of the DuMont Network by both Thomas T. Goldsmith , the network 's chief engineer and DuMont 's best friend , and DuMont himself .\",\n \"Regular network service began on August 15 , 1946 , on WABD and W3XWT .\",\n \"In 1947 , W3XWT became WTTG , named after Goldsmith .\",\n \"The pair were joined in 1949 by WDTV ( channel 3 ) in Pittsburgh .\",\n \"Although NBC in New York was known to have station @-@ to @-@ station television links as early as 1940 with <unk> ( now <unk> ) in Philadelphia and <unk> <unk> , NY , DuMont received its station licenses before NBC resumed its previously sporadic network broadcasts after the war .\",\n \"ABC had just come into existence as a radio network in 1943 and did not enter network television until 1948 , when it signed on a flagship station in New York City , <unk> @-@ TV ( now <unk> @-@ TV ) .\",\n \"CBS also waited until 1948 to begin network operations because it was waiting for the Federal Communications Commission to approve its color television system ( which it eventually did not ) .\",\n \"Other companies – including <unk> , the Yankee Network , and Paramount itself – were interested in starting television networks , but were prevented from successfully doing so by restrictive FCC regulations ; however , at least the Paramount Television Network actually did have some limited success in network operations in the late 1940s and early 1950s .\",\n \"= = = Programming = = = \\n \\n Despite no history of radio programming or stable of radio stars to draw on and perennial cash shortages , DuMont was an innovative and creative network .\",\n \"Without the radio revenues that supported mighty NBC and CBS , DuMont <unk> relied on their <unk> and on connections with Broadway .\",\n \"Eventually , the network provided original programs that are remembered more than 60 years later .\",\n \"The network largely ignored the standard business model of 1950s TV , in which one <unk> sponsored an entire show , enabling it to have complete control over its content .\",\n \"Instead , DuMont sold commercials to many different advertisers , freeing producers of its shows from the veto power held by sole sponsors .\",\n \"This eventually became the standard model for US television .\",\n \"Some commercial time was sold regionally on a co @-@ op basis , while other spots were sold network @-@ wide .\",\n \"DuMont also holds another important place in American TV history .\",\n \"WDTV 's sign @-@ on made it possible for stations in the Midwest to receive live network programming from stations on the East Coast , and vice versa .\",\n \"Before then , the networks relied on separate regional networks in the two time zones for live programming , and the West Coast received network programming from kinescopes ( films shot directly from live television screens ) originating from the East Coast .\",\n \"On January 11 , 1949 , the coaxial cable linking East and Midwest ( known in television circles as \\\" the Golden Spike , \\\" in reference to the Golden spike that united the First Transcontinental Railroad ) was activated .\",\n \"The ceremony , hosted by DuMont and WDTV , was carried on all four networks .\",\n \"<unk> @-@ TV ( channel 9 ) in Chicago and WABD in New York were able to share programs through a live coaxial cable feed when WDTV signed on in Pittsburgh , because the station completed the East Coast @-@ to @-@ Midwest chain , allowing stations in both regions to air the same program simultaneously , which is still the standard for US TV .\",\n \"It was another two years before the West Coast got live programming from the East ( and the East able to get live programming from the West ) , but this was the beginning of the modern era of network television .\",\n \"The first broadcasts came from DuMont 's 515 Madison Avenue headquarters , and it soon found additional space , including a fully functioning theater , in the New York branch of <unk> 's department store at <unk> Street and Broadway .\",\n \"Later , a lease on the Adelphi Theatre on 54th Street and the Ambassador Theatre on West 49th Street gave the network a site for variety shows , and in 1954 , the lavish DuMont <unk> @-@ Centre opened in the former Jacob Ruppert 's Central Opera House at 205 East 67th Street .\",\n \"DuMont was the first network to broadcast a film production for TV : Talk Fast , <unk> , produced by RKO in 1944 .\",\n \"DuMont also aired the first TV situation comedy , Mary Kay and Johnny , as well as the first network @-@ televised soap opera , <unk> Hill .\",\n \"Cavalcade of Stars , a variety show hosted by Jackie Gleason , was the birthplace of The Honeymooners ( Gleason took his variety show to CBS in 1952 , but filmed the \\\" Classic 39 \\\" Honeymooners episodes at DuMont 's Adelphi Theater studio in 1955 @-@ 56 ) .\",\n \"Bishop Fulton J. Sheen 's devotional program Life Is Worth Living went up against Milton Berle in many cities , and was the first show to compete successfully in the ratings against \\\" Mr. Television \\\" .\",\n \"In 1952 , Sheen won an Emmy Award for \\\" Most Outstanding Personality \\\" .\",\n \"The network 's other notable programs include : \\n Ted Mack 's The Original Amateur Hour , which began on radio in the 1930s under original host Edward Bowes \\n The Morey Amsterdam Show , a comedy / variety show hosted by Morey Amsterdam , which started on CBS before moving to DuMont in 1949 \\n Captain Video and His Video Rangers , a hugely popular kids ' science fiction series \\n The Arthur Murray Party , a dance program \\n Down You Go , a popular panel show \\n Rocky King , Inside Detective , a private eye series starring <unk> <unk> \\n The <unk> , a camera 's @-@ eye @-@ view detective series \\n Live coverage of boxing and professional wrestling , the latter featuring matches staged by the Capitol Wrestling Corporation , the predecessor to WWE \\n The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a Peabody Award @-@ winning education program \\n Cash and Carry , the first network @-@ televised game show \\n The Ernie Kovacs Show , the first truly innovative show in what was then visual radio , not television .\",\n \"The network was a pioneer in TV programming aimed at minority audiences and featuring minority performers , at a time when the other American networks aired few television series for non @-@ whites .\",\n \"Among DuMont 's minority programs were The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ <unk> , starring Asian American film actress Anna May <unk> , the first US TV show to star an Asian American , and The Hazel Scott Show , starring pianist and singer Hazel Scott , the first US network TV series to be hosted by a black woman .\",\n \"Although DuMont 's programming pre @-@ dated videotape , many DuMont offerings were recorded on kinescopes .\",\n \"These kinescopes were said to be stored in a warehouse until the 1970s .\",\n \"Actress Edie Adams , the wife of comedian Ernie Kovacs ( both regular performers on early television ) testified in 1996 before a panel of the Library of Congress on the preservation of television and video .\",\n \"Adams claimed that so little value was given to these films that the stored kinescopes were loaded into three trucks and dumped into Upper New York Bay .\",\n \"Nevertheless , a number of DuMont programs survive at The Paley Center for Media in New York City , the UCLA Film and Television Archive in Los Angeles , in the Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia , and the Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago .\",\n \"Although nearly the entire DuMont film archive was destroyed , several surviving DuMont shows have been released on DVD .\",\n \"A large number of episodes of Life Is Worth Living have been saved , and they are now aired weekly on Catholic @-@ oriented cable network , the <unk> Word Television Network , which also makes a collection of them available on DVD ( in the biographical information about Fulton J. Sheen added to the end of many episodes , a still image of Bishop Sheen looking into a DuMont Television camera can be seen ) .\",\n \"Several companies that distribute DVDs over the Internet have released a small number of episodes of Cavalcade of Stars and The Morey Amsterdam Show .\",\n \"Two more DuMont programs , Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Rocky King , Inside Detective , have had a small amount of surviving episodes released commercially by at least one major distributor of public domain programming .\",\n \"= = = = Awards = = = = \\n \\n DuMont programs were by necessity low @-@ budget affairs , and the network received relatively few awards from the TV industry .\",\n \"Most awards during the 1950s went to NBC and CBS , who were able to out @-@ spend other companies and draw on their extensive history of radio broadcasting in the relatively new television medium .\",\n \"DuMont , however , did win a number of awards during its years of operation .\",\n \"During the 1952 – 53 TV season , Bishop Fulton J. Sheen , host of Life Is Worth Living , won an Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Personality .\",\n \"Sheen beat out CBS 's Arthur Godfrey , Edward R. <unk> and Lucille Ball , who were also nominated for the same award .\",\n \"Sheen was also nominated for – but did not win – consecutive Public Service <unk> in 1952 , 1953 , and 1954 .\",\n \"DuMont received an Emmy nomination for Down You Go , a popular game show during the 1952 – 53 television season ( in the category Best <unk> <unk> , <unk> , or Panel Program ) .\",\n \"The network was nominated twice for its coverage of professional football during the 1953 – 54 and 1954 – 55 television seasons .\",\n \"The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a DuMont public affairs program , was awarded a Peabody Award in 1952 in the Education category .\",\n \"Sheen 's Emmy and the Science Review Peabody were the only national awards the DuMont Network received .\",\n \"Though DuMont series and performers continued to win local TV awards , by the mid @-@ 1950s the DuMont network no longer had a national presence .\",\n \"= = = = Ratings = = = = \\n \\n The earliest measurements of TV audiences were performed by the C. E. Hooper company of New York .\",\n \"DuMont performed well in the Hooper ratings ; in fact , DuMont 's talent program , The Original Amateur Hour , was the most popular series of the 1947 – 48 season .\",\n \"Variety ranked DuMont 's popular variety series Cavalcade of Stars as the tenth most popular series two seasons later .\",\n \"In February 1950 , Hooper 's competitor A. C. Nielsen bought out the <unk> system .\",\n \"DuMont did not fare well with the change : none of its shows appeared on Nielsen 's annual top 20 lists of the most popular series .\",\n \"One of the DuMont Network 's biggest hits of the 1950s , Life is Worth Living , received Nielsen ratings of up to 11 @.\",\n \"@ 1 , attracting more than 10 million viewers .\",\n \"Sheen 's one @-@ man program – in which he discussed philosophy , psychology and other fields of thought from a Christian perspective – was the most widely viewed religious series in the history of television .\",\n \"169 local television stations aired Life , and for three years the program competed successfully against NBC 's popular The Milton Berle Show .\",\n \"The ABC and CBS programs which aired in the same timeslot were cancelled .\",\n \"Life is Worth Living was not the only DuMont program to achieve double @-@ digit ratings .\",\n \"In 1952 , Time magazine reported that popular DuMont game show Down You Go had attracted an audience estimated at 16 million viewers .\",\n \"Similarly , DuMont 's summer 1954 replacement series , The <unk> , achieved audiences estimated at 10 million .\",\n \"Still , these series were only moderately popular compared to NBC 's and CBS 's highest @-@ rated programs .\",\n \"Nielsen was not the only company to report TV ratings , however .\",\n \"Companies such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> had also measured TV viewership .\",\n \"The adjacent chart comes from <unk> 's August 1950 ratings breakdown , as reported in Billboard magazine .\",\n \"= = = <unk> with AT & T and Paramount = = = \\n \\n DuMont struggled to get its programs aired in many parts of the country , in part due to technical limitations of network lines maintained by the telephone company AT & T Corporation .\",\n \"During the 1940s and 1950s , television signals were sent between stations via coaxial cable and <unk> links which were owned by AT & T. The service provider did not have enough cable lines and <unk> circuits to provide signal relay service from all four networks to all of their affiliates at the same time , so AT & T allocated times when each network could offer live programs to their affiliates .\",\n \"In 1950 , AT & T allotted NBC and CBS each over 100 hours of live prime time network service , but gave ABC only 53 hours , and DuMont just 37 .\",\n \"AT & T also required each television network to lease both radio and television lines .\",\n \"DuMont was the only television network without a radio network , but was forced to pay for a service it did not use .\",\n \"DuMont protested AT & T 's actions with the Federal Communications Commission , and eventually received a compromise .\",\n \"DuMont 's biggest corporate hurdle , however , may have been with the company 's own partner , Paramount .\",\n \"Relations between the two companies were strained as early as 1939 , when Paramount opened experimental television stations in Los Angeles and Chicago without DuMont .\",\n \"Dr. DuMont claimed that the original 1937 acquisition proposal required Paramount to expand its television interests \\\" through DuMont \\\" .\",\n \"Paramount representative Paul <unk> , who also was a member of DuMont 's board of directors , denied that any such restriction had ever been discussed ( Dr. DuMont was vindicated on this point by a 1953 examination of the original draft document ) .\",\n \"DuMont aspired to grow beyond its three stations , applying for new television station licenses in Cincinnati and Cleveland in 1947 .\",\n \"This would give the network five owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( O & Os ) , the maximum allowed by the FCC at the time .\",\n \"However , DuMont was hampered by Paramount 's two stations , <unk> ( channel 5 ) in Los Angeles and <unk> ( channel 4 , now <unk> @-@ TV on channel 2 ) in Chicago – the descendants of the two experimental stations that rankled DuMont in 1940 .\",\n \"Although these stations never carried DuMont programming ( with the exception of <unk> for one year from 1947 to 1948 ) , and in fact competed against DuMont 's affiliates in those cities , the FCC ruled that Paramount essentially controlled DuMont , which effectively placed the network at the five @-@ station cap .\",\n \"Paramount 's exertion of influence over the network 's management and the power of its voting stock brought the FCC to its conclusion .\",\n \"Thus , DuMont was unable to open additional stations as long as Paramount owned stations or owned a portion of DuMont .\",\n \"Paramount refused to sell .\",\n \"In 1949 , Paramount Pictures launched the Paramount Television Network , a service which provided local television stations with filmed television programs ; Paramount 's network \\\" undercut the company that it had invested in . \\\"\",\n \"Paramount did not share its stars , big budgets or filmed programs with DuMont ; the company had stopped financially supporting DuMont in 1941 .\",\n \"Although Paramount executives indicated they would produce programs for DuMont , the studio never supplied the network with programs or technical assistance .\",\n \"The <unk> relationship between Paramount and DuMont came to a head during the 1953 FCC hearings regarding the ABC – United Paramount Theaters merger when Paul <unk> , an executive at Paramount , publicly derided the quality of DuMont television sets in court testimony .\",\n \"= = = Trouble from the start = = = \\n \\n DuMont began with one basic disadvantage : unlike NBC , CBS and ABC , it did not have a radio network from which to draw big @-@ name talent , affiliate loyalty or radio profits to <unk> television operations until the television medium itself became profitable .\",\n \"Most early television licenses were granted to established radio broadcasters , and many longtime relationships with radio networks carried over to the new medium .\",\n \"As CBS and NBC ( and to a lesser extent , ABC ) gained their footing , they began to offer programming that drew on their radio backgrounds , bringing over the most popular radio stars .\",\n \"Early television station owners , when deciding which network would receive their main affiliation , were more likely to choose CBS 's roster of Lucille Ball , Jack Benny and Ed Sullivan , or NBC 's lineup of Milton Berle and Sid Caesar over DuMont , which offered a then @-@ unknown Jackie Gleason and Bishop Fulton J. Sheen .\",\n \"In smaller markets , with a limited number of stations , DuMont and ABC were often relegated to secondary status , so their programs got clearance only if the primary network was off the air or delayed via <unk> recording ( \\\" <unk> \\\" in DuMont <unk> ) .\",\n \"Adding to DuMont 's troubles was the FCC 's 1948 \\\" freeze \\\" on television license applications .\",\n \"This was done to sort out the thousands of applications that had come streaming in , but also to rethink the allocation and technical standards laid down prior to World War II .\",\n \"It became clear soon after the war that 12 channels ( \\\" channel 1 \\\" had been removed from television broadcasting use because storms and other types of interference could severely affect the quality of signals on this channel ) were not nearly enough for national television service .\",\n \"What was to be a six @-@ month freeze lasted until 1952 , when the FCC opened the UHF spectrum .\",\n \"The FCC , however , did not require television manufacturers to include UHF capability .\",\n \"In order to see UHF stations , most people had to buy an expensive <unk> .\",\n \"Even then , the picture quality was marginal at best .\",\n \"<unk> to this was a decision to restrict VHF <unk> in <unk> and smaller @-@ sized markets .\",\n \"Television sets were not required to have all @-@ channel tuning until 1964 .\",\n \"Forced to rely on UHF to expand , DuMont saw one station after another go dark due to <unk> ratings .\",\n \"It bought small , distressed UHF station <unk> ( channel 50 ) in Kansas City , Missouri in 1954 , but ran it for just three months before shutting it down at a considerable loss after attempting to compete with three established VHF stations .\",\n \"The FCC 's Dr. Hyman <unk> said in 1960 , \\\" If there had been four VHF outlets in the top markets , there 's no question DuMont would have lived and would have eventually turned the corner in terms of profitability . \\\"\",\n \"= = = The end = = = \\n \\n During the early years of television , there was some measure of cooperation among the four major U.S. television networks .\",\n \"However , as television grew into a profitable business , an intense rivalry developed between the networks , just as it had in radio .\",\n \"NBC and CBS competed fiercely for viewers and advertising dollars , a contest neither <unk> DuMont nor ABC could hope to win .\",\n \"According to author Dennis <unk> , \\\" NBC tried to make an arrangement with ABC and CBS to destroy the DuMont network . \\\"\",\n \"The plan was for NBC and CBS to exclusively offer ABC their most popular series after they had aired on the bigger networks .\",\n \"ABC would become a network of re @-@ runs , but DuMont would be shut out .\",\n \"ABC president Leonard Goldenson rejected NBC executive David <unk> 's proposal , but \\\" did not report it to the Justice Department \\\" .\",\n \"DuMont survived the early 1950s only because of WDTV in Pittsburgh , the lone commercial VHF station in what was then the sixth @-@ largest market .\",\n \"WDTV 's only competition came from UHF stations and distant stations from <unk> , Pennsylvania ; <unk> , Ohio ; and <unk> , West Virginia .\",\n \"No other commercial VHF station signed on in Pittsburgh until 1957 , giving WDTV a de facto monopoly on television in the area .\",\n \"Since WDTV carried secondary affiliations with the other three networks , DuMont used this as a <unk> chip to get its programs cleared in other large markets .\",\n \"Despite its severe financial <unk> , by 1953 , DuMont appeared to be on its way to establishing itself as the third national network .\",\n \"DuMont programs aired live on 16 stations , but it could count on only seven primary stations – its three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( \\\" O & Os \\\" ) , plus <unk> @-@ TV in Chicago , <unk> ( channel 11 ) in Los Angeles , <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 2 , now <unk> @-@ TV ) in Denver and <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 6 , now <unk> ) in Columbus , Ohio .\",\n \"In contrast , ABC had a full complement of five O & Os , augmented by nine primary affiliates .\",\n \"ABC also had a radio network ( it was descended from NBC 's Blue Network ) from which to draw talent , affiliate loyalty and a profit stream to subsidize television operations .\",\n \"However , ABC had only 14 primary stations , while CBS and NBC had over 40 each .\",\n \"That year , the company announced a merger with United Paramount Theaters ( the former theater division of Paramount Pictures , which was spun off as a result of the United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc. <unk> decision ) , but it was not until 1953 that the FCC approved the merger .\",\n \"By this time , DuMont had begun to differentiate itself from NBC and CBS .\",\n \"It allowed its advertisers to choose the locations where their advertising ran , potentially saving them millions of dollars .\",\n \"By contrast , ABC operated like CBS and NBC even though it was only a fourth as large , forcing advertisers to purchase a large \\\" must @-@ buy \\\" list of stations .\",\n \"ABC 's fortunes were dramatically altered in February 1953 , when the FCC cleared the way for UPT to buy the network .\",\n \"The merger provided ABC with a badly needed cash infusion , giving it the resources to mount \\\" top shelf \\\" programming and to provide a national television service on a scale approaching that of CBS and NBC .\",\n \"Through UPT president Leonard Goldenson , ABC also gained ties with the Hollywood studios that more than matched those DuMont 's producers had with Broadway .\",\n \"Realizing that the ABC @-@ UPT deal put DuMont near extinction , network officials were receptive to a merger offer from ABC .\",\n \"Goldenson quickly brokered a deal with Ted Bergmann , DuMont 's managing director , under which the merged network would have been called \\\" ABC @-@ DuMont \\\" until at least 1958 and would have honored all of DuMont 's network commitments .\",\n \"In return , DuMont would get $ 5 million in cash , guaranteed advertising time for DuMont sets and a secure future for its staff .\",\n \"A merged ABC @-@ DuMont would have been a <unk> <unk> CBS and NBC , as it would have owned stations in five of the six largest U.S. television markets ( excluding only Philadelphia ) as well as ABC 's radio network .\",\n \"It also would have inherited DuMont 's de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , and would have been one of two networks to have full ownership of a station in the nation 's capital ( the other being NBC ) .\",\n \"However , it would have had to sell a New York station – either DuMont 's WABD or ABC flagship <unk> @-@ TV ( channel 7 , now <unk> @-@ TV ) , probably the former .\",\n \"It also would have had to sell two other stations – most likely ABC 's two smallest O & Os , <unk> @-@ TV in Detroit and <unk> @-@ TV in San Francisco ( both broadcasting on channel 7 ) – to get under the FCC 's limit of five stations per owner .\",\n \"However , Paramount vetoed the plan almost out of hand due to <unk> concerns .\",\n \"A few months earlier , the FCC had ruled that Paramount controlled DuMont , and there were still some questions about whether UPT had really separated from Paramount .\",\n \"With no other way to readily obtain cash , DuMont sold WDTV to Westinghouse Electric Corporation for $ 9 @.\",\n \"@ 75 million in late 1954 .\",\n \"While this gave DuMont a short @-@ term cash infusion , it eliminated the leverage the network had to get program clearances in other markets .\",\n \"Without its de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , the company 's advertising revenue shrank to less than half that of 1953 .\",\n \"By February 1955 , DuMont executives realized the company could not continue as a television network .\",\n \"The decision was made to shut down network operations and operate WABD and WTTG as independent stations .\",\n \"On April 1 , 1955 , most of DuMont 's entertainment programs were dropped .\",\n \"Bishop Sheen aired his last program on DuMont on April 26 and later moved to ABC .\",\n \"By May , just eight programs were left on the network , with only inexpensive shows and sporting events keeping what was left of the network going through the summer .\",\n \"The network also largely abandoned the use of the intercity network coaxial cable , on which it had spent $ 3 million in 1954 to transmit shows that mostly lacked station clearance .\",\n \"The company only retained network links for live sports programming and utilizing the company 's <unk> process to produce studio @-@ based programming .\",\n \"Ironically , <unk> is best remembered for being used by Jackie Gleason 's producers for the 39 @-@ half @-@ hour episodes of The Honeymooners that aired on CBS during the 1955 @-@ 56 television season .\",\n \"In August , Paramount , with the help of other <unk> , seized full control of DuMont Laboratories .\",\n \"The last non @-@ sports program on DuMont , the game show What 's the Story , aired on September 23 , 1955 .\",\n \"After that , DuMont 's network feed was used only for occasional sporting events .\",\n \"DuMont 's last broadcast , a boxing match , aired on August 6 , 1956 .\",\n \"The date has also been reported as April 1950 , September 1955 , or August 4 , 1958 .\",\n \"According to one source , the final program aired on only five stations nationwide .\",\n \"It appears that the boxing show was syndicated to a few other east coast stations until 1958 , but likely not as a production of DuMont or its successor company .\",\n \"DuMont spun off WABD and WTTG as the \\\" DuMont Broadcasting Corporation \\\" .\",\n \"The name was later changed to \\\" Metropolitan Broadcasting Company \\\" to distance the company from what was seen as a complete failure .\",\n \"In 1958 , John <unk> bought Paramount 's shares for $ 4 million , and renamed the company Metromedia in 1960 .\",\n \"WABD became <unk> @-@ TV and later <unk> ; WTTG still broadcasts under its original call letters as a Fox affiliate .\",\n \"For 50 years , DuMont was the only major broadcast television network to cease operations , until CBS Corporation and Time Warner shut down two other struggling networks , UPN and The WB , in September 2006 to create The CW Television Network – whose schedule was originally composed largely of programs from both of its predecessor networks .\",\n \"= = Fate of the DuMont stations = = \\n \\n All three DuMont @-@ owned stations are still operating and <unk> , all three are owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations of their respective networks , just as when they were part of DuMont .\",\n \"Of the three , only Washington 's WTTG still has its original call letters .\",\n \"WTTG and New York 's WABD ( later <unk> @-@ TV , and now <unk> ) survived as Metromedia @-@ owned <unk> until 1986 , when Metromedia was purchased by the News Corporation to form the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company .\",\n \"Clarke Ingram , who maintained a DuMont memorial site , has suggested that Fox can be considered a revival , or at least a linear descendant , of DuMont .\",\n \"Westinghouse changed WDTV 's call letters to <unk> @-@ TV after the pioneering radio station of the same name , and switched its primary affiliation to CBS immediately after the sale .\",\n \"Westinghouse 's acquisition of CBS in 1995 made <unk> @-@ TV a CBS owned @-@ and @-@ operated station .\",\n \"= = DuMont programming library = = \\n \\n DuMont produced more than 20 @,@ 000 television episodes during the decade from 1946 to 1956 .\",\n \"Because the shows were created prior to the launch of <unk> 's electronic videotape recorder in late 1956 , all of them were initially broadcast live in black and white , then recorded on film <unk> for <unk> and for West Coast <unk> .\",\n \"By the early 1970s , their vast library of 35mm and <unk> kinescopes eventually wound up in the hands of \\\" a successor network , \\\" who reportedly disposed of all of them in New York City 's East River to make room for more recent @-@ vintage <unk> in a warehouse .\",\n \"Other kinescopes were put through a silver <unk> process , because of the microscopic amounts of silver that made up the <unk> of black @-@ and @-@ white film during this time .\",\n \"It is estimated that only about 350 complete DuMont television shows survive today , the most famous being virtually all of Jackie Gleason 's Honeymooners comedy sketches .\",\n \"Most of the existing episodes are believed to have come from the personal archives of DuMont 's hosts , such as Gleason and Dennis James .\",\n \"= = <unk> = = \\n \\n At its peak in 1954 , DuMont was affiliated with around 200 television stations .\",\n \"In those days , television stations were free to \\\" cherry @-@ pick \\\" which programs they would air , and many stations affiliated with multiple networks , depending mainly on the number of commercial television stations available in a market at a given time ( markets where only one commercial station was available carried programming from all four major networks ) .\",\n \"Many of DuMont 's \\\" affiliates \\\" carried very little DuMont programming , choosing to air one or two more popular programs ( such as Life Is Worth Living ) and / or sports programming on the weekends .\",\n \"Few stations carried the full DuMont program lineup .\",\n \"In its later years , DuMont was carried mostly on poorly watched UHF channels or had only secondary affiliations on VHF stations .\",\n \"DuMont ended most operations on April 1 , 1955 , but honored network commitments until August 1956 .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n <unk> of DuMont Network programs , from the Internet Archive : The Adventures of <unk> Queen , Captain Video and His Video Rangers , Cavalcade of Stars , Life Is Worth Living , Miss U.S. Television 1950 Contest , The Morey Amsterdam Show , The Old American Barn Dance , Okay Mother , On Your Way , Public Prosecutor , Rocky King — Detective , School House , They Stand <unk> and A DuMont Network identification\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":89,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Waterfall Gully , South Australia = \n \n Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide .","It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.","@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre .","For the most part , the suburb encompasses one long gully with First Creek at its centre and Waterfall Gully Road running adjacent to the creek .","At the southern end of the gully is First Falls , the waterfall for which the suburb was named .","Part of the City of Burnside , Waterfall Gully is bounded to the north by the suburb of Burnside , from the north @-@ east to south @-@ east by Cleland Conservation Park ( part of the suburb of Cleland ) , to the south by <unk> West , and to the west by <unk> Gardens and Mount Osmond .","Historically , Waterfall Gully was first explored by European settlers in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , and quickly became a popular location for tourists and <unk> .","The government chose to retain control over portions of Waterfall Gully until 1884 , when they agreed to place the land under the auspices of the City of Burnside .","28 years later the government took back the management of the southern part of Waterfall Gully , designating it as South Australia 's first National Pleasure Resort .","Today this area remains under State Government control , and in 1972 the Waterfall Gully Reserve , as it was then known , became part of the larger Cleland Conservation Park .","Over the years Waterfall Gully has been extensively logged , and early agricultural interests saw the cultivation of a variety of introduced species as crops , along with the development of local market gardens and nurseries .","Attempts to mine the area were largely unsuccessful , but the region housed one of the state 's earliest water @-@ powered mills , and a weir erected in the early 1880s provided for part of the City of Burnside 's water supply .","Today the suburb consists primarily of private residences and parks .","= = History = = \n \n The Mount Lofty Ranges , which encompass Waterfall Gully , was first sighted by Matthew Flinders in 1802 .","The gully itself was discovered soon after the establishment of Adelaide , and Colonel William Light , the first <unk> General of South Australia , was said to have \" decided on the site for Adelaide when viewing the plains from the hills near Waterfall Gully \" .","Nevertheless , the gully had seen human visitors long before the arrival of the Europeans , as the native population had lived in the area for up to 40 @,@ 000 years prior to Flinders ' appearance off the South Australian coast .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Waterfall Gully and the surrounding Mount Lofty Ranges are part of the story of the ancestor @-@ creator Nganno .","Travelling across the land of the native <unk> people , Nganno was wounded in a battle and laid down to die , forming the Mount Lofty Ranges .","The ears of Nganno formed the peaks of Mount Lofty and Mount <unk> , and the region was referred to as <unk> @-@ e @-@ <unk> , or \" the place of the ears \" .","The name of the Greater Mount Lofty <unk> , <unk> , was derived from this term , while the nearby town of <unk> employs a more corrupted form .","Although Hardy states that the <unk> people did not live in the ranges themselves , they did live on the lower slopes .","An early settler of the neighbouring suburb of Beaumont , James Milne Young , described the local <unk> : \" At every creek and gully you would see their <unk> [ simple Aboriginal homes made out of twigs and grass ] and their fires at night ... often as many as 500 to 600 would be camped in various places ... some behind the <unk> Gardens on the banks of the river ; some toward the Ranges ; some on the Waterfall Gully . \"","Their main presence , <unk> by the use of fire against <unk> of land , was on the River Torrens and the creeks that flowed into it , including Waterfall Gully 's First Creek .","The land around Waterfall Gully provided the original inhabitants with a number of resources .","The bark from the local <unk> trees ( Eucalyptus <unk> ) was used in the construction of winter <unk> , and stones and native timbers were used to form tools .","Food was also present , and <unk> moth larvae along with other species of plants and animals were collected .","Nevertheless , there were only a few resources that could only be found on the slopes , and \" both hunting and food gathering would in general have been easier on the rich plains \" .","= = = Early colonial exploration = = = \n \n One of the earliest accounts of Waterfall Gully comes from a \" Mr Kent \" who , along with Captain <unk> Barker and Barker 's servant , Miles , climbed Mount Lofty in 1831 .","In making their ascent the party <unk> a ravine — described by Mr Kent as possessing \" smooth and grassy sides \" — which is believed by Anne Hardy to have been Waterfall Gully .","Subsequent to Barker 's ascent , the first settlers who were recorded as having climbed Mount Lofty were <unk> Hutchinson and his servant , William Burt .","The pair made three attempts to scale the mount before succeeding , and for their first attempt they attempted to traverse Waterfall Gully .","The attempt was unsuccessful , but in July 1837 , Hutchinson wrote about the gully through which they had travelled .","Waterfall Gully he wrote , had proven difficult , as the plants were so thickly grown as to provide a significant barrier to their progress .","Near the point of surrender , Hutchinson described how they were \" <unk> surprised by seeing a wall of rock about fifty or sixty feet [ fifteen to eighteen metres ] high , which stretched across the ravine , and from the top of it leapt the brook which had so long been [ their ] companion \" .","The brook was First Creek , and the waterfall they sighted is today known as First Falls .","Nevertheless , Hutchinson was not the first to see First Falls .","The first known recorded sighting of the waterfall by a colonial was that of John William Adams , an <unk> of HMS Buffalo in early January 1837 , who named it \" Adams ' Waterfall \" .","He was traveling with his wife , Susanna and a party consisting of Nicholson 's and <unk> 's who had the use of a <unk> to go into the hills .","Adams states \" we were opposite the spot where the Eagle on the Hill now is , and the question was put , who would volunteer to go down the hillside to try for water \" .","= = = Development = = = \n \n The area soon became a tourist attraction for the early South Australian colonists , and was a popular destination for <unk> .","In 1851 Francis Clark wrote that \" Waterfall Gully is the most picturesque place for a picnic that I have ever visited \" , and by the 1860s the area had become known throughout Adelaide .","The use of Waterfall Gully as picnic spot was facilitated by the decision of the government of the day not to <unk> the area containing the waterfalls .","Section 920 , as it was designated , did not enter into private hands , and thus members of the public were able to access the area from the nearby suburb of Eagle on the Hill on Mount Barker road .","The position of the Eagle on the Hill hotel proved <unk> for this , as it permitted visitors to stop by for lunch before walking down the hill in the afternoon .","Other parts of the Waterfall Gully area were subdivided , though , and much of the area was owned by Samuel Davenport .","Davenport used the land for timber , grazing , and the cultivation of various crops , including olives and grapes for wine production .","Other local residents ran market gardens and nurseries .","For example , local residents Wilhelm Mügge and his wife Auguste Schmidt operated \" one of the best nurseries and market gardens near Adelaide \" , and gained a reputation for the <unk> produced from their local dairy farm .","Along with farming , the hills and creek were prized areas for the <unk> and <unk> , and a number of mines were established in the region from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century .","In 1844 the first silver @-@ lead , <unk> and iron mines were established in the area , while the 1890s saw a minor gold rush — although \" only small quantities were extracted \" .","Of greater success was stone quarrying in Chambers ' Gully , which began in 1863 and increased in scale in 1912 .","Waterfall Gully was also the site of Burnside 's \" first secondary industry \" .","In the late 1830s , Thomas Cain built a <unk> on First Creek for John Cannan , which was then employed to power a sawmill on Cannan 's property .","Cannan operated the mill as the \" <unk> Mill \" for approximately two years before selling the venture to a Mr. Finniss .","Finniss opted to run the mill as a flour mill instead , and the mill was rebuilt and renamed \" <unk> Mill \" .","The mill continued to operate under a variety of owners until the late 1850s , but it was dismantled during the 1880s , and today only traces of the earthworks remain .","During this period the population of the nearby village of Burnside was expanding and required a new water supply .","First Creek — which runs down Waterfall Gully and enters the River Torrens near today 's <unk> Gardens — was seen as the perfect solution to the water shortage .","A weir was built during 1881 and 1882 , and was made to hold approximately two <unk> ( <unk> @,@ 000 US gallons ) of water .","A pipeline was constructed to the reservoir at Burnside South , and from there the water was used throughout the surrounding area .","As a side effect , the weir also reduced the volume of water available to the local market <unk> , and over many years that aspect of the region disappeared .","While the route to the falls from Eagle on the Hill was on public land , the alternative route along the gully was through private properties .","Nevertheless , many visitors chose this route , and a combination of public demand and a desire from some of the landowners for improved access to and from their properties — especially from the Mügge family — led to pressure to build a road through the gully .","Although there was opposition from some of the locals , the Waterfall Gully road was built in the late 1880s .","The completion of the road led to an increase in visitor numbers .","Rather than a <unk> horse ride , visitors could now catch the horse tram to the start of the gully , and walk , cycle or ride to the falls .","To provide for tourists , the area gained a number of road @-@ side <unk> and produce <unk> , and the Mügge family erected the two story Waterfall Hotel along the path .","Furthermore , in 1912 the government opened a kiosk at the base of First Falls , designed in the \" style of a Swiss chalet \" .","The hotel is a private residence today , but the kiosk continues to operate .","= = = Protection = = = \n \n Although some parts of Waterfall Gully were transferred from the District Council of East Torrens ( now the Adelaide Hills Council ) to the City of Burnside in 1856 when the suburb 's current boundaries were established , the government of the day chose to retain control of a significant portion of Waterfall Gully .","Thus it was not until 1884 that the remaining land was transferred to the control of the Burnside Council , <unk> largely through the efforts of Samuel Davenport and G. F. Cleland .","The land remained under the Burnside Council 's control until 1912 , when the Waterfall Gully Reserve was reclaimed by the government as the first National Pleasure Resort in the state .","Initially the reserve was placed under the jurisdiction of the National Parks Advisory Board , but later it was moved to the Tourist Bureau , before finally becoming part of the National Park Commission 's portfolio .","In 1945 , much of the area that is today 's Cleland Conservation Park was purchased by the State Government , largely thanks to the efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland .","Most of this land was combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up the gully to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to <unk> Road .","Waterfall Gully Reserve was added to the park in 1972 .","= = = Natural disasters = = = \n \n Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding .","The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area , and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Country Fire Service ( <unk> ) .","Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931 , and , on the night of 7 November 2005 , Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding .","Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs : Bob Stevenson , Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service ( <unk> ) , commented that \" There 's an area called Waterfall Gully Road , in the foothills , where one of the creeks comes down , and there 's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone . \"","Properties were flooded , two bridges nearly collapsed , and 100 m ( 330 ft ) of road was washed away .","Burnside council workers , the <unk> and the <unk> repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November .","Much of the road had been inaccessible , and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month .","= = Geography = = \n \n Waterfall Gully is situated at an average elevation of 234 m ( <unk> ft ) above sea level , in an area of 6 @.","@ 08 km2 ( 2 @.","@ 35 sq mi ) .","Its most notable geographical features are its gully and waterfall .","<unk> Reserve , a large local park , is 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the start of Waterfall Gully Road while much of the north @-@ eastern side of the gully is part of Cleland Conservation Park .","<unk> Waterfall Gully , 2 km ( 1 @.","@ 2 mi ) away , is Chambers Gully , which used to function as a land @-@ fill , but has in the past decade been reclaimed as a park through volunteer work .","It contains a number of old ruins , walking trails , and springs and is home to a significant number of native species .","Since European Settlement the native plant life has been considerably affected , with the native manna gum and blue gum woodlands being largely cleared for agricultural uses .","The large amount of non @-@ native vegetation in the gully is predominantly the result of the early agriculture , although some species were introduced by accident .","Introduced species include olive trees , hawthorn , <unk> and <unk> .","With the reduction of native flora , exotic fauna have flourished around the Waterfall Gully region .","These include rabbits , <unk> and starlings .","However , not all of the native wildlife has been lost — bats ( in particular , Gould 's <unk> bat ) , can be found in the area , as can superb fairy @-@ <unk> and Adelaide rosellas , and a large number of unique Australian animals such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> can be spotted on some of the walking trails .","= = Transport = = \n \n Waterfall Gully is connected to the major Adelaide thoroughfare <unk> Road by Waterfall <unk> and <unk> Road , and cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb .","According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics 71 @.","@ 9 % of residents in the census area employed private vehicles for their commute to work .","Only a small proportion ( 1 @.","@ 3 % ) walked to work and but 1 @.","@ 2 % <unk> , while only 3 @.","@ 6 % of Waterfall Gully residents travel to work by bus .","The closest bus route for Waterfall Gully is the 142 bus , provided by the multi @-@ service Adelaide Metro .","Waterfall Gully Road is <unk> and in some parts quite narrow .","This has led to concerns regarding safety , as the road is frequented by both pedestrians and <unk> .","After the death of a <unk> in 2007 , calls for the repair and resurfacing of the road intensified , with two <unk> being <unk> in parliament .","The accident also led to a safety audit being conducted by <unk> , and although the results were not released to the public at the time , it called for an investigation of the entire length of the road .","As of mid @-@ 2008 , there has been no clear plan released for the future of the road , with the road missing out on funding in the 2008 state budget .","= = Residents = = \n \n In the 2001 Census , the population of the Waterfall Gully census area ( which includes the suburbs of Glen Osmond , <unk> Gardens and Mount Osmond ) was 2 @,@ 497 people , in an area of 6 @.","@ 08 square kilometers .","Females outnumbered males 54 @.","@ 2 % to 45 @.","@ 8 % , and some 21 @.","@ 4 % of the population was born overseas ( see chart for a breakdown ) .","There was only a slight change in the 2006 census , with the population increasing by 25 to 2 @,@ 522 .","The eight strongest religious affiliations in the area ( based on the 2006 census figures ) were ( in descending order ) : Anglican , Catholic , <unk> , Lutheran , Orthodox Christian , Buddhist , Presbyterian , Church of Christ and Baptist ( a combination of other Christian faiths came in somewhere between Presbyterians and the Church of Christ , with 31 adherents ) .","Also of note is the high occurrence of religious affiliation ( 67 @.","@ 3 % ) in the region in comparison to the Adelaide ( and national ) average .","Christian belief ( 64 @.","@ 4 % ) is most prominent , with little growth in other religions .","Residents in these four suburbs are more affluent than the Adelaide average , with a high occurrence of <unk> over A $ 1000 per week , which is also above the average for the City of Burnside .","A majority of workers are employed in professional or white collar fields .","The census area that incorporates Waterfall Gully has a larger proportion of those in both the younger ( 0 – 17 ) and older ( 60 + ) age ranges than in the City of Burnside as a whole , and there have been no \" numerically significant \" changes in the age distribution between the 2001 and 2006 censuses .","Similarly , family numbers are also stable , with almost no change between 2001 and 2006 .","= = <unk> = = \n \n The main attraction of Waterfall Gully is the waterfall , First Falls .","It is at the south @-@ eastern end of the road , in land owned by Cleland Conservation Park .","The weir at the bottom of the Waterfall was constructed in the late 19th century and was part of Adelaide 's early water supply .","Development in the area has continued since the construction of a restaurant in 1912 .","<unk> over recent decades have included improving access to the site , upgrading the bridges , and the addition of new signage .","The Waterfall Gully Restaurant was constructed between 1911 and 1912 by South Australian architects Albert <unk> Conrad and his brother Frank , and was formally opened by Sir Day <unk> on 9 November 1912 .","Built in the style of a Swiss chalet , the building has been heritage listed since 1987 , and is <unk> haunted by the ghost of a <unk> who died from burns suffered in 1926 .","Other fire tracks and walking trails wind around the hills that surround Waterfall Gully , branching off from Chambers Gully , <unk> Gully or the area around First Creek .","Destinations include <unk> , Eagle On The Hill , Mount Lofty , Mount Osmond and the Cleland Wildlife Park , located in the Cleland Conservation Park .","The tracks have been completely rebuilt and resurfaced in the past ten years , and a number of older and more perilous routes have been sealed because of the difficult terrain .","Many offer views of the city of Adelaide as well as the Gully itself .","One of these is notable for connecting to the 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) <unk> Trail , and the trails are highly frequented .","= = Politics = = \n \n Waterfall Gully is part of the state electoral district of Bragg , which has been held since 2002 by Liberal MP Vickie Chapman .","In federal politics , the suburb is part of the division of Sturt , and has been represented by Christopher <unk> since 1993 .","The results shown are from the closest polling station to Waterfall Gully — which is located outside of the suburb — at St David 's Church Hall on nearby <unk> Road ( Burnside ) .","Both <unk> have traditionally gone to the Liberal Party , and Bragg in particular is regarded as a very safe Liberal seat .","However , in the 2007 federal election , a strong swing towards the Labor Party and their candidate , Mia <unk> , resulted in the electorate transforming from a \" safe [ federal ] Liberal seat into a marginal one \" .","In local government , Waterfall Gully is part of the ward of Beaumont within the City of Burnside , and the current Mayor for the district is David <unk> .","Beaumont is currently represented by <unk> Mark <unk> and Anne <unk> ."],"string":"[\n \" = Waterfall Gully , South Australia = \\n \\n Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide .\",\n \"It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre .\",\n \"For the most part , the suburb encompasses one long gully with First Creek at its centre and Waterfall Gully Road running adjacent to the creek .\",\n \"At the southern end of the gully is First Falls , the waterfall for which the suburb was named .\",\n \"Part of the City of Burnside , Waterfall Gully is bounded to the north by the suburb of Burnside , from the north @-@ east to south @-@ east by Cleland Conservation Park ( part of the suburb of Cleland ) , to the south by <unk> West , and to the west by <unk> Gardens and Mount Osmond .\",\n \"Historically , Waterfall Gully was first explored by European settlers in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , and quickly became a popular location for tourists and <unk> .\",\n \"The government chose to retain control over portions of Waterfall Gully until 1884 , when they agreed to place the land under the auspices of the City of Burnside .\",\n \"28 years later the government took back the management of the southern part of Waterfall Gully , designating it as South Australia 's first National Pleasure Resort .\",\n \"Today this area remains under State Government control , and in 1972 the Waterfall Gully Reserve , as it was then known , became part of the larger Cleland Conservation Park .\",\n \"Over the years Waterfall Gully has been extensively logged , and early agricultural interests saw the cultivation of a variety of introduced species as crops , along with the development of local market gardens and nurseries .\",\n \"Attempts to mine the area were largely unsuccessful , but the region housed one of the state 's earliest water @-@ powered mills , and a weir erected in the early 1880s provided for part of the City of Burnside 's water supply .\",\n \"Today the suburb consists primarily of private residences and parks .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n The Mount Lofty Ranges , which encompass Waterfall Gully , was first sighted by Matthew Flinders in 1802 .\",\n \"The gully itself was discovered soon after the establishment of Adelaide , and Colonel William Light , the first <unk> General of South Australia , was said to have \\\" decided on the site for Adelaide when viewing the plains from the hills near Waterfall Gully \\\" .\",\n \"Nevertheless , the gully had seen human visitors long before the arrival of the Europeans , as the native population had lived in the area for up to 40 @,@ 000 years prior to Flinders ' appearance off the South Australian coast .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Waterfall Gully and the surrounding Mount Lofty Ranges are part of the story of the ancestor @-@ creator Nganno .\",\n \"Travelling across the land of the native <unk> people , Nganno was wounded in a battle and laid down to die , forming the Mount Lofty Ranges .\",\n \"The ears of Nganno formed the peaks of Mount Lofty and Mount <unk> , and the region was referred to as <unk> @-@ e @-@ <unk> , or \\\" the place of the ears \\\" .\",\n \"The name of the Greater Mount Lofty <unk> , <unk> , was derived from this term , while the nearby town of <unk> employs a more corrupted form .\",\n \"Although Hardy states that the <unk> people did not live in the ranges themselves , they did live on the lower slopes .\",\n \"An early settler of the neighbouring suburb of Beaumont , James Milne Young , described the local <unk> : \\\" At every creek and gully you would see their <unk> [ simple Aboriginal homes made out of twigs and grass ] and their fires at night ... often as many as 500 to 600 would be camped in various places ... some behind the <unk> Gardens on the banks of the river ; some toward the Ranges ; some on the Waterfall Gully . \\\"\",\n \"Their main presence , <unk> by the use of fire against <unk> of land , was on the River Torrens and the creeks that flowed into it , including Waterfall Gully 's First Creek .\",\n \"The land around Waterfall Gully provided the original inhabitants with a number of resources .\",\n \"The bark from the local <unk> trees ( Eucalyptus <unk> ) was used in the construction of winter <unk> , and stones and native timbers were used to form tools .\",\n \"Food was also present , and <unk> moth larvae along with other species of plants and animals were collected .\",\n \"Nevertheless , there were only a few resources that could only be found on the slopes , and \\\" both hunting and food gathering would in general have been easier on the rich plains \\\" .\",\n \"= = = Early colonial exploration = = = \\n \\n One of the earliest accounts of Waterfall Gully comes from a \\\" Mr Kent \\\" who , along with Captain <unk> Barker and Barker 's servant , Miles , climbed Mount Lofty in 1831 .\",\n \"In making their ascent the party <unk> a ravine — described by Mr Kent as possessing \\\" smooth and grassy sides \\\" — which is believed by Anne Hardy to have been Waterfall Gully .\",\n \"Subsequent to Barker 's ascent , the first settlers who were recorded as having climbed Mount Lofty were <unk> Hutchinson and his servant , William Burt .\",\n \"The pair made three attempts to scale the mount before succeeding , and for their first attempt they attempted to traverse Waterfall Gully .\",\n \"The attempt was unsuccessful , but in July 1837 , Hutchinson wrote about the gully through which they had travelled .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully he wrote , had proven difficult , as the plants were so thickly grown as to provide a significant barrier to their progress .\",\n \"Near the point of surrender , Hutchinson described how they were \\\" <unk> surprised by seeing a wall of rock about fifty or sixty feet [ fifteen to eighteen metres ] high , which stretched across the ravine , and from the top of it leapt the brook which had so long been [ their ] companion \\\" .\",\n \"The brook was First Creek , and the waterfall they sighted is today known as First Falls .\",\n \"Nevertheless , Hutchinson was not the first to see First Falls .\",\n \"The first known recorded sighting of the waterfall by a colonial was that of John William Adams , an <unk> of HMS Buffalo in early January 1837 , who named it \\\" Adams ' Waterfall \\\" .\",\n \"He was traveling with his wife , Susanna and a party consisting of Nicholson 's and <unk> 's who had the use of a <unk> to go into the hills .\",\n \"Adams states \\\" we were opposite the spot where the Eagle on the Hill now is , and the question was put , who would volunteer to go down the hillside to try for water \\\" .\",\n \"= = = Development = = = \\n \\n The area soon became a tourist attraction for the early South Australian colonists , and was a popular destination for <unk> .\",\n \"In 1851 Francis Clark wrote that \\\" Waterfall Gully is the most picturesque place for a picnic that I have ever visited \\\" , and by the 1860s the area had become known throughout Adelaide .\",\n \"The use of Waterfall Gully as picnic spot was facilitated by the decision of the government of the day not to <unk> the area containing the waterfalls .\",\n \"Section 920 , as it was designated , did not enter into private hands , and thus members of the public were able to access the area from the nearby suburb of Eagle on the Hill on Mount Barker road .\",\n \"The position of the Eagle on the Hill hotel proved <unk> for this , as it permitted visitors to stop by for lunch before walking down the hill in the afternoon .\",\n \"Other parts of the Waterfall Gully area were subdivided , though , and much of the area was owned by Samuel Davenport .\",\n \"Davenport used the land for timber , grazing , and the cultivation of various crops , including olives and grapes for wine production .\",\n \"Other local residents ran market gardens and nurseries .\",\n \"For example , local residents Wilhelm Mügge and his wife Auguste Schmidt operated \\\" one of the best nurseries and market gardens near Adelaide \\\" , and gained a reputation for the <unk> produced from their local dairy farm .\",\n \"Along with farming , the hills and creek were prized areas for the <unk> and <unk> , and a number of mines were established in the region from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century .\",\n \"In 1844 the first silver @-@ lead , <unk> and iron mines were established in the area , while the 1890s saw a minor gold rush — although \\\" only small quantities were extracted \\\" .\",\n \"Of greater success was stone quarrying in Chambers ' Gully , which began in 1863 and increased in scale in 1912 .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully was also the site of Burnside 's \\\" first secondary industry \\\" .\",\n \"In the late 1830s , Thomas Cain built a <unk> on First Creek for John Cannan , which was then employed to power a sawmill on Cannan 's property .\",\n \"Cannan operated the mill as the \\\" <unk> Mill \\\" for approximately two years before selling the venture to a Mr. Finniss .\",\n \"Finniss opted to run the mill as a flour mill instead , and the mill was rebuilt and renamed \\\" <unk> Mill \\\" .\",\n \"The mill continued to operate under a variety of owners until the late 1850s , but it was dismantled during the 1880s , and today only traces of the earthworks remain .\",\n \"During this period the population of the nearby village of Burnside was expanding and required a new water supply .\",\n \"First Creek — which runs down Waterfall Gully and enters the River Torrens near today 's <unk> Gardens — was seen as the perfect solution to the water shortage .\",\n \"A weir was built during 1881 and 1882 , and was made to hold approximately two <unk> ( <unk> @,@ 000 US gallons ) of water .\",\n \"A pipeline was constructed to the reservoir at Burnside South , and from there the water was used throughout the surrounding area .\",\n \"As a side effect , the weir also reduced the volume of water available to the local market <unk> , and over many years that aspect of the region disappeared .\",\n \"While the route to the falls from Eagle on the Hill was on public land , the alternative route along the gully was through private properties .\",\n \"Nevertheless , many visitors chose this route , and a combination of public demand and a desire from some of the landowners for improved access to and from their properties — especially from the Mügge family — led to pressure to build a road through the gully .\",\n \"Although there was opposition from some of the locals , the Waterfall Gully road was built in the late 1880s .\",\n \"The completion of the road led to an increase in visitor numbers .\",\n \"Rather than a <unk> horse ride , visitors could now catch the horse tram to the start of the gully , and walk , cycle or ride to the falls .\",\n \"To provide for tourists , the area gained a number of road @-@ side <unk> and produce <unk> , and the Mügge family erected the two story Waterfall Hotel along the path .\",\n \"Furthermore , in 1912 the government opened a kiosk at the base of First Falls , designed in the \\\" style of a Swiss chalet \\\" .\",\n \"The hotel is a private residence today , but the kiosk continues to operate .\",\n \"= = = Protection = = = \\n \\n Although some parts of Waterfall Gully were transferred from the District Council of East Torrens ( now the Adelaide Hills Council ) to the City of Burnside in 1856 when the suburb 's current boundaries were established , the government of the day chose to retain control of a significant portion of Waterfall Gully .\",\n \"Thus it was not until 1884 that the remaining land was transferred to the control of the Burnside Council , <unk> largely through the efforts of Samuel Davenport and G. F. Cleland .\",\n \"The land remained under the Burnside Council 's control until 1912 , when the Waterfall Gully Reserve was reclaimed by the government as the first National Pleasure Resort in the state .\",\n \"Initially the reserve was placed under the jurisdiction of the National Parks Advisory Board , but later it was moved to the Tourist Bureau , before finally becoming part of the National Park Commission 's portfolio .\",\n \"In 1945 , much of the area that is today 's Cleland Conservation Park was purchased by the State Government , largely thanks to the efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland .\",\n \"Most of this land was combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up the gully to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to <unk> Road .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully Reserve was added to the park in 1972 .\",\n \"= = = Natural disasters = = = \\n \\n Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding .\",\n \"The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area , and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Country Fire Service ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931 , and , on the night of 7 November 2005 , Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs : Bob Stevenson , Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service ( <unk> ) , commented that \\\" There 's an area called Waterfall Gully Road , in the foothills , where one of the creeks comes down , and there 's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone . \\\"\",\n \"Properties were flooded , two bridges nearly collapsed , and 100 m ( 330 ft ) of road was washed away .\",\n \"Burnside council workers , the <unk> and the <unk> repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November .\",\n \"Much of the road had been inaccessible , and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month .\",\n \"= = Geography = = \\n \\n Waterfall Gully is situated at an average elevation of 234 m ( <unk> ft ) above sea level , in an area of 6 @.\",\n \"@ 08 km2 ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 35 sq mi ) .\",\n \"Its most notable geographical features are its gully and waterfall .\",\n \"<unk> Reserve , a large local park , is 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the start of Waterfall Gully Road while much of the north @-@ eastern side of the gully is part of Cleland Conservation Park .\",\n \"<unk> Waterfall Gully , 2 km ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 2 mi ) away , is Chambers Gully , which used to function as a land @-@ fill , but has in the past decade been reclaimed as a park through volunteer work .\",\n \"It contains a number of old ruins , walking trails , and springs and is home to a significant number of native species .\",\n \"Since European Settlement the native plant life has been considerably affected , with the native manna gum and blue gum woodlands being largely cleared for agricultural uses .\",\n \"The large amount of non @-@ native vegetation in the gully is predominantly the result of the early agriculture , although some species were introduced by accident .\",\n \"Introduced species include olive trees , hawthorn , <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"With the reduction of native flora , exotic fauna have flourished around the Waterfall Gully region .\",\n \"These include rabbits , <unk> and starlings .\",\n \"However , not all of the native wildlife has been lost — bats ( in particular , Gould 's <unk> bat ) , can be found in the area , as can superb fairy @-@ <unk> and Adelaide rosellas , and a large number of unique Australian animals such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> can be spotted on some of the walking trails .\",\n \"= = Transport = = \\n \\n Waterfall Gully is connected to the major Adelaide thoroughfare <unk> Road by Waterfall <unk> and <unk> Road , and cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb .\",\n \"According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics 71 @.\",\n \"@ 9 % of residents in the census area employed private vehicles for their commute to work .\",\n \"Only a small proportion ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 3 % ) walked to work and but 1 @.\",\n \"@ 2 % <unk> , while only 3 @.\",\n \"@ 6 % of Waterfall Gully residents travel to work by bus .\",\n \"The closest bus route for Waterfall Gully is the 142 bus , provided by the multi @-@ service Adelaide Metro .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully Road is <unk> and in some parts quite narrow .\",\n \"This has led to concerns regarding safety , as the road is frequented by both pedestrians and <unk> .\",\n \"After the death of a <unk> in 2007 , calls for the repair and resurfacing of the road intensified , with two <unk> being <unk> in parliament .\",\n \"The accident also led to a safety audit being conducted by <unk> , and although the results were not released to the public at the time , it called for an investigation of the entire length of the road .\",\n \"As of mid @-@ 2008 , there has been no clear plan released for the future of the road , with the road missing out on funding in the 2008 state budget .\",\n \"= = Residents = = \\n \\n In the 2001 Census , the population of the Waterfall Gully census area ( which includes the suburbs of Glen Osmond , <unk> Gardens and Mount Osmond ) was 2 @,@ 497 people , in an area of 6 @.\",\n \"@ 08 square kilometers .\",\n \"Females outnumbered males 54 @.\",\n \"@ 2 % to 45 @.\",\n \"@ 8 % , and some 21 @.\",\n \"@ 4 % of the population was born overseas ( see chart for a breakdown ) .\",\n \"There was only a slight change in the 2006 census , with the population increasing by 25 to 2 @,@ 522 .\",\n \"The eight strongest religious affiliations in the area ( based on the 2006 census figures ) were ( in descending order ) : Anglican , Catholic , <unk> , Lutheran , Orthodox Christian , Buddhist , Presbyterian , Church of Christ and Baptist ( a combination of other Christian faiths came in somewhere between Presbyterians and the Church of Christ , with 31 adherents ) .\",\n \"Also of note is the high occurrence of religious affiliation ( 67 @.\",\n \"@ 3 % ) in the region in comparison to the Adelaide ( and national ) average .\",\n \"Christian belief ( 64 @.\",\n \"@ 4 % ) is most prominent , with little growth in other religions .\",\n \"Residents in these four suburbs are more affluent than the Adelaide average , with a high occurrence of <unk> over A $ 1000 per week , which is also above the average for the City of Burnside .\",\n \"A majority of workers are employed in professional or white collar fields .\",\n \"The census area that incorporates Waterfall Gully has a larger proportion of those in both the younger ( 0 – 17 ) and older ( 60 + ) age ranges than in the City of Burnside as a whole , and there have been no \\\" numerically significant \\\" changes in the age distribution between the 2001 and 2006 censuses .\",\n \"Similarly , family numbers are also stable , with almost no change between 2001 and 2006 .\",\n \"= = <unk> = = \\n \\n The main attraction of Waterfall Gully is the waterfall , First Falls .\",\n \"It is at the south @-@ eastern end of the road , in land owned by Cleland Conservation Park .\",\n \"The weir at the bottom of the Waterfall was constructed in the late 19th century and was part of Adelaide 's early water supply .\",\n \"Development in the area has continued since the construction of a restaurant in 1912 .\",\n \"<unk> over recent decades have included improving access to the site , upgrading the bridges , and the addition of new signage .\",\n \"The Waterfall Gully Restaurant was constructed between 1911 and 1912 by South Australian architects Albert <unk> Conrad and his brother Frank , and was formally opened by Sir Day <unk> on 9 November 1912 .\",\n \"Built in the style of a Swiss chalet , the building has been heritage listed since 1987 , and is <unk> haunted by the ghost of a <unk> who died from burns suffered in 1926 .\",\n \"Other fire tracks and walking trails wind around the hills that surround Waterfall Gully , branching off from Chambers Gully , <unk> Gully or the area around First Creek .\",\n \"Destinations include <unk> , Eagle On The Hill , Mount Lofty , Mount Osmond and the Cleland Wildlife Park , located in the Cleland Conservation Park .\",\n \"The tracks have been completely rebuilt and resurfaced in the past ten years , and a number of older and more perilous routes have been sealed because of the difficult terrain .\",\n \"Many offer views of the city of Adelaide as well as the Gully itself .\",\n \"One of these is notable for connecting to the 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) <unk> Trail , and the trails are highly frequented .\",\n \"= = Politics = = \\n \\n Waterfall Gully is part of the state electoral district of Bragg , which has been held since 2002 by Liberal MP Vickie Chapman .\",\n \"In federal politics , the suburb is part of the division of Sturt , and has been represented by Christopher <unk> since 1993 .\",\n \"The results shown are from the closest polling station to Waterfall Gully — which is located outside of the suburb — at St David 's Church Hall on nearby <unk> Road ( Burnside ) .\",\n \"Both <unk> have traditionally gone to the Liberal Party , and Bragg in particular is regarded as a very safe Liberal seat .\",\n \"However , in the 2007 federal election , a strong swing towards the Labor Party and their candidate , Mia <unk> , resulted in the electorate transforming from a \\\" safe [ federal ] Liberal seat into a marginal one \\\" .\",\n \"In local government , Waterfall Gully is part of the ward of Beaumont within the City of Burnside , and the current Mayor for the district is David <unk> .\",\n \"Beaumont is currently represented by <unk> Mark <unk> and Anne <unk> .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["An early settler of the neighbouring suburb of Beaumont , James Milne Young , described the local <unk> : \" At every creek and gully you would see their <unk> [ simple Aboriginal homes made out of twigs and grass ] and their fires at night ... often as many as 500 to 600 would be camped in various places ... some behind the <unk> Gardens on the banks of the river ; some toward the Ranges ; some on the Waterfall Gully . \""],"string":"[\n \"An early settler of the neighbouring suburb of Beaumont , James Milne Young , described the local <unk> : \\\" At every creek and gully you would see their <unk> [ simple Aboriginal homes made out of twigs and grass ] and their fires at night ... often as many as 500 to 600 would be camped in various places ... some behind the <unk> Gardens on the banks of the river ; some toward the Ranges ; some on the Waterfall Gully . \\\"\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Waterfall Gully , South Australia = \n \n Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide .","It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.","@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre .","For the most part , the suburb encompasses one long gully with First Creek at its centre and Waterfall Gully Road running adjacent to the creek .","At the southern end of the gully is First Falls , the waterfall for which the suburb was named .","Part of the City of Burnside , Waterfall Gully is bounded to the north by the suburb of Burnside , from the north @-@ east to south @-@ east by Cleland Conservation Park ( part of the suburb of Cleland ) , to the south by <unk> West , and to the west by <unk> Gardens and Mount Osmond .","Historically , Waterfall Gully was first explored by European settlers in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , and quickly became a popular location for tourists and <unk> .","The government chose to retain control over portions of Waterfall Gully until 1884 , when they agreed to place the land under the auspices of the City of Burnside .","28 years later the government took back the management of the southern part of Waterfall Gully , designating it as South Australia 's first National Pleasure Resort .","Today this area remains under State Government control , and in 1972 the Waterfall Gully Reserve , as it was then known , became part of the larger Cleland Conservation Park .","Over the years Waterfall Gully has been extensively logged , and early agricultural interests saw the cultivation of a variety of introduced species as crops , along with the development of local market gardens and nurseries .","Attempts to mine the area were largely unsuccessful , but the region housed one of the state 's earliest water @-@ powered mills , and a weir erected in the early 1880s provided for part of the City of Burnside 's water supply .","Today the suburb consists primarily of private residences and parks .","= = History = = \n \n The Mount Lofty Ranges , which encompass Waterfall Gully , was first sighted by Matthew Flinders in 1802 .","The gully itself was discovered soon after the establishment of Adelaide , and Colonel William Light , the first <unk> General of South Australia , was said to have \" decided on the site for Adelaide when viewing the plains from the hills near Waterfall Gully \" .","Nevertheless , the gully had seen human visitors long before the arrival of the Europeans , as the native population had lived in the area for up to 40 @,@ 000 years prior to Flinders ' appearance off the South Australian coast .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Waterfall Gully and the surrounding Mount Lofty Ranges are part of the story of the ancestor @-@ creator Nganno .","Travelling across the land of the native <unk> people , Nganno was wounded in a battle and laid down to die , forming the Mount Lofty Ranges .","The ears of Nganno formed the peaks of Mount Lofty and Mount <unk> , and the region was referred to as <unk> @-@ e @-@ <unk> , or \" the place of the ears \" .","The name of the Greater Mount Lofty <unk> , <unk> , was derived from this term , while the nearby town of <unk> employs a more corrupted form .","Although Hardy states that the <unk> people did not live in the ranges themselves , they did live on the lower slopes .","Their main presence , <unk> by the use of fire against <unk> of land , was on the River Torrens and the creeks that flowed into it , including Waterfall Gully 's First Creek .","The land around Waterfall Gully provided the original inhabitants with a number of resources .","The bark from the local <unk> trees ( Eucalyptus <unk> ) was used in the construction of winter <unk> , and stones and native timbers were used to form tools .","Food was also present , and <unk> moth larvae along with other species of plants and animals were collected .","Nevertheless , there were only a few resources that could only be found on the slopes , and \" both hunting and food gathering would in general have been easier on the rich plains \" .","= = = Early colonial exploration = = = \n \n One of the earliest accounts of Waterfall Gully comes from a \" Mr Kent \" who , along with Captain <unk> Barker and Barker 's servant , Miles , climbed Mount Lofty in 1831 .","In making their ascent the party <unk> a ravine — described by Mr Kent as possessing \" smooth and grassy sides \" — which is believed by Anne Hardy to have been Waterfall Gully .","Subsequent to Barker 's ascent , the first settlers who were recorded as having climbed Mount Lofty were <unk> Hutchinson and his servant , William Burt .","The pair made three attempts to scale the mount before succeeding , and for their first attempt they attempted to traverse Waterfall Gully .","The attempt was unsuccessful , but in July 1837 , Hutchinson wrote about the gully through which they had travelled .","Waterfall Gully he wrote , had proven difficult , as the plants were so thickly grown as to provide a significant barrier to their progress .","Near the point of surrender , Hutchinson described how they were \" <unk> surprised by seeing a wall of rock about fifty or sixty feet [ fifteen to eighteen metres ] high , which stretched across the ravine , and from the top of it leapt the brook which had so long been [ their ] companion \" .","The brook was First Creek , and the waterfall they sighted is today known as First Falls .","Nevertheless , Hutchinson was not the first to see First Falls .","The first known recorded sighting of the waterfall by a colonial was that of John William Adams , an <unk> of HMS Buffalo in early January 1837 , who named it \" Adams ' Waterfall \" .","He was traveling with his wife , Susanna and a party consisting of Nicholson 's and <unk> 's who had the use of a <unk> to go into the hills .","Adams states \" we were opposite the spot where the Eagle on the Hill now is , and the question was put , who would volunteer to go down the hillside to try for water \" .","= = = Development = = = \n \n The area soon became a tourist attraction for the early South Australian colonists , and was a popular destination for <unk> .","In 1851 Francis Clark wrote that \" Waterfall Gully is the most picturesque place for a picnic that I have ever visited \" , and by the 1860s the area had become known throughout Adelaide .","The use of Waterfall Gully as picnic spot was facilitated by the decision of the government of the day not to <unk> the area containing the waterfalls .","Section 920 , as it was designated , did not enter into private hands , and thus members of the public were able to access the area from the nearby suburb of Eagle on the Hill on Mount Barker road .","The position of the Eagle on the Hill hotel proved <unk> for this , as it permitted visitors to stop by for lunch before walking down the hill in the afternoon .","Other parts of the Waterfall Gully area were subdivided , though , and much of the area was owned by Samuel Davenport .","Davenport used the land for timber , grazing , and the cultivation of various crops , including olives and grapes for wine production .","Other local residents ran market gardens and nurseries .","For example , local residents Wilhelm Mügge and his wife Auguste Schmidt operated \" one of the best nurseries and market gardens near Adelaide \" , and gained a reputation for the <unk> produced from their local dairy farm .","Along with farming , the hills and creek were prized areas for the <unk> and <unk> , and a number of mines were established in the region from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century .","In 1844 the first silver @-@ lead , <unk> and iron mines were established in the area , while the 1890s saw a minor gold rush — although \" only small quantities were extracted \" .","Of greater success was stone quarrying in Chambers ' Gully , which began in 1863 and increased in scale in 1912 .","Waterfall Gully was also the site of Burnside 's \" first secondary industry \" .","In the late 1830s , Thomas Cain built a <unk> on First Creek for John Cannan , which was then employed to power a sawmill on Cannan 's property .","Cannan operated the mill as the \" <unk> Mill \" for approximately two years before selling the venture to a Mr. Finniss .","Finniss opted to run the mill as a flour mill instead , and the mill was rebuilt and renamed \" <unk> Mill \" .","The mill continued to operate under a variety of owners until the late 1850s , but it was dismantled during the 1880s , and today only traces of the earthworks remain .","During this period the population of the nearby village of Burnside was expanding and required a new water supply .","First Creek — which runs down Waterfall Gully and enters the River Torrens near today 's <unk> Gardens — was seen as the perfect solution to the water shortage .","A weir was built during 1881 and 1882 , and was made to hold approximately two <unk> ( <unk> @,@ 000 US gallons ) of water .","A pipeline was constructed to the reservoir at Burnside South , and from there the water was used throughout the surrounding area .","As a side effect , the weir also reduced the volume of water available to the local market <unk> , and over many years that aspect of the region disappeared .","While the route to the falls from Eagle on the Hill was on public land , the alternative route along the gully was through private properties .","Nevertheless , many visitors chose this route , and a combination of public demand and a desire from some of the landowners for improved access to and from their properties — especially from the Mügge family — led to pressure to build a road through the gully .","Although there was opposition from some of the locals , the Waterfall Gully road was built in the late 1880s .","The completion of the road led to an increase in visitor numbers .","Rather than a <unk> horse ride , visitors could now catch the horse tram to the start of the gully , and walk , cycle or ride to the falls .","To provide for tourists , the area gained a number of road @-@ side <unk> and produce <unk> , and the Mügge family erected the two story Waterfall Hotel along the path .","Furthermore , in 1912 the government opened a kiosk at the base of First Falls , designed in the \" style of a Swiss chalet \" .","The hotel is a private residence today , but the kiosk continues to operate .","= = = Protection = = = \n \n Although some parts of Waterfall Gully were transferred from the District Council of East Torrens ( now the Adelaide Hills Council ) to the City of Burnside in 1856 when the suburb 's current boundaries were established , the government of the day chose to retain control of a significant portion of Waterfall Gully .","Thus it was not until 1884 that the remaining land was transferred to the control of the Burnside Council , <unk> largely through the efforts of Samuel Davenport and G. F. Cleland .","The land remained under the Burnside Council 's control until 1912 , when the Waterfall Gully Reserve was reclaimed by the government as the first National Pleasure Resort in the state .","Initially the reserve was placed under the jurisdiction of the National Parks Advisory Board , but later it was moved to the Tourist Bureau , before finally becoming part of the National Park Commission 's portfolio .","In 1945 , much of the area that is today 's Cleland Conservation Park was purchased by the State Government , largely thanks to the efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland .","Most of this land was combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up the gully to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to <unk> Road .","Waterfall Gully Reserve was added to the park in 1972 .","= = = Natural disasters = = = \n \n Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding .","The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area , and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Country Fire Service ( <unk> ) .","Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931 , and , on the night of 7 November 2005 , Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding .","Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs : Bob Stevenson , Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service ( <unk> ) , commented that \" There 's an area called Waterfall Gully Road , in the foothills , where one of the creeks comes down , and there 's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone . \"","Properties were flooded , two bridges nearly collapsed , and 100 m ( 330 ft ) of road was washed away .","Burnside council workers , the <unk> and the <unk> repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November .","Much of the road had been inaccessible , and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month .","= = Geography = = \n \n Waterfall Gully is situated at an average elevation of 234 m ( <unk> ft ) above sea level , in an area of 6 @.","@ 08 km2 ( 2 @.","@ 35 sq mi ) .","Its most notable geographical features are its gully and waterfall .","<unk> Reserve , a large local park , is 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the start of Waterfall Gully Road while much of the north @-@ eastern side of the gully is part of Cleland Conservation Park .","<unk> Waterfall Gully , 2 km ( 1 @.","@ 2 mi ) away , is Chambers Gully , which used to function as a land @-@ fill , but has in the past decade been reclaimed as a park through volunteer work .","It contains a number of old ruins , walking trails , and springs and is home to a significant number of native species .","Since European Settlement the native plant life has been considerably affected , with the native manna gum and blue gum woodlands being largely cleared for agricultural uses .","The large amount of non @-@ native vegetation in the gully is predominantly the result of the early agriculture , although some species were introduced by accident .","Introduced species include olive trees , hawthorn , <unk> and <unk> .","With the reduction of native flora , exotic fauna have flourished around the Waterfall Gully region .","These include rabbits , <unk> and starlings .","However , not all of the native wildlife has been lost — bats ( in particular , Gould 's <unk> bat ) , can be found in the area , as can superb fairy @-@ <unk> and Adelaide rosellas , and a large number of unique Australian animals such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> can be spotted on some of the walking trails .","= = Transport = = \n \n Waterfall Gully is connected to the major Adelaide thoroughfare <unk> Road by Waterfall <unk> and <unk> Road , and cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb .","According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics 71 @.","@ 9 % of residents in the census area employed private vehicles for their commute to work .","Only a small proportion ( 1 @.","@ 3 % ) walked to work and but 1 @.","@ 2 % <unk> , while only 3 @.","@ 6 % of Waterfall Gully residents travel to work by bus .","The closest bus route for Waterfall Gully is the 142 bus , provided by the multi @-@ service Adelaide Metro .","Waterfall Gully Road is <unk> and in some parts quite narrow .","This has led to concerns regarding safety , as the road is frequented by both pedestrians and <unk> .","After the death of a <unk> in 2007 , calls for the repair and resurfacing of the road intensified , with two <unk> being <unk> in parliament .","The accident also led to a safety audit being conducted by <unk> , and although the results were not released to the public at the time , it called for an investigation of the entire length of the road .","As of mid @-@ 2008 , there has been no clear plan released for the future of the road , with the road missing out on funding in the 2008 state budget .","= = Residents = = \n \n In the 2001 Census , the population of the Waterfall Gully census area ( which includes the suburbs of Glen Osmond , <unk> Gardens and Mount Osmond ) was 2 @,@ 497 people , in an area of 6 @.","@ 08 square kilometers .","Females outnumbered males 54 @.","@ 2 % to 45 @.","@ 8 % , and some 21 @.","@ 4 % of the population was born overseas ( see chart for a breakdown ) .","There was only a slight change in the 2006 census , with the population increasing by 25 to 2 @,@ 522 .","The eight strongest religious affiliations in the area ( based on the 2006 census figures ) were ( in descending order ) : Anglican , Catholic , <unk> , Lutheran , Orthodox Christian , Buddhist , Presbyterian , Church of Christ and Baptist ( a combination of other Christian faiths came in somewhere between Presbyterians and the Church of Christ , with 31 adherents ) .","Also of note is the high occurrence of religious affiliation ( 67 @.","@ 3 % ) in the region in comparison to the Adelaide ( and national ) average .","Christian belief ( 64 @.","@ 4 % ) is most prominent , with little growth in other religions .","Residents in these four suburbs are more affluent than the Adelaide average , with a high occurrence of <unk> over A $ 1000 per week , which is also above the average for the City of Burnside .","A majority of workers are employed in professional or white collar fields .","The census area that incorporates Waterfall Gully has a larger proportion of those in both the younger ( 0 – 17 ) and older ( 60 + ) age ranges than in the City of Burnside as a whole , and there have been no \" numerically significant \" changes in the age distribution between the 2001 and 2006 censuses .","Similarly , family numbers are also stable , with almost no change between 2001 and 2006 .","= = <unk> = = \n \n The main attraction of Waterfall Gully is the waterfall , First Falls .","It is at the south @-@ eastern end of the road , in land owned by Cleland Conservation Park .","The weir at the bottom of the Waterfall was constructed in the late 19th century and was part of Adelaide 's early water supply .","Development in the area has continued since the construction of a restaurant in 1912 .","<unk> over recent decades have included improving access to the site , upgrading the bridges , and the addition of new signage .","The Waterfall Gully Restaurant was constructed between 1911 and 1912 by South Australian architects Albert <unk> Conrad and his brother Frank , and was formally opened by Sir Day <unk> on 9 November 1912 .","Built in the style of a Swiss chalet , the building has been heritage listed since 1987 , and is <unk> haunted by the ghost of a <unk> who died from burns suffered in 1926 .","Other fire tracks and walking trails wind around the hills that surround Waterfall Gully , branching off from Chambers Gully , <unk> Gully or the area around First Creek .","Destinations include <unk> , Eagle On The Hill , Mount Lofty , Mount Osmond and the Cleland Wildlife Park , located in the Cleland Conservation Park .","The tracks have been completely rebuilt and resurfaced in the past ten years , and a number of older and more perilous routes have been sealed because of the difficult terrain .","Many offer views of the city of Adelaide as well as the Gully itself .","One of these is notable for connecting to the 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) <unk> Trail , and the trails are highly frequented .","= = Politics = = \n \n Waterfall Gully is part of the state electoral district of Bragg , which has been held since 2002 by Liberal MP Vickie Chapman .","In federal politics , the suburb is part of the division of Sturt , and has been represented by Christopher <unk> since 1993 .","The results shown are from the closest polling station to Waterfall Gully — which is located outside of the suburb — at St David 's Church Hall on nearby <unk> Road ( Burnside ) .","Both <unk> have traditionally gone to the Liberal Party , and Bragg in particular is regarded as a very safe Liberal seat .","However , in the 2007 federal election , a strong swing towards the Labor Party and their candidate , Mia <unk> , resulted in the electorate transforming from a \" safe [ federal ] Liberal seat into a marginal one \" .","In local government , Waterfall Gully is part of the ward of Beaumont within the City of Burnside , and the current Mayor for the district is David <unk> .","Beaumont is currently represented by <unk> Mark <unk> and Anne <unk> ."],"string":"[\n \" = Waterfall Gully , South Australia = \\n \\n Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide .\",\n \"It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre .\",\n \"For the most part , the suburb encompasses one long gully with First Creek at its centre and Waterfall Gully Road running adjacent to the creek .\",\n \"At the southern end of the gully is First Falls , the waterfall for which the suburb was named .\",\n \"Part of the City of Burnside , Waterfall Gully is bounded to the north by the suburb of Burnside , from the north @-@ east to south @-@ east by Cleland Conservation Park ( part of the suburb of Cleland ) , to the south by <unk> West , and to the west by <unk> Gardens and Mount Osmond .\",\n \"Historically , Waterfall Gully was first explored by European settlers in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , and quickly became a popular location for tourists and <unk> .\",\n \"The government chose to retain control over portions of Waterfall Gully until 1884 , when they agreed to place the land under the auspices of the City of Burnside .\",\n \"28 years later the government took back the management of the southern part of Waterfall Gully , designating it as South Australia 's first National Pleasure Resort .\",\n \"Today this area remains under State Government control , and in 1972 the Waterfall Gully Reserve , as it was then known , became part of the larger Cleland Conservation Park .\",\n \"Over the years Waterfall Gully has been extensively logged , and early agricultural interests saw the cultivation of a variety of introduced species as crops , along with the development of local market gardens and nurseries .\",\n \"Attempts to mine the area were largely unsuccessful , but the region housed one of the state 's earliest water @-@ powered mills , and a weir erected in the early 1880s provided for part of the City of Burnside 's water supply .\",\n \"Today the suburb consists primarily of private residences and parks .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n The Mount Lofty Ranges , which encompass Waterfall Gully , was first sighted by Matthew Flinders in 1802 .\",\n \"The gully itself was discovered soon after the establishment of Adelaide , and Colonel William Light , the first <unk> General of South Australia , was said to have \\\" decided on the site for Adelaide when viewing the plains from the hills near Waterfall Gully \\\" .\",\n \"Nevertheless , the gully had seen human visitors long before the arrival of the Europeans , as the native population had lived in the area for up to 40 @,@ 000 years prior to Flinders ' appearance off the South Australian coast .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Waterfall Gully and the surrounding Mount Lofty Ranges are part of the story of the ancestor @-@ creator Nganno .\",\n \"Travelling across the land of the native <unk> people , Nganno was wounded in a battle and laid down to die , forming the Mount Lofty Ranges .\",\n \"The ears of Nganno formed the peaks of Mount Lofty and Mount <unk> , and the region was referred to as <unk> @-@ e @-@ <unk> , or \\\" the place of the ears \\\" .\",\n \"The name of the Greater Mount Lofty <unk> , <unk> , was derived from this term , while the nearby town of <unk> employs a more corrupted form .\",\n \"Although Hardy states that the <unk> people did not live in the ranges themselves , they did live on the lower slopes .\",\n \"Their main presence , <unk> by the use of fire against <unk> of land , was on the River Torrens and the creeks that flowed into it , including Waterfall Gully 's First Creek .\",\n \"The land around Waterfall Gully provided the original inhabitants with a number of resources .\",\n \"The bark from the local <unk> trees ( Eucalyptus <unk> ) was used in the construction of winter <unk> , and stones and native timbers were used to form tools .\",\n \"Food was also present , and <unk> moth larvae along with other species of plants and animals were collected .\",\n \"Nevertheless , there were only a few resources that could only be found on the slopes , and \\\" both hunting and food gathering would in general have been easier on the rich plains \\\" .\",\n \"= = = Early colonial exploration = = = \\n \\n One of the earliest accounts of Waterfall Gully comes from a \\\" Mr Kent \\\" who , along with Captain <unk> Barker and Barker 's servant , Miles , climbed Mount Lofty in 1831 .\",\n \"In making their ascent the party <unk> a ravine — described by Mr Kent as possessing \\\" smooth and grassy sides \\\" — which is believed by Anne Hardy to have been Waterfall Gully .\",\n \"Subsequent to Barker 's ascent , the first settlers who were recorded as having climbed Mount Lofty were <unk> Hutchinson and his servant , William Burt .\",\n \"The pair made three attempts to scale the mount before succeeding , and for their first attempt they attempted to traverse Waterfall Gully .\",\n \"The attempt was unsuccessful , but in July 1837 , Hutchinson wrote about the gully through which they had travelled .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully he wrote , had proven difficult , as the plants were so thickly grown as to provide a significant barrier to their progress .\",\n \"Near the point of surrender , Hutchinson described how they were \\\" <unk> surprised by seeing a wall of rock about fifty or sixty feet [ fifteen to eighteen metres ] high , which stretched across the ravine , and from the top of it leapt the brook which had so long been [ their ] companion \\\" .\",\n \"The brook was First Creek , and the waterfall they sighted is today known as First Falls .\",\n \"Nevertheless , Hutchinson was not the first to see First Falls .\",\n \"The first known recorded sighting of the waterfall by a colonial was that of John William Adams , an <unk> of HMS Buffalo in early January 1837 , who named it \\\" Adams ' Waterfall \\\" .\",\n \"He was traveling with his wife , Susanna and a party consisting of Nicholson 's and <unk> 's who had the use of a <unk> to go into the hills .\",\n \"Adams states \\\" we were opposite the spot where the Eagle on the Hill now is , and the question was put , who would volunteer to go down the hillside to try for water \\\" .\",\n \"= = = Development = = = \\n \\n The area soon became a tourist attraction for the early South Australian colonists , and was a popular destination for <unk> .\",\n \"In 1851 Francis Clark wrote that \\\" Waterfall Gully is the most picturesque place for a picnic that I have ever visited \\\" , and by the 1860s the area had become known throughout Adelaide .\",\n \"The use of Waterfall Gully as picnic spot was facilitated by the decision of the government of the day not to <unk> the area containing the waterfalls .\",\n \"Section 920 , as it was designated , did not enter into private hands , and thus members of the public were able to access the area from the nearby suburb of Eagle on the Hill on Mount Barker road .\",\n \"The position of the Eagle on the Hill hotel proved <unk> for this , as it permitted visitors to stop by for lunch before walking down the hill in the afternoon .\",\n \"Other parts of the Waterfall Gully area were subdivided , though , and much of the area was owned by Samuel Davenport .\",\n \"Davenport used the land for timber , grazing , and the cultivation of various crops , including olives and grapes for wine production .\",\n \"Other local residents ran market gardens and nurseries .\",\n \"For example , local residents Wilhelm Mügge and his wife Auguste Schmidt operated \\\" one of the best nurseries and market gardens near Adelaide \\\" , and gained a reputation for the <unk> produced from their local dairy farm .\",\n \"Along with farming , the hills and creek were prized areas for the <unk> and <unk> , and a number of mines were established in the region from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century .\",\n \"In 1844 the first silver @-@ lead , <unk> and iron mines were established in the area , while the 1890s saw a minor gold rush — although \\\" only small quantities were extracted \\\" .\",\n \"Of greater success was stone quarrying in Chambers ' Gully , which began in 1863 and increased in scale in 1912 .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully was also the site of Burnside 's \\\" first secondary industry \\\" .\",\n \"In the late 1830s , Thomas Cain built a <unk> on First Creek for John Cannan , which was then employed to power a sawmill on Cannan 's property .\",\n \"Cannan operated the mill as the \\\" <unk> Mill \\\" for approximately two years before selling the venture to a Mr. Finniss .\",\n \"Finniss opted to run the mill as a flour mill instead , and the mill was rebuilt and renamed \\\" <unk> Mill \\\" .\",\n \"The mill continued to operate under a variety of owners until the late 1850s , but it was dismantled during the 1880s , and today only traces of the earthworks remain .\",\n \"During this period the population of the nearby village of Burnside was expanding and required a new water supply .\",\n \"First Creek — which runs down Waterfall Gully and enters the River Torrens near today 's <unk> Gardens — was seen as the perfect solution to the water shortage .\",\n \"A weir was built during 1881 and 1882 , and was made to hold approximately two <unk> ( <unk> @,@ 000 US gallons ) of water .\",\n \"A pipeline was constructed to the reservoir at Burnside South , and from there the water was used throughout the surrounding area .\",\n \"As a side effect , the weir also reduced the volume of water available to the local market <unk> , and over many years that aspect of the region disappeared .\",\n \"While the route to the falls from Eagle on the Hill was on public land , the alternative route along the gully was through private properties .\",\n \"Nevertheless , many visitors chose this route , and a combination of public demand and a desire from some of the landowners for improved access to and from their properties — especially from the Mügge family — led to pressure to build a road through the gully .\",\n \"Although there was opposition from some of the locals , the Waterfall Gully road was built in the late 1880s .\",\n \"The completion of the road led to an increase in visitor numbers .\",\n \"Rather than a <unk> horse ride , visitors could now catch the horse tram to the start of the gully , and walk , cycle or ride to the falls .\",\n \"To provide for tourists , the area gained a number of road @-@ side <unk> and produce <unk> , and the Mügge family erected the two story Waterfall Hotel along the path .\",\n \"Furthermore , in 1912 the government opened a kiosk at the base of First Falls , designed in the \\\" style of a Swiss chalet \\\" .\",\n \"The hotel is a private residence today , but the kiosk continues to operate .\",\n \"= = = Protection = = = \\n \\n Although some parts of Waterfall Gully were transferred from the District Council of East Torrens ( now the Adelaide Hills Council ) to the City of Burnside in 1856 when the suburb 's current boundaries were established , the government of the day chose to retain control of a significant portion of Waterfall Gully .\",\n \"Thus it was not until 1884 that the remaining land was transferred to the control of the Burnside Council , <unk> largely through the efforts of Samuel Davenport and G. F. Cleland .\",\n \"The land remained under the Burnside Council 's control until 1912 , when the Waterfall Gully Reserve was reclaimed by the government as the first National Pleasure Resort in the state .\",\n \"Initially the reserve was placed under the jurisdiction of the National Parks Advisory Board , but later it was moved to the Tourist Bureau , before finally becoming part of the National Park Commission 's portfolio .\",\n \"In 1945 , much of the area that is today 's Cleland Conservation Park was purchased by the State Government , largely thanks to the efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland .\",\n \"Most of this land was combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up the gully to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to <unk> Road .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully Reserve was added to the park in 1972 .\",\n \"= = = Natural disasters = = = \\n \\n Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding .\",\n \"The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area , and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Country Fire Service ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931 , and , on the night of 7 November 2005 , Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs : Bob Stevenson , Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service ( <unk> ) , commented that \\\" There 's an area called Waterfall Gully Road , in the foothills , where one of the creeks comes down , and there 's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone . \\\"\",\n \"Properties were flooded , two bridges nearly collapsed , and 100 m ( 330 ft ) of road was washed away .\",\n \"Burnside council workers , the <unk> and the <unk> repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November .\",\n \"Much of the road had been inaccessible , and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month .\",\n \"= = Geography = = \\n \\n Waterfall Gully is situated at an average elevation of 234 m ( <unk> ft ) above sea level , in an area of 6 @.\",\n \"@ 08 km2 ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 35 sq mi ) .\",\n \"Its most notable geographical features are its gully and waterfall .\",\n \"<unk> Reserve , a large local park , is 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the start of Waterfall Gully Road while much of the north @-@ eastern side of the gully is part of Cleland Conservation Park .\",\n \"<unk> Waterfall Gully , 2 km ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 2 mi ) away , is Chambers Gully , which used to function as a land @-@ fill , but has in the past decade been reclaimed as a park through volunteer work .\",\n \"It contains a number of old ruins , walking trails , and springs and is home to a significant number of native species .\",\n \"Since European Settlement the native plant life has been considerably affected , with the native manna gum and blue gum woodlands being largely cleared for agricultural uses .\",\n \"The large amount of non @-@ native vegetation in the gully is predominantly the result of the early agriculture , although some species were introduced by accident .\",\n \"Introduced species include olive trees , hawthorn , <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"With the reduction of native flora , exotic fauna have flourished around the Waterfall Gully region .\",\n \"These include rabbits , <unk> and starlings .\",\n \"However , not all of the native wildlife has been lost — bats ( in particular , Gould 's <unk> bat ) , can be found in the area , as can superb fairy @-@ <unk> and Adelaide rosellas , and a large number of unique Australian animals such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> can be spotted on some of the walking trails .\",\n \"= = Transport = = \\n \\n Waterfall Gully is connected to the major Adelaide thoroughfare <unk> Road by Waterfall <unk> and <unk> Road , and cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb .\",\n \"According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics 71 @.\",\n \"@ 9 % of residents in the census area employed private vehicles for their commute to work .\",\n \"Only a small proportion ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 3 % ) walked to work and but 1 @.\",\n \"@ 2 % <unk> , while only 3 @.\",\n \"@ 6 % of Waterfall Gully residents travel to work by bus .\",\n \"The closest bus route for Waterfall Gully is the 142 bus , provided by the multi @-@ service Adelaide Metro .\",\n \"Waterfall Gully Road is <unk> and in some parts quite narrow .\",\n \"This has led to concerns regarding safety , as the road is frequented by both pedestrians and <unk> .\",\n \"After the death of a <unk> in 2007 , calls for the repair and resurfacing of the road intensified , with two <unk> being <unk> in parliament .\",\n \"The accident also led to a safety audit being conducted by <unk> , and although the results were not released to the public at the time , it called for an investigation of the entire length of the road .\",\n \"As of mid @-@ 2008 , there has been no clear plan released for the future of the road , with the road missing out on funding in the 2008 state budget .\",\n \"= = Residents = = \\n \\n In the 2001 Census , the population of the Waterfall Gully census area ( which includes the suburbs of Glen Osmond , <unk> Gardens and Mount Osmond ) was 2 @,@ 497 people , in an area of 6 @.\",\n \"@ 08 square kilometers .\",\n \"Females outnumbered males 54 @.\",\n \"@ 2 % to 45 @.\",\n \"@ 8 % , and some 21 @.\",\n \"@ 4 % of the population was born overseas ( see chart for a breakdown ) .\",\n \"There was only a slight change in the 2006 census , with the population increasing by 25 to 2 @,@ 522 .\",\n \"The eight strongest religious affiliations in the area ( based on the 2006 census figures ) were ( in descending order ) : Anglican , Catholic , <unk> , Lutheran , Orthodox Christian , Buddhist , Presbyterian , Church of Christ and Baptist ( a combination of other Christian faiths came in somewhere between Presbyterians and the Church of Christ , with 31 adherents ) .\",\n \"Also of note is the high occurrence of religious affiliation ( 67 @.\",\n \"@ 3 % ) in the region in comparison to the Adelaide ( and national ) average .\",\n \"Christian belief ( 64 @.\",\n \"@ 4 % ) is most prominent , with little growth in other religions .\",\n \"Residents in these four suburbs are more affluent than the Adelaide average , with a high occurrence of <unk> over A $ 1000 per week , which is also above the average for the City of Burnside .\",\n \"A majority of workers are employed in professional or white collar fields .\",\n \"The census area that incorporates Waterfall Gully has a larger proportion of those in both the younger ( 0 – 17 ) and older ( 60 + ) age ranges than in the City of Burnside as a whole , and there have been no \\\" numerically significant \\\" changes in the age distribution between the 2001 and 2006 censuses .\",\n \"Similarly , family numbers are also stable , with almost no change between 2001 and 2006 .\",\n \"= = <unk> = = \\n \\n The main attraction of Waterfall Gully is the waterfall , First Falls .\",\n \"It is at the south @-@ eastern end of the road , in land owned by Cleland Conservation Park .\",\n \"The weir at the bottom of the Waterfall was constructed in the late 19th century and was part of Adelaide 's early water supply .\",\n \"Development in the area has continued since the construction of a restaurant in 1912 .\",\n \"<unk> over recent decades have included improving access to the site , upgrading the bridges , and the addition of new signage .\",\n \"The Waterfall Gully Restaurant was constructed between 1911 and 1912 by South Australian architects Albert <unk> Conrad and his brother Frank , and was formally opened by Sir Day <unk> on 9 November 1912 .\",\n \"Built in the style of a Swiss chalet , the building has been heritage listed since 1987 , and is <unk> haunted by the ghost of a <unk> who died from burns suffered in 1926 .\",\n \"Other fire tracks and walking trails wind around the hills that surround Waterfall Gully , branching off from Chambers Gully , <unk> Gully or the area around First Creek .\",\n \"Destinations include <unk> , Eagle On The Hill , Mount Lofty , Mount Osmond and the Cleland Wildlife Park , located in the Cleland Conservation Park .\",\n \"The tracks have been completely rebuilt and resurfaced in the past ten years , and a number of older and more perilous routes have been sealed because of the difficult terrain .\",\n \"Many offer views of the city of Adelaide as well as the Gully itself .\",\n \"One of these is notable for connecting to the 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) <unk> Trail , and the trails are highly frequented .\",\n \"= = Politics = = \\n \\n Waterfall Gully is part of the state electoral district of Bragg , which has been held since 2002 by Liberal MP Vickie Chapman .\",\n \"In federal politics , the suburb is part of the division of Sturt , and has been represented by Christopher <unk> since 1993 .\",\n \"The results shown are from the closest polling station to Waterfall Gully — which is located outside of the suburb — at St David 's Church Hall on nearby <unk> Road ( Burnside ) .\",\n \"Both <unk> have traditionally gone to the Liberal Party , and Bragg in particular is regarded as a very safe Liberal seat .\",\n \"However , in the 2007 federal election , a strong swing towards the Labor Party and their candidate , Mia <unk> , resulted in the electorate transforming from a \\\" safe [ federal ] Liberal seat into a marginal one \\\" .\",\n \"In local government , Waterfall Gully is part of the ward of Beaumont within the City of Burnside , and the current Mayor for the district is David <unk> .\",\n \"Beaumont is currently represented by <unk> Mark <unk> and Anne <unk> .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":90,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Noisy miner = \n \n The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , <unk> , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia .","This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips on the tail feathers .","The Tasmanian race has a more intense yellow panel in the wing , and a broader white tip to the tail .","Males , females and juveniles are similar in appearance , though young birds are a brownish @-@ grey .","As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is a vocal species with a large range of songs , calls , <unk> and alarms , and almost constant vocalizations particularly from young birds .","One of four species in the genus Manorina , the noisy miner itself is divided into four subspecies .","The separation of the Tasmanian M. <unk> leachi is of long standing , and the mainland birds were further split in 1999 .","Found in a broad arc from Far North Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania and southeastern South Australia , the noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests that lack understory shrubs .","These include forests dominated by spotted gum , box and ironbark , as well as in degraded woodland where the understory has been cleared , such as recently burned areas , farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .","The density of noisy miner populations has significantly increased in many locations across its range , particularly human @-@ dominated habitats .","The popularity of nectar @-@ producing garden plants such as the large @-@ <unk> <unk> was thought to play a role in its proliferation , but studies now show that the noisy miner has benefited primarily from <unk> practices that create open areas dominated by eucalypts .","Noisy miners are gregarious and territorial ; they forage , bathe , roost , breed and defend territory <unk> , forming colonies that can contain several hundred birds .","Each bird has an ' activity space ' and birds with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , the most stable units within the colony .","The birds also form temporary flocks called ' coalitions ' for specific activities such as mobbing a predator .","Group cohesion is facilitated not only by vocalizations , but also through ritualised displays which have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays .","The noisy miner is a notably aggressive bird , and chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occur throughout the day , targeted at both intruders and colony members .","<unk> in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground , the noisy miner mainly eats nectar , fruit and insects .","Most time is spent <unk> the foliage of eucalypts , and it can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , <unk> and <unk> gathered from the foliage .","The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display , but copulation is a frenzied communal event .","It breeds all year long , building a deep cup @-@ shaped nest and laying two to four eggs .","Incubation is by the female only , although up to twenty male helpers take care of the nestlings and fledglings .","Noisy miners have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods and group mobbing of predators .","The noisy miner 's population increase has been correlated with the reduction of avian diversity in human @-@ affected landscapes .","Its <unk> means that translocation is unlikely to be a solution to its overabundance , and culling has been proposed , although the noisy miner is currently a protected species across Australia .","= = Taxonomy = = \n \n English ornithologist John Latham described the noisy miner four times in his 1801 work <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : the chattering bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) , black @-@ headed <unk> ( <unk> melanocephala ) , hooded bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) , and white @-@ fronted bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) .","Early notes recorded its tendency to scare off prey as hunters were about to shoot .","It was as the chattering bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1792 and 1797 by Thomas <unk> , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter .","John Gould treated the name Merops <unk> as the original description , and renamed it <unk> <unk> in his 1865 work <unk> to the Birds of Australia , giving it the common name of garrulous honeyeater , and noting the alternate name of chattering honeyeater .","He noted the colonists of Tasmania called it a miner , and aboriginal people of New South Wales called it <unk> .","Que <unk> gang was a local aboriginal name from the Blue Mountains .","In the early 20th century , Australian ornithologists started using the name Manorina melanocephala instead , because it was listed first by Latham in 1801 .","This usage did not follow the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , and in 2009 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature <unk> the current name by formally suppressing the name M. <unk> .","The species name melanocephala is derived from the Ancient Greek words <unk> \" black \" , and <unk> \" head \" , referring to its black crown .","Other common names include Mickey miner and <unk> .","Four subspecies are recognised , including subspecies leachi found in eastern Tasmania .","The mainland population was split into three subspecies in 1999 by Richard <unk> — <unk> from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland as far south as <unk> , <unk> from central Queensland and inland New South Wales west of <unk> , and the nominate subspecies melanocephala from southeastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southern South Australia .","There are broad zones where birds are intermediate between subspecies .","Further study is required to settle the taxonomic status of these populations .","The noisy miner is one of four species in the genus Manorina in the large family of honeyeaters known as <unk> , the other three being the black @-@ eared miner ( M. <unk> ) , the yellow @-@ throated miner ( M. <unk> ) , and the bell miner ( M. <unk> ) .","One of the most obvious characteristics of the genus is a patch of bare yellow skin behind the eyes , which gives them an odd ' cross @-@ eyed ' look .","Within the genus , the noisy , black @-@ eared and yellow @-@ throated miners form the subgenus <unk> .","The noisy miner occasionally <unk> with the yellow @-@ throated miner .","Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( Australian <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , etc . )",", and the <unk> ( Australian fairy @-@ <unk> ) in a large <unk> superfamily .","= = Description = = \n \n \n = = = <unk> = = = \n \n The noisy miner is a large honeyeater , 24 – 28 centimetres ( 9 @.","@ 4 – 11 @.","@ 0 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 36 – 45 centimetres ( 14 – 18 in ) , and weighing 70 – 80 grams ( 2 @.","@ 5 – 2 @.","@ 8 oz ) .","Male , female and juvenile birds all have similar plumage : grey on the back and tail and on the breast , and otherwise white underneath , with white scalloping on the nape and hind @-@ neck and on the breast ; off @-@ white forehead and <unk> ; a black band over the crown , bright orange @-@ yellow bill and a distinctive patch of yellow skin behind the eye ; a prominent white tip to the tail ; a narrow olive @-@ yellow panel in the folded wing ; and orange @-@ yellow legs and feet .","A juvenile can be distinguished by softer plumage , a brownish tinge to the black on its head and the grey on its back , and a duller , greyish @-@ yellow skin patch behind the eye .","The noisy miner is similar in appearance to the yellow @-@ throated miner and the black @-@ eared miner ; it has a dull white forehead and a black crown , while the others have grey heads .","= = = = Geographical variations = = = = \n \n Size variation in the noisy miner over its range follows Bergmann 's rule ; namely , birds tend to be larger where the climate is colder .","Adults from central @-@ eastern and northern Queensland tend to have little or no olive @-@ yellow edging to the feathers of the back and wings , and have a wider white fringe on the feathers of the hind @-@ neck and back , giving birds from Queensland the appearance of having more distinctive scalloping than other populations .","Wing length generally increases with latitude and M. <unk> leachi has <unk> shorter wings than the nominate race , although no significant difference in wing length was found in a study of populations north of 30 ° S and south of the Murray River .","The subspecies leachi also has finer scalloping on the hind @-@ neck than the nominate race , a more intense yellow tinge to the wing panels , and a slightly broader off @-@ white tip to the tail .","The far north Queensland subspecies <unk> has a shorter tail , paler crown , larger yellow skin patch , and paler upper parts without the yellow @-@ olive of the nominate race ; and <unk> , found in western New South Wales , is smaller than the nominate race with a black crown , and darker more mottled upperparts .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is an unusually vocal species .","Previously known as the garrulous honeyeater , it has a large and varied repertoire of songs , calls , <unk> and alarms .","Most are loud and penetrating , and consist of harsh single notes .","It has two broad @-@ frequency alarm calls that are used when mobbing intruders into their territory , or when predators ( including humans ) are sighted ; and a narrow @-@ frequency alarm call that is primarily used when airborne predators are seen , such as the brown falcon ( Falco <unk> ) , or other large flying birds including the Australian <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and the <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) .","The aerial predator alarm call is a series of high @-@ pitched , <unk> whistling notes .","The broad @-@ frequency alarm calls are a series of ' <unk> ' notes , low pitched and harsh , occurring at low and high levels of intensity .","The narrow @-@ band call is used in situations where the bird signals the presence of a predator and <unk> information about its own location , while the broad @-@ band alarm is used to attract attention , and can initiate mobbing behaviour .","These <unk> calls vary between individuals , and laboratory tests show noisy miners can distinguish calls by different birds .","Hence , this may be integral to the complex social structure of the species .","Contact or social <unk> calls are low @-@ pitched sounds that carry long distances . '","<unk> ' calls are given by individual birds when foraging , and a similar call is given by nestlings that call at an increased rate as the mother approaches the nest .","Where there is a high level of social activity , such as during territorial disputes with <unk> , calls are a series of quick , regular , single notes .","The noisy miner has a mating display flight song , a soft <unk> of low @-@ frequency notes , given during short undulating flights by the male , and responded to by the female with a low @-@ frequency whistle .","The noisy miner is found in open woodland habitats , where it is an advantage to call from the air so as to overcome sound <unk> .","Another display call , described as ' yammer ' , is a rapid <unk> series of notes that is uttered during open @-@ bill , wing @-@ waving displays .","The noisy miner has a song described as the ' dawn song ' — a communal song of clear <unk> notes emitted in chorus in the early hours of the morning from May through January .","The dawn song , which is also sung at dusk , is audible over long distances and features duets that often involve <unk> .","A nestling begins to give the ' chip ' call soon after it emerges from the egg , and it calls frequently for the first two thirds of the nestling period and constantly for the last third .","The call does not vary in the presence of an adult at the nest , so it seems likely that the call is not directed at the adult bird .","The nestling becomes silent when an adult gives an alarm call , and makes a <unk> sound when the adult delivers food .","The <unk> call of a fledgling is similar to the call of the nestling , but significantly louder and covering a greater frequency range ( which may make it more directional ) .","The rate of calling , on average , is 85 to 100 calls in a minute , and in open scrub the call can be heard up to a kilometre away .","<unk> , a juvenile vocalization comprising elements of various calls , begins to be uttered when the fledgling is around thirty days old .","The noisy miner also produces non @-@ vocal sounds by clicking or snapping its bill , usually during antagonistic encounters with other bird species , or when mobbing a predator .","= = Distribution and habitat = = \n \n The noisy miner is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia , occupying a broad arc from Far North Queensland where there are scattered populations , to New South Wales where it is widespread and common from the coast to a line from <unk> to <unk> , through Victoria into south @-@ eastern South Australia , and eastern Tasmania .","Its range in South Australia has been steadily expanding since it was first recorded near Adelaide in the early 1890s .","It is sedentary over its entire range .","The noisy miner is territorial , and the territory of a colony is aggressively defended — which has led to a significant reduction in avian diversity in areas occupied by the noisy miner , with smaller species excluded .","The noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests without understory shrubs .","It is commonly found in open <unk> forests , including those on coastal dunes or granite <unk> ; forests dominated by spotted gum on mountain ridges and exposed slopes ; box and ironbark forests on the foothills of the Great <unk> Range ; mixed forests of eucalypts and <unk> ( <unk> ) ; forests dominated by <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> or <unk> bush ; in stands of <unk> and scattered clumps of <unk> ; on the edges of woodlands of river red gum including swamp woodlands bordering floodplains , and areas dominated by exotic species such as European ash and <unk> .","It regularly inhabits degraded patches of forest where the understory has been cleared , including recently burned areas , and modified habitats such as lightly @-@ <unk> farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , <unk> remnants in towns and cities , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .","The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties , heavy grazing that removes the understory , fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat , and urban <unk> practices that increase open eucalypt environments .","It has been described as a ' reverse keystone ' species , as it is <unk> an ever @-@ increasing range of human @-@ dominated habitats , and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments .","This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas .","A field study across the South West <unk> of New South Wales , showed that the noisy miner 's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as <unk> , <unk> , the restless <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , and other honeyeater species , and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients .","While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large @-@ flowering grevillea <unk> has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners , recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas , and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase .","Large @-@ <unk> grevillea hybrids such as <unk> ' Robyn Gordon ' can benefit the noisy miner , in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters , and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non @-@ migratory species .","A field study in box @-@ ironbark country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum ( Eucalyptus <unk> ) , which reliably produces flowers ( and nectar ) each year .","The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure .","While the range of the noisy miner has not significantly expanded , the density of the population within that range has substantially increased .","High densities of noisy miners are regularly recorded in forests with thick understory in southern Queensland , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) or more from the forest / agricultural land edge .","Many of these sites have extensive road networks used for forest management , and picnic areas and walking tracks for recreational use , and it has been found that these cleared spaces play a role in the abundance of noisy miners in the forests .","There is evidence to suggest that higher road densities correspond with higher noisy miner population levels .","Field work in Victoria showed noisy miners infiltrated anywhere from 150 to 300 m ( 490 to 980 ft ) into remnant woodland from the edges , with greater penetration occurring in less densely forested areas .","This has implications for the size of woodland habitat needed to contain miner @-@ free areas — around 36 hectares ( 89 acres ) .","<unk> projects restoring <unk> woodland , a species of she @-@ oak integral to the survival of the red @-@ tailed black <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , have been <unk> with a nurse species , usually fast @-@ growing eucalypts .","Noisy miner populations were more likely in those <unk> woodlands where eucalypts had been planted at densities of up to 16 per hectare ( 6 @.","@ 4 per acre ) .","The presence of noisy miners was accompanied by a substantial difference in number and types of other birds found in the woodland .","= = Behaviour = = \n \n \n = = = Social organization = = = \n \n The noisy miner is a gregarious species , and the birds are rarely seen singly or in <unk> ; they forage , move and roost in colonies that can consist of several hundred birds \n Within a colony , a male bird will occupy an ' activity space ' , which will overlap with the activity spaces of other males .","Males with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , usually consisting of 10 to 25 birds .","<unk> are the most stable unit within the colony .","The birds also form temporary flocks when engaged in the same activity .","These flocks , called ' coalitions ' , usually comprise five to eight birds , although coalitions of up to 40 birds can occur when mobbing a potential predator .","<unk> of the coalition changes frequently as individuals leave the group as it passes beyond the boundary of their activity space , or the activity ends or changes , as when the breeding season begins .","Females use activity spaces that overlap with those of male birds , but not other females , so that females will join coalitions with males in their area , but only rarely will there be more than one female in the coalition .","The exclusivity of female activity spaces leads to young females being driven out of the colony in which they were born , and also makes it difficult for them to gain a place in a new colony .","A study of banded nestlings that survived in one colony until the next breeding season , found that they were all male birds , suggesting that all female nestlings had died or left the colony .","Emigration of males does not seem to occur until the population density of the colony reaches a critical level .","Looking after the young is communal , with males of the coterie bringing food to the nestlings and removing <unk> sacs .","Communal feeding increases after fledging , when males from nearby coteries may even bring food to the young birds if not driven off .","<unk> is usually communal , with two to six adults and juveniles roosting in contact with each other , usually near the end of a hanging branch up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) above ground , within their activity space .","They select a new site each evening , often selecting and rejecting several sites , and engaging in aggressive calling and chasing as other birds attempt to join the group .","They are often the last birds to roost at night , but appear to sleep soundly , undisturbed by <unk> .","Noisy miners drink together at the edge of lakes and dams , and from cattle troughs , often <unk> on a submerged branch .","They bathe by diving head first into water and , when almost totally submerged , flapping their wings vigorously and <unk> their heads under the water .","They shake excess water off and then fly to a nearby branch to <unk> .","They have been observed using <unk> or <unk> @-@ soaked foliage to bathe , and in dry weather will dust @-@ bathe in dry soil or fine litter such as grass <unk> .","<unk> is communal , with birds stimulated to participate by observing others .","They are occasionally observed <unk> .","= = = = <unk> behaviour = = = = \n \n The noisy miner engages in most activities in a group .","<unk> , foraging , <unk> , bathing and dust @-@ bathing or <unk> are communal activities .","Dawn song is a communal chorus , particularly during the breeding season .","The communal interaction is facilitated by ritualised displays that have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays .","In ' long flight ' displays , initiated by either male or female birds , groups of up to twenty birds from more than one coterie fly about 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above the canopy for distances of up to 1 @.","@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.","@ 93 mi ) from the colony , constantly calling and not returning to the colony for about twenty minutes .","As they return the remaining birds show signs of agitation , and sometimes fly up to join them .","The ' short flight ' display is performed by the male , and may be analogous to the territorial advertising displays of other birds .","In a ritualised movement , the noisy miner flies out from a perch across an open area , in a rhythmic undulating pattern , usually calling in flight .","At the end of the clearing it turns on an upward <unk> and flies silently back to a perch near the starting point .","The ' head @-@ up flight ' is performed by the female during the nesting period , and may function to attract male helpers .","In its most intense form the body and tail are held almost vertically , with legs dangling and the head held up and back .","It is performed by the female when she is selecting the nest site , and when carrying nest @-@ building material , and probably has the function of indicating the location of the nest to other group members .","<unk> displays include tall and low poses , pointing , open bill , and wing waving .","The ' tall posture ' is used when in close contact with another bird and is a mild threat .","The bird holds itself upright with neck and legs stretched , and it faces the other bird .","The ' low posture ' is a submissive gesture ; the bird sits low on the perch with legs obscured by <unk> feathers and often faces away from the other bird .","Fledglings threatened by adult birds will adopt a low posture and open their bill widely . '","Pointing ' is a threat display where the bird stretches out horizontally , with feathers <unk> and the bill pointed at the target of the aggression .","A bill snap will sometimes accompany pointing .","An ' open bill display ' is used by subordinates in encounters between two birds , and by a female on the nest when other birds approach .","The ' trident bill display ' involves a fully open bill with the tongue raised and protruding and is a higher @-@ intensity submissive display . '","Wing waving ' is often performed at the same time as an open bill display .","The wings are <unk> and held slightly away from the body , and <unk> out and up around three to six times .","Wing waving may be accompanied by a yammer call . '","Eagle ' displays involve holding the wings and tail spread out , in either a vertical or horizontal position .","Eye displays are made by exposing or covering the bare yellow patch behind the eye — when the feathers are completely <unk> the entire patch is visible , and when they are <unk> the patch is hidden .","Eye displays are used in conjunction with postural displays , with the yellow patch fully displayed by dominant birds using threat <unk> , and immature birds tending to reduce the size of the eye patch when under attack from other members of the coterie .","On occasion early in the breeding season , mass displays erupt , where twenty or thirty birds perform the various wing @-@ spreading displays , short flights , and constant calling .","<unk> birds are attacked by others , and groups of silent but agitated birds watch the interactions .","Mass displays are more common in the early morning , can last for up to 40 minutes , and seem to be a combination of sexual and agonistic behaviour .","A ' corroboree ' ( from the word for a ceremonial meeting of Aboriginal Australians ) is a group display where birds converge on adjacent branches and simultaneously pose <unk> , giving wing @-@ waving and open @-@ bill displays and the yammer call .","A corroboree occurs when birds meet after a change in the social environment , such as a bird returning after an absence , or the <unk> of an intruder , or the coming together of different coteries .","The corroboree appears to have a bonding function , and may involve all members of a colony .","= = = = <unk> behaviour = = = = \n \n Described as \" always at war with others of the feathered kind \" in early notes , the noisy miner is one of the most aggressive of the honeyeaters .","Much of the activity within a noisy miner colony is antagonistic with chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occurring frequently throughout the day .","The birds unite to attack predators and to defend the colony area against all other species of birds ; the species is also highly aggressive <unk> .","Female noisy miners are aggressive towards each other , and one cause of a male @-@ biased sex @-@ ratio in colonies may be the females ' greater intolerance for each other , driving <unk> out of the colony and preventing the immigration of new females .","<unk> at the nest is common between males .","Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old , and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling .","Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds , although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring , and <unk> has been recorded .","There is little male to female aggression other than the ' driving flights ' that form part of the mating ritual .","In direct attacks of young birds <unk> are directed at the eye patch .","<unk> behaviour has been observed among nestlings , with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the death of a sibling .","The noisy miner colony <unk> to mob inter @-@ specific intruders and predators .","The noisy miner will approach the threat closely and point , expose eye patches , and often bill @-@ snap .","Five to fifteen birds will fly around the intruder , some birds diving at it and either pulling away or striking the intruder .","The mobbing continues until the intruder remains still , as with a tawny <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , or it leaves the area .","<unk> of snakes and <unk> is particularly intense , and most species of bird , even non @-@ predators , entering the territory are immediately chased .","The noisy miner has been recorded attacking an Australian <unk> @-@ <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) during the day , <unk> , <unk> , ducks and <unk> on lakes at the edge of territories , crested pigeons ( <unk> <unk> ) , <unk> , and rosellas .","Non @-@ predatory mammals such as bats , cattle , sheep , and <unk> are also attacked , though less vigorously than birds .","Noisy miner attacks are not limited to chasing the intruder , and aggressive incidents often result in the death of the <unk> .","Reports include those of two noisy miners repeatedly pecking a house sparrow ( <unk> <unk> ) at the base of its skull and killing it in six minutes ; one noisy miner grasping a <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) by the wing while another <unk> it on the head until it died ; and a sacred <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) being chased and harassed for over five hours and then found dead with a fractured skull .","= = = = Response to threats = = = = \n \n Noisy miners make louder alarm calls in <unk> sections of urban environments , such as main roads .","The most common initial response to alarm calls is to stay in the area and scan for threats , rather than withdraw .","A study conducted in Melbourne and a nearby rural area found that noisy miners in urban areas were less likely to take flight , and when they did they flew shorter distances .","It is unclear whether this is an adaptation or bolder miners had been the ones to settle in the city .","A field study in Canberra found that superb <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners recognised miner alarm calls and took flight , and had learnt to ignore their non @-@ alarm calls , while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls .","This suggests the species has adapted and learnt to discriminate and respond to another species ' <unk> .","= = = Feeding = = = \n \n The noisy miner primarily eats nectar , fruit and insects , and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians .","It is both <unk> and terrestrial , feeding in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground .","It <unk> within the colony 's territory throughout the year , usually in groups of five to eight birds although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees such as banksia .","The noisy miner collects nectar directly from flowers , hanging upside down or <unk> thin branches <unk> to access the nectar ; it takes fruit from trees or fallen on the ground ; <unk> or hawks for invertebrates ; and picks through leaf litter for insects .","It has been recorded turning over the dried droppings of <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and eastern grey <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) searching for insects .","In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens , the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia , grevillea and eucalypt species , and when in flower , <unk> , than in other plants including <unk> .","Most time was spent <unk> the foliage of eucalypts , and noisy miners were significantly more abundant in sites where eucalypts were present .","The noisy miner can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , <unk> and <unk> gathered from the foliage of eucalypts .","Lower numbers of noisy miner were recorded at <unk> and <unk> than other large honeyeaters such as little <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and red <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) .","Detailed studies of the diet of the noisy miner record it eating a range of foods including : spiders ; insects ( leaf beetles , <unk> , <unk> bugs , ants , moth and butterfly larvae ) ; nectar ( from <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , eucalypts Argyle <unk> , sugar gum , yellow gum , grey ironbark , and grey gum , Banksia <unk> , B.","<unk> , B.","<unk> , <unk> <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , and flowering <unk> ) ; seeds from oats , wheat and <unk> tree ; fruit from <unk> , mistletoe and <unk> ; frogs and <unk> ; and other matter such as bread , pieces of meat and cheese , and food scraps .","In the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species , the noisy miner was found to employ different cognitive strategies depending upon the resource it was foraging .","When searching for nectar , which does not move but is readily depleted , the noisy miner uses a spatial memory @-@ based strategy , identifying characteristics of the environment — a strategy that is efficient in new environments and is not affected by changes in the bird 's activities .","When searching for invertebrates , it appears to employ a different strategy based on learned rules of insect movement ( they improve at finding invertebrates with practice ) .","The two different strategies imply the existence of adapted cognitive mechanisms , capable of responding appropriately to different foraging contexts .","= = = Breeding = = = \n \n The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display ; displays can involve ' driving ' where the male jumps or flies at the female from 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.","@ 3 – 6 @.","@ 6 ft ) away , and if she moves away he pursues her aggressively .","The female may perform a ' bowed @-@ wing display ' where the wings and tail are spread and <unk> , with the wings arched and the head pointing down .","The male may adopt a vertical or horizontal ' eagle display ' with wings and tail spread wide and held still for several seconds .","Copulation is frequent and conspicuous , with both males and females <unk> with several birds , while other members of the colony display or otherwise interfere with the mating pair .","Copulation usually occurs on larger , exposed branches close to the nest site and can occur at any time of the day , although slightly more often between 11 : 00 and 13 : 00 when communal activities are less frequent .","The frenzied courtship activity had led to speculation that the female mates <unk> to recruit males to help care for the young , but recent genetic testing shows that 96 @.","@ 5 % of noisy miner broods result from monogamous mating and that multiple paternity is rare .","An observation of banded birds noted that while females <unk> repeatedly , it was always with the same male .","<unk> switching between broods is uncommon , with pairs staying together over several years .","The noisy miner breeds all year long , with most activity from July through November , though the peak period is subject to seasonal variations with sharp peaks in laying activity when conditions are particularly favourable for raising young .","The nest is built in prickly or leafy trees , and the noisy miner is often recorded nesting in eucalypts , and also in <unk> , <unk> , Banksia , <unk> , Hibiscus , mistletoe , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> .","It seems to prefer moderately dense foliage for nesting , often near the end of <unk> horizontal branches .","Support for the nest may be the primary criterion of a suitable nest site , rather than characteristics of the vegetation or location .","The female alone builds the nest , which is deep and cup @-@ shaped , woven of twigs and grasses with other plant material , animal hair and spider <unk> .","Occasionally the nest will include man @-@ made materials such as <unk> , scraps of material , and tissue paper .","It is lined with wool , hair , feathers , flowers or plant down , and padded with a circular mat woven from fibres pulled from the <unk> of the processional <unk> .","The female noisy miner walks around on the ground close to the nest site , picking up material .","She <unk> material from disused nests of other birds , or <unk> its most recent nest to build a new one .","The female completes the nest in five or six days .","On average nests have an external diameter of 15 – 17 @.","@ 8 centimetres ( 5 @.","@ 9 – 7 @.","@ 0 in ) and an external depth of 9 – 11 @.","@ 4 centimetres ( 3 @.","@ 5 – 4 @.","@ 5 in ) .","The internal depth of the nest is around 5 @.","@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.","@ 2 in ) .","<unk> vary greatly in size , shape and markings , but are generally elongated <unk> ; white to cream or pinkish or buff coloured ; <unk> , spotted or blotched with reddish brown to chestnut or a purplish red , sometimes with underlying markings of violet or purplish grey .","The clutch consists of two to four eggs .","Incubation is by the female only , and the incubation period is around sixteen days .","<unk> is <unk> , with up to six days being recorded between the hatching of the first and last chicks in a clutch .","Young are naked at hatching , and develop a cover of down within two to three days .","The fledging period is around sixteen days , and young begin to find food for themselves between twenty @-@ six and thirty days after fledging , but are still regularly fed by adults to thirty @-@ five days .","The young leave the nest before they are fully fledged , and only able to fly downwards , and scramble up .","They do not go far from the nest , return to it at night , and take some weeks to completely leave the nest .","Many fledglings are found on the ground and in low shrubs during this period , where they continue to be cared for until they can make their way up into the trees .","These birds are often mistakenly \" rescued \" .","The fledglings seek out siblings if separated , and <unk> together for up to three weeks after fledging .","The noisy miner has some of the largest group sizes of any <unk> breeding bird , with up to twenty males and one female attending a single brood .","Only males help with a nest , and while many birds may be associated with a particular brood , some males devote all their time to a single nest , while others spread their helping efforts across five or six nests .","<unk> evidence and genetic testing indicate that helpers are male offspring of the breeding pair , or full siblings of the male parent .","Males nearly always bring food to the nestling singly , and if several arrive at once one will pass food to a nestling while the others wait .","The female leaves the nest quickly when a male bird arrives , and never takes food from one of the helpers .","Communal feeding of the young increases after fledging , and the young beg for food with constant ' chip chip ' calls and <unk> mouths .","The female rarely feeds the young birds after they have fledged .","= = = = Nest predation = = = = \n \n Cooperative breeding has been described as a strategy for decreasing nest predation , although one study found no relationship between the number of helpers visiting a nest site and its success or failure .","Noisy miners were seen to have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods , laying eggs early in the season , nesting low in the canopy and group mobbing of predators ; these measures did not guarantee against nest failure due to the diversity of potential predators in the noisy miner 's open woodland habitat .","= = Conservation status = = \n \n Being abundant throughout its significant range , the noisy miner is considered of least concern for conservation , and its extreme population densities in some areas actually constitute a threat to other species .","The strong correlation between the presence of noisy miners and the absence of avian diversity has been well documented .","The role played by the noisy miner in the steep decline of many woodland birds , its impact on endangered species with similar foraging requirements , and the level of leaf damage leading to die @-@ back that accompanies the exclusion of insectivorous birds from remnant woodlands , means that any strategy to restore avian diversity will need to take account of the management of noisy miner populations .","Some habitat restoration and <unk> projects have inadvertently increased the problem of the noisy miner by establishing the open eucalypt habit that they prefer .","A focus of many regeneration projects has been the establishing of habitat corridors that connect patches of remnant forest , and the use of eucalypts as fast @-@ growing nurse species .","Both practices have sound ecological value , but allow the noisy miner to <unk> , so conservation efforts are being modified by planting a shrubby understory with the eucalypts , and avoiding the creation of narrow <unk> , corners or clumps of trees in vegetation corridors .","A field study conducted in the Southern Highlands found that noisy miners tended to avoid areas dominated by <unk> , species of which in the study area had <unk> leaves .","Hence the authors proposed <unk> projects include at least 15 % <unk> species with <unk> leaves if possible , as well as shrubby understory plants .","<unk> of noisy miners is unlikely to be a solution to their overabundance in remnant habitats .","In a Victorian study where birds were banded and relocated , colonies moved into the now unpopulated area but soon returned to their original territories .","The <unk> birds did not settle in a new territory .","They were not assimilated into resident populations of miners , but instead wandered up to 4 @.","@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.","@ 6 mi ) from the release point , moving through apparently suitable habitat occupied by other miners — at least for the first 50 days following translocation .","Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) back to their site of capture .","Although noisy miners are protected across Australia , and a permit is required to <unk> them , culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact , particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life .","An <unk> <unk> took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992 , which reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity ."],"string":"[\n \" = Noisy miner = \\n \\n The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , <unk> , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia .\",\n \"This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips on the tail feathers .\",\n \"The Tasmanian race has a more intense yellow panel in the wing , and a broader white tip to the tail .\",\n \"Males , females and juveniles are similar in appearance , though young birds are a brownish @-@ grey .\",\n \"As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is a vocal species with a large range of songs , calls , <unk> and alarms , and almost constant vocalizations particularly from young birds .\",\n \"One of four species in the genus Manorina , the noisy miner itself is divided into four subspecies .\",\n \"The separation of the Tasmanian M. <unk> leachi is of long standing , and the mainland birds were further split in 1999 .\",\n \"Found in a broad arc from Far North Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania and southeastern South Australia , the noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests that lack understory shrubs .\",\n \"These include forests dominated by spotted gum , box and ironbark , as well as in degraded woodland where the understory has been cleared , such as recently burned areas , farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .\",\n \"The density of noisy miner populations has significantly increased in many locations across its range , particularly human @-@ dominated habitats .\",\n \"The popularity of nectar @-@ producing garden plants such as the large @-@ <unk> <unk> was thought to play a role in its proliferation , but studies now show that the noisy miner has benefited primarily from <unk> practices that create open areas dominated by eucalypts .\",\n \"Noisy miners are gregarious and territorial ; they forage , bathe , roost , breed and defend territory <unk> , forming colonies that can contain several hundred birds .\",\n \"Each bird has an ' activity space ' and birds with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , the most stable units within the colony .\",\n \"The birds also form temporary flocks called ' coalitions ' for specific activities such as mobbing a predator .\",\n \"Group cohesion is facilitated not only by vocalizations , but also through ritualised displays which have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays .\",\n \"The noisy miner is a notably aggressive bird , and chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occur throughout the day , targeted at both intruders and colony members .\",\n \"<unk> in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground , the noisy miner mainly eats nectar , fruit and insects .\",\n \"Most time is spent <unk> the foliage of eucalypts , and it can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , <unk> and <unk> gathered from the foliage .\",\n \"The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display , but copulation is a frenzied communal event .\",\n \"It breeds all year long , building a deep cup @-@ shaped nest and laying two to four eggs .\",\n \"Incubation is by the female only , although up to twenty male helpers take care of the nestlings and fledglings .\",\n \"Noisy miners have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods and group mobbing of predators .\",\n \"The noisy miner 's population increase has been correlated with the reduction of avian diversity in human @-@ affected landscapes .\",\n \"Its <unk> means that translocation is unlikely to be a solution to its overabundance , and culling has been proposed , although the noisy miner is currently a protected species across Australia .\",\n \"= = Taxonomy = = \\n \\n English ornithologist John Latham described the noisy miner four times in his 1801 work <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : the chattering bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) , black @-@ headed <unk> ( <unk> melanocephala ) , hooded bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) , and white @-@ fronted bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) .\",\n \"Early notes recorded its tendency to scare off prey as hunters were about to shoot .\",\n \"It was as the chattering bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1792 and 1797 by Thomas <unk> , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter .\",\n \"John Gould treated the name Merops <unk> as the original description , and renamed it <unk> <unk> in his 1865 work <unk> to the Birds of Australia , giving it the common name of garrulous honeyeater , and noting the alternate name of chattering honeyeater .\",\n \"He noted the colonists of Tasmania called it a miner , and aboriginal people of New South Wales called it <unk> .\",\n \"Que <unk> gang was a local aboriginal name from the Blue Mountains .\",\n \"In the early 20th century , Australian ornithologists started using the name Manorina melanocephala instead , because it was listed first by Latham in 1801 .\",\n \"This usage did not follow the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , and in 2009 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature <unk> the current name by formally suppressing the name M. <unk> .\",\n \"The species name melanocephala is derived from the Ancient Greek words <unk> \\\" black \\\" , and <unk> \\\" head \\\" , referring to its black crown .\",\n \"Other common names include Mickey miner and <unk> .\",\n \"Four subspecies are recognised , including subspecies leachi found in eastern Tasmania .\",\n \"The mainland population was split into three subspecies in 1999 by Richard <unk> — <unk> from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland as far south as <unk> , <unk> from central Queensland and inland New South Wales west of <unk> , and the nominate subspecies melanocephala from southeastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southern South Australia .\",\n \"There are broad zones where birds are intermediate between subspecies .\",\n \"Further study is required to settle the taxonomic status of these populations .\",\n \"The noisy miner is one of four species in the genus Manorina in the large family of honeyeaters known as <unk> , the other three being the black @-@ eared miner ( M. <unk> ) , the yellow @-@ throated miner ( M. <unk> ) , and the bell miner ( M. <unk> ) .\",\n \"One of the most obvious characteristics of the genus is a patch of bare yellow skin behind the eyes , which gives them an odd ' cross @-@ eyed ' look .\",\n \"Within the genus , the noisy , black @-@ eared and yellow @-@ throated miners form the subgenus <unk> .\",\n \"The noisy miner occasionally <unk> with the yellow @-@ throated miner .\",\n \"Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( Australian <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , etc . )\",\n \", and the <unk> ( Australian fairy @-@ <unk> ) in a large <unk> superfamily .\",\n \"= = Description = = \\n \\n \\n = = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner is a large honeyeater , 24 – 28 centimetres ( 9 @.\",\n \"@ 4 – 11 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 36 – 45 centimetres ( 14 – 18 in ) , and weighing 70 – 80 grams ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 5 – 2 @.\",\n \"@ 8 oz ) .\",\n \"Male , female and juvenile birds all have similar plumage : grey on the back and tail and on the breast , and otherwise white underneath , with white scalloping on the nape and hind @-@ neck and on the breast ; off @-@ white forehead and <unk> ; a black band over the crown , bright orange @-@ yellow bill and a distinctive patch of yellow skin behind the eye ; a prominent white tip to the tail ; a narrow olive @-@ yellow panel in the folded wing ; and orange @-@ yellow legs and feet .\",\n \"A juvenile can be distinguished by softer plumage , a brownish tinge to the black on its head and the grey on its back , and a duller , greyish @-@ yellow skin patch behind the eye .\",\n \"The noisy miner is similar in appearance to the yellow @-@ throated miner and the black @-@ eared miner ; it has a dull white forehead and a black crown , while the others have grey heads .\",\n \"= = = = Geographical variations = = = = \\n \\n Size variation in the noisy miner over its range follows Bergmann 's rule ; namely , birds tend to be larger where the climate is colder .\",\n \"Adults from central @-@ eastern and northern Queensland tend to have little or no olive @-@ yellow edging to the feathers of the back and wings , and have a wider white fringe on the feathers of the hind @-@ neck and back , giving birds from Queensland the appearance of having more distinctive scalloping than other populations .\",\n \"Wing length generally increases with latitude and M. <unk> leachi has <unk> shorter wings than the nominate race , although no significant difference in wing length was found in a study of populations north of 30 ° S and south of the Murray River .\",\n \"The subspecies leachi also has finer scalloping on the hind @-@ neck than the nominate race , a more intense yellow tinge to the wing panels , and a slightly broader off @-@ white tip to the tail .\",\n \"The far north Queensland subspecies <unk> has a shorter tail , paler crown , larger yellow skin patch , and paler upper parts without the yellow @-@ olive of the nominate race ; and <unk> , found in western New South Wales , is smaller than the nominate race with a black crown , and darker more mottled upperparts .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is an unusually vocal species .\",\n \"Previously known as the garrulous honeyeater , it has a large and varied repertoire of songs , calls , <unk> and alarms .\",\n \"Most are loud and penetrating , and consist of harsh single notes .\",\n \"It has two broad @-@ frequency alarm calls that are used when mobbing intruders into their territory , or when predators ( including humans ) are sighted ; and a narrow @-@ frequency alarm call that is primarily used when airborne predators are seen , such as the brown falcon ( Falco <unk> ) , or other large flying birds including the Australian <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and the <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) .\",\n \"The aerial predator alarm call is a series of high @-@ pitched , <unk> whistling notes .\",\n \"The broad @-@ frequency alarm calls are a series of ' <unk> ' notes , low pitched and harsh , occurring at low and high levels of intensity .\",\n \"The narrow @-@ band call is used in situations where the bird signals the presence of a predator and <unk> information about its own location , while the broad @-@ band alarm is used to attract attention , and can initiate mobbing behaviour .\",\n \"These <unk> calls vary between individuals , and laboratory tests show noisy miners can distinguish calls by different birds .\",\n \"Hence , this may be integral to the complex social structure of the species .\",\n \"Contact or social <unk> calls are low @-@ pitched sounds that carry long distances . '\",\n \"<unk> ' calls are given by individual birds when foraging , and a similar call is given by nestlings that call at an increased rate as the mother approaches the nest .\",\n \"Where there is a high level of social activity , such as during territorial disputes with <unk> , calls are a series of quick , regular , single notes .\",\n \"The noisy miner has a mating display flight song , a soft <unk> of low @-@ frequency notes , given during short undulating flights by the male , and responded to by the female with a low @-@ frequency whistle .\",\n \"The noisy miner is found in open woodland habitats , where it is an advantage to call from the air so as to overcome sound <unk> .\",\n \"Another display call , described as ' yammer ' , is a rapid <unk> series of notes that is uttered during open @-@ bill , wing @-@ waving displays .\",\n \"The noisy miner has a song described as the ' dawn song ' — a communal song of clear <unk> notes emitted in chorus in the early hours of the morning from May through January .\",\n \"The dawn song , which is also sung at dusk , is audible over long distances and features duets that often involve <unk> .\",\n \"A nestling begins to give the ' chip ' call soon after it emerges from the egg , and it calls frequently for the first two thirds of the nestling period and constantly for the last third .\",\n \"The call does not vary in the presence of an adult at the nest , so it seems likely that the call is not directed at the adult bird .\",\n \"The nestling becomes silent when an adult gives an alarm call , and makes a <unk> sound when the adult delivers food .\",\n \"The <unk> call of a fledgling is similar to the call of the nestling , but significantly louder and covering a greater frequency range ( which may make it more directional ) .\",\n \"The rate of calling , on average , is 85 to 100 calls in a minute , and in open scrub the call can be heard up to a kilometre away .\",\n \"<unk> , a juvenile vocalization comprising elements of various calls , begins to be uttered when the fledgling is around thirty days old .\",\n \"The noisy miner also produces non @-@ vocal sounds by clicking or snapping its bill , usually during antagonistic encounters with other bird species , or when mobbing a predator .\",\n \"= = Distribution and habitat = = \\n \\n The noisy miner is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia , occupying a broad arc from Far North Queensland where there are scattered populations , to New South Wales where it is widespread and common from the coast to a line from <unk> to <unk> , through Victoria into south @-@ eastern South Australia , and eastern Tasmania .\",\n \"Its range in South Australia has been steadily expanding since it was first recorded near Adelaide in the early 1890s .\",\n \"It is sedentary over its entire range .\",\n \"The noisy miner is territorial , and the territory of a colony is aggressively defended — which has led to a significant reduction in avian diversity in areas occupied by the noisy miner , with smaller species excluded .\",\n \"The noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests without understory shrubs .\",\n \"It is commonly found in open <unk> forests , including those on coastal dunes or granite <unk> ; forests dominated by spotted gum on mountain ridges and exposed slopes ; box and ironbark forests on the foothills of the Great <unk> Range ; mixed forests of eucalypts and <unk> ( <unk> ) ; forests dominated by <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> or <unk> bush ; in stands of <unk> and scattered clumps of <unk> ; on the edges of woodlands of river red gum including swamp woodlands bordering floodplains , and areas dominated by exotic species such as European ash and <unk> .\",\n \"It regularly inhabits degraded patches of forest where the understory has been cleared , including recently burned areas , and modified habitats such as lightly @-@ <unk> farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , <unk> remnants in towns and cities , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .\",\n \"The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties , heavy grazing that removes the understory , fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat , and urban <unk> practices that increase open eucalypt environments .\",\n \"It has been described as a ' reverse keystone ' species , as it is <unk> an ever @-@ increasing range of human @-@ dominated habitats , and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments .\",\n \"This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas .\",\n \"A field study across the South West <unk> of New South Wales , showed that the noisy miner 's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as <unk> , <unk> , the restless <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , and other honeyeater species , and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients .\",\n \"While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large @-@ flowering grevillea <unk> has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners , recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas , and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase .\",\n \"Large @-@ <unk> grevillea hybrids such as <unk> ' Robyn Gordon ' can benefit the noisy miner , in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters , and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non @-@ migratory species .\",\n \"A field study in box @-@ ironbark country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum ( Eucalyptus <unk> ) , which reliably produces flowers ( and nectar ) each year .\",\n \"The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure .\",\n \"While the range of the noisy miner has not significantly expanded , the density of the population within that range has substantially increased .\",\n \"High densities of noisy miners are regularly recorded in forests with thick understory in southern Queensland , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) or more from the forest / agricultural land edge .\",\n \"Many of these sites have extensive road networks used for forest management , and picnic areas and walking tracks for recreational use , and it has been found that these cleared spaces play a role in the abundance of noisy miners in the forests .\",\n \"There is evidence to suggest that higher road densities correspond with higher noisy miner population levels .\",\n \"Field work in Victoria showed noisy miners infiltrated anywhere from 150 to 300 m ( 490 to 980 ft ) into remnant woodland from the edges , with greater penetration occurring in less densely forested areas .\",\n \"This has implications for the size of woodland habitat needed to contain miner @-@ free areas — around 36 hectares ( 89 acres ) .\",\n \"<unk> projects restoring <unk> woodland , a species of she @-@ oak integral to the survival of the red @-@ tailed black <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , have been <unk> with a nurse species , usually fast @-@ growing eucalypts .\",\n \"Noisy miner populations were more likely in those <unk> woodlands where eucalypts had been planted at densities of up to 16 per hectare ( 6 @.\",\n \"@ 4 per acre ) .\",\n \"The presence of noisy miners was accompanied by a substantial difference in number and types of other birds found in the woodland .\",\n \"= = Behaviour = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Social organization = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner is a gregarious species , and the birds are rarely seen singly or in <unk> ; they forage , move and roost in colonies that can consist of several hundred birds \\n Within a colony , a male bird will occupy an ' activity space ' , which will overlap with the activity spaces of other males .\",\n \"Males with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , usually consisting of 10 to 25 birds .\",\n \"<unk> are the most stable unit within the colony .\",\n \"The birds also form temporary flocks when engaged in the same activity .\",\n \"These flocks , called ' coalitions ' , usually comprise five to eight birds , although coalitions of up to 40 birds can occur when mobbing a potential predator .\",\n \"<unk> of the coalition changes frequently as individuals leave the group as it passes beyond the boundary of their activity space , or the activity ends or changes , as when the breeding season begins .\",\n \"Females use activity spaces that overlap with those of male birds , but not other females , so that females will join coalitions with males in their area , but only rarely will there be more than one female in the coalition .\",\n \"The exclusivity of female activity spaces leads to young females being driven out of the colony in which they were born , and also makes it difficult for them to gain a place in a new colony .\",\n \"A study of banded nestlings that survived in one colony until the next breeding season , found that they were all male birds , suggesting that all female nestlings had died or left the colony .\",\n \"Emigration of males does not seem to occur until the population density of the colony reaches a critical level .\",\n \"Looking after the young is communal , with males of the coterie bringing food to the nestlings and removing <unk> sacs .\",\n \"Communal feeding increases after fledging , when males from nearby coteries may even bring food to the young birds if not driven off .\",\n \"<unk> is usually communal , with two to six adults and juveniles roosting in contact with each other , usually near the end of a hanging branch up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) above ground , within their activity space .\",\n \"They select a new site each evening , often selecting and rejecting several sites , and engaging in aggressive calling and chasing as other birds attempt to join the group .\",\n \"They are often the last birds to roost at night , but appear to sleep soundly , undisturbed by <unk> .\",\n \"Noisy miners drink together at the edge of lakes and dams , and from cattle troughs , often <unk> on a submerged branch .\",\n \"They bathe by diving head first into water and , when almost totally submerged , flapping their wings vigorously and <unk> their heads under the water .\",\n \"They shake excess water off and then fly to a nearby branch to <unk> .\",\n \"They have been observed using <unk> or <unk> @-@ soaked foliage to bathe , and in dry weather will dust @-@ bathe in dry soil or fine litter such as grass <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> is communal , with birds stimulated to participate by observing others .\",\n \"They are occasionally observed <unk> .\",\n \"= = = = <unk> behaviour = = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner engages in most activities in a group .\",\n \"<unk> , foraging , <unk> , bathing and dust @-@ bathing or <unk> are communal activities .\",\n \"Dawn song is a communal chorus , particularly during the breeding season .\",\n \"The communal interaction is facilitated by ritualised displays that have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays .\",\n \"In ' long flight ' displays , initiated by either male or female birds , groups of up to twenty birds from more than one coterie fly about 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above the canopy for distances of up to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 93 mi ) from the colony , constantly calling and not returning to the colony for about twenty minutes .\",\n \"As they return the remaining birds show signs of agitation , and sometimes fly up to join them .\",\n \"The ' short flight ' display is performed by the male , and may be analogous to the territorial advertising displays of other birds .\",\n \"In a ritualised movement , the noisy miner flies out from a perch across an open area , in a rhythmic undulating pattern , usually calling in flight .\",\n \"At the end of the clearing it turns on an upward <unk> and flies silently back to a perch near the starting point .\",\n \"The ' head @-@ up flight ' is performed by the female during the nesting period , and may function to attract male helpers .\",\n \"In its most intense form the body and tail are held almost vertically , with legs dangling and the head held up and back .\",\n \"It is performed by the female when she is selecting the nest site , and when carrying nest @-@ building material , and probably has the function of indicating the location of the nest to other group members .\",\n \"<unk> displays include tall and low poses , pointing , open bill , and wing waving .\",\n \"The ' tall posture ' is used when in close contact with another bird and is a mild threat .\",\n \"The bird holds itself upright with neck and legs stretched , and it faces the other bird .\",\n \"The ' low posture ' is a submissive gesture ; the bird sits low on the perch with legs obscured by <unk> feathers and often faces away from the other bird .\",\n \"Fledglings threatened by adult birds will adopt a low posture and open their bill widely . '\",\n \"Pointing ' is a threat display where the bird stretches out horizontally , with feathers <unk> and the bill pointed at the target of the aggression .\",\n \"A bill snap will sometimes accompany pointing .\",\n \"An ' open bill display ' is used by subordinates in encounters between two birds , and by a female on the nest when other birds approach .\",\n \"The ' trident bill display ' involves a fully open bill with the tongue raised and protruding and is a higher @-@ intensity submissive display . '\",\n \"Wing waving ' is often performed at the same time as an open bill display .\",\n \"The wings are <unk> and held slightly away from the body , and <unk> out and up around three to six times .\",\n \"Wing waving may be accompanied by a yammer call . '\",\n \"Eagle ' displays involve holding the wings and tail spread out , in either a vertical or horizontal position .\",\n \"Eye displays are made by exposing or covering the bare yellow patch behind the eye — when the feathers are completely <unk> the entire patch is visible , and when they are <unk> the patch is hidden .\",\n \"Eye displays are used in conjunction with postural displays , with the yellow patch fully displayed by dominant birds using threat <unk> , and immature birds tending to reduce the size of the eye patch when under attack from other members of the coterie .\",\n \"On occasion early in the breeding season , mass displays erupt , where twenty or thirty birds perform the various wing @-@ spreading displays , short flights , and constant calling .\",\n \"<unk> birds are attacked by others , and groups of silent but agitated birds watch the interactions .\",\n \"Mass displays are more common in the early morning , can last for up to 40 minutes , and seem to be a combination of sexual and agonistic behaviour .\",\n \"A ' corroboree ' ( from the word for a ceremonial meeting of Aboriginal Australians ) is a group display where birds converge on adjacent branches and simultaneously pose <unk> , giving wing @-@ waving and open @-@ bill displays and the yammer call .\",\n \"A corroboree occurs when birds meet after a change in the social environment , such as a bird returning after an absence , or the <unk> of an intruder , or the coming together of different coteries .\",\n \"The corroboree appears to have a bonding function , and may involve all members of a colony .\",\n \"= = = = <unk> behaviour = = = = \\n \\n Described as \\\" always at war with others of the feathered kind \\\" in early notes , the noisy miner is one of the most aggressive of the honeyeaters .\",\n \"Much of the activity within a noisy miner colony is antagonistic with chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occurring frequently throughout the day .\",\n \"The birds unite to attack predators and to defend the colony area against all other species of birds ; the species is also highly aggressive <unk> .\",\n \"Female noisy miners are aggressive towards each other , and one cause of a male @-@ biased sex @-@ ratio in colonies may be the females ' greater intolerance for each other , driving <unk> out of the colony and preventing the immigration of new females .\",\n \"<unk> at the nest is common between males .\",\n \"Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old , and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling .\",\n \"Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds , although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring , and <unk> has been recorded .\",\n \"There is little male to female aggression other than the ' driving flights ' that form part of the mating ritual .\",\n \"In direct attacks of young birds <unk> are directed at the eye patch .\",\n \"<unk> behaviour has been observed among nestlings , with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the death of a sibling .\",\n \"The noisy miner colony <unk> to mob inter @-@ specific intruders and predators .\",\n \"The noisy miner will approach the threat closely and point , expose eye patches , and often bill @-@ snap .\",\n \"Five to fifteen birds will fly around the intruder , some birds diving at it and either pulling away or striking the intruder .\",\n \"The mobbing continues until the intruder remains still , as with a tawny <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , or it leaves the area .\",\n \"<unk> of snakes and <unk> is particularly intense , and most species of bird , even non @-@ predators , entering the territory are immediately chased .\",\n \"The noisy miner has been recorded attacking an Australian <unk> @-@ <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) during the day , <unk> , <unk> , ducks and <unk> on lakes at the edge of territories , crested pigeons ( <unk> <unk> ) , <unk> , and rosellas .\",\n \"Non @-@ predatory mammals such as bats , cattle , sheep , and <unk> are also attacked , though less vigorously than birds .\",\n \"Noisy miner attacks are not limited to chasing the intruder , and aggressive incidents often result in the death of the <unk> .\",\n \"Reports include those of two noisy miners repeatedly pecking a house sparrow ( <unk> <unk> ) at the base of its skull and killing it in six minutes ; one noisy miner grasping a <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) by the wing while another <unk> it on the head until it died ; and a sacred <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) being chased and harassed for over five hours and then found dead with a fractured skull .\",\n \"= = = = Response to threats = = = = \\n \\n Noisy miners make louder alarm calls in <unk> sections of urban environments , such as main roads .\",\n \"The most common initial response to alarm calls is to stay in the area and scan for threats , rather than withdraw .\",\n \"A study conducted in Melbourne and a nearby rural area found that noisy miners in urban areas were less likely to take flight , and when they did they flew shorter distances .\",\n \"It is unclear whether this is an adaptation or bolder miners had been the ones to settle in the city .\",\n \"A field study in Canberra found that superb <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners recognised miner alarm calls and took flight , and had learnt to ignore their non @-@ alarm calls , while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls .\",\n \"This suggests the species has adapted and learnt to discriminate and respond to another species ' <unk> .\",\n \"= = = Feeding = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner primarily eats nectar , fruit and insects , and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians .\",\n \"It is both <unk> and terrestrial , feeding in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground .\",\n \"It <unk> within the colony 's territory throughout the year , usually in groups of five to eight birds although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees such as banksia .\",\n \"The noisy miner collects nectar directly from flowers , hanging upside down or <unk> thin branches <unk> to access the nectar ; it takes fruit from trees or fallen on the ground ; <unk> or hawks for invertebrates ; and picks through leaf litter for insects .\",\n \"It has been recorded turning over the dried droppings of <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and eastern grey <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) searching for insects .\",\n \"In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens , the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia , grevillea and eucalypt species , and when in flower , <unk> , than in other plants including <unk> .\",\n \"Most time was spent <unk> the foliage of eucalypts , and noisy miners were significantly more abundant in sites where eucalypts were present .\",\n \"The noisy miner can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , <unk> and <unk> gathered from the foliage of eucalypts .\",\n \"Lower numbers of noisy miner were recorded at <unk> and <unk> than other large honeyeaters such as little <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and red <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) .\",\n \"Detailed studies of the diet of the noisy miner record it eating a range of foods including : spiders ; insects ( leaf beetles , <unk> , <unk> bugs , ants , moth and butterfly larvae ) ; nectar ( from <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , eucalypts Argyle <unk> , sugar gum , yellow gum , grey ironbark , and grey gum , Banksia <unk> , B.\",\n \"<unk> , B.\",\n \"<unk> , <unk> <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , and flowering <unk> ) ; seeds from oats , wheat and <unk> tree ; fruit from <unk> , mistletoe and <unk> ; frogs and <unk> ; and other matter such as bread , pieces of meat and cheese , and food scraps .\",\n \"In the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species , the noisy miner was found to employ different cognitive strategies depending upon the resource it was foraging .\",\n \"When searching for nectar , which does not move but is readily depleted , the noisy miner uses a spatial memory @-@ based strategy , identifying characteristics of the environment — a strategy that is efficient in new environments and is not affected by changes in the bird 's activities .\",\n \"When searching for invertebrates , it appears to employ a different strategy based on learned rules of insect movement ( they improve at finding invertebrates with practice ) .\",\n \"The two different strategies imply the existence of adapted cognitive mechanisms , capable of responding appropriately to different foraging contexts .\",\n \"= = = Breeding = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display ; displays can involve ' driving ' where the male jumps or flies at the female from 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 3 – 6 @.\",\n \"@ 6 ft ) away , and if she moves away he pursues her aggressively .\",\n \"The female may perform a ' bowed @-@ wing display ' where the wings and tail are spread and <unk> , with the wings arched and the head pointing down .\",\n \"The male may adopt a vertical or horizontal ' eagle display ' with wings and tail spread wide and held still for several seconds .\",\n \"Copulation is frequent and conspicuous , with both males and females <unk> with several birds , while other members of the colony display or otherwise interfere with the mating pair .\",\n \"Copulation usually occurs on larger , exposed branches close to the nest site and can occur at any time of the day , although slightly more often between 11 : 00 and 13 : 00 when communal activities are less frequent .\",\n \"The frenzied courtship activity had led to speculation that the female mates <unk> to recruit males to help care for the young , but recent genetic testing shows that 96 @.\",\n \"@ 5 % of noisy miner broods result from monogamous mating and that multiple paternity is rare .\",\n \"An observation of banded birds noted that while females <unk> repeatedly , it was always with the same male .\",\n \"<unk> switching between broods is uncommon , with pairs staying together over several years .\",\n \"The noisy miner breeds all year long , with most activity from July through November , though the peak period is subject to seasonal variations with sharp peaks in laying activity when conditions are particularly favourable for raising young .\",\n \"The nest is built in prickly or leafy trees , and the noisy miner is often recorded nesting in eucalypts , and also in <unk> , <unk> , Banksia , <unk> , Hibiscus , mistletoe , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"It seems to prefer moderately dense foliage for nesting , often near the end of <unk> horizontal branches .\",\n \"Support for the nest may be the primary criterion of a suitable nest site , rather than characteristics of the vegetation or location .\",\n \"The female alone builds the nest , which is deep and cup @-@ shaped , woven of twigs and grasses with other plant material , animal hair and spider <unk> .\",\n \"Occasionally the nest will include man @-@ made materials such as <unk> , scraps of material , and tissue paper .\",\n \"It is lined with wool , hair , feathers , flowers or plant down , and padded with a circular mat woven from fibres pulled from the <unk> of the processional <unk> .\",\n \"The female noisy miner walks around on the ground close to the nest site , picking up material .\",\n \"She <unk> material from disused nests of other birds , or <unk> its most recent nest to build a new one .\",\n \"The female completes the nest in five or six days .\",\n \"On average nests have an external diameter of 15 – 17 @.\",\n \"@ 8 centimetres ( 5 @.\",\n \"@ 9 – 7 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) and an external depth of 9 – 11 @.\",\n \"@ 4 centimetres ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 – 4 @.\",\n \"@ 5 in ) .\",\n \"The internal depth of the nest is around 5 @.\",\n \"@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 2 in ) .\",\n \"<unk> vary greatly in size , shape and markings , but are generally elongated <unk> ; white to cream or pinkish or buff coloured ; <unk> , spotted or blotched with reddish brown to chestnut or a purplish red , sometimes with underlying markings of violet or purplish grey .\",\n \"The clutch consists of two to four eggs .\",\n \"Incubation is by the female only , and the incubation period is around sixteen days .\",\n \"<unk> is <unk> , with up to six days being recorded between the hatching of the first and last chicks in a clutch .\",\n \"Young are naked at hatching , and develop a cover of down within two to three days .\",\n \"The fledging period is around sixteen days , and young begin to find food for themselves between twenty @-@ six and thirty days after fledging , but are still regularly fed by adults to thirty @-@ five days .\",\n \"The young leave the nest before they are fully fledged , and only able to fly downwards , and scramble up .\",\n \"They do not go far from the nest , return to it at night , and take some weeks to completely leave the nest .\",\n \"Many fledglings are found on the ground and in low shrubs during this period , where they continue to be cared for until they can make their way up into the trees .\",\n \"These birds are often mistakenly \\\" rescued \\\" .\",\n \"The fledglings seek out siblings if separated , and <unk> together for up to three weeks after fledging .\",\n \"The noisy miner has some of the largest group sizes of any <unk> breeding bird , with up to twenty males and one female attending a single brood .\",\n \"Only males help with a nest , and while many birds may be associated with a particular brood , some males devote all their time to a single nest , while others spread their helping efforts across five or six nests .\",\n \"<unk> evidence and genetic testing indicate that helpers are male offspring of the breeding pair , or full siblings of the male parent .\",\n \"Males nearly always bring food to the nestling singly , and if several arrive at once one will pass food to a nestling while the others wait .\",\n \"The female leaves the nest quickly when a male bird arrives , and never takes food from one of the helpers .\",\n \"Communal feeding of the young increases after fledging , and the young beg for food with constant ' chip chip ' calls and <unk> mouths .\",\n \"The female rarely feeds the young birds after they have fledged .\",\n \"= = = = Nest predation = = = = \\n \\n Cooperative breeding has been described as a strategy for decreasing nest predation , although one study found no relationship between the number of helpers visiting a nest site and its success or failure .\",\n \"Noisy miners were seen to have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods , laying eggs early in the season , nesting low in the canopy and group mobbing of predators ; these measures did not guarantee against nest failure due to the diversity of potential predators in the noisy miner 's open woodland habitat .\",\n \"= = Conservation status = = \\n \\n Being abundant throughout its significant range , the noisy miner is considered of least concern for conservation , and its extreme population densities in some areas actually constitute a threat to other species .\",\n \"The strong correlation between the presence of noisy miners and the absence of avian diversity has been well documented .\",\n \"The role played by the noisy miner in the steep decline of many woodland birds , its impact on endangered species with similar foraging requirements , and the level of leaf damage leading to die @-@ back that accompanies the exclusion of insectivorous birds from remnant woodlands , means that any strategy to restore avian diversity will need to take account of the management of noisy miner populations .\",\n \"Some habitat restoration and <unk> projects have inadvertently increased the problem of the noisy miner by establishing the open eucalypt habit that they prefer .\",\n \"A focus of many regeneration projects has been the establishing of habitat corridors that connect patches of remnant forest , and the use of eucalypts as fast @-@ growing nurse species .\",\n \"Both practices have sound ecological value , but allow the noisy miner to <unk> , so conservation efforts are being modified by planting a shrubby understory with the eucalypts , and avoiding the creation of narrow <unk> , corners or clumps of trees in vegetation corridors .\",\n \"A field study conducted in the Southern Highlands found that noisy miners tended to avoid areas dominated by <unk> , species of which in the study area had <unk> leaves .\",\n \"Hence the authors proposed <unk> projects include at least 15 % <unk> species with <unk> leaves if possible , as well as shrubby understory plants .\",\n \"<unk> of noisy miners is unlikely to be a solution to their overabundance in remnant habitats .\",\n \"In a Victorian study where birds were banded and relocated , colonies moved into the now unpopulated area but soon returned to their original territories .\",\n \"The <unk> birds did not settle in a new territory .\",\n \"They were not assimilated into resident populations of miners , but instead wandered up to 4 @.\",\n \"@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 6 mi ) from the release point , moving through apparently suitable habitat occupied by other miners — at least for the first 50 days following translocation .\",\n \"Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) back to their site of capture .\",\n \"Although noisy miners are protected across Australia , and a permit is required to <unk> them , culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact , particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life .\",\n \"An <unk> <unk> took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992 , which reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["It <unk> within the colony 's territory throughout the year , usually in groups of five to eight birds although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees such as banksia .","In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens , the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia , grevillea and eucalypt species , and when in flower , <unk> , than in other plants including <unk> .","Detailed studies of the diet of the noisy miner record it eating a range of foods including : spiders ; insects ( leaf beetles , <unk> , <unk> bugs , ants , moth and butterfly larvae ) ; nectar ( from <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , eucalypts Argyle <unk> , sugar gum , yellow gum , grey ironbark , and grey gum , Banksia <unk> , B.","The nest is built in prickly or leafy trees , and the noisy miner is often recorded nesting in eucalypts , and also in <unk> , <unk> , Banksia , <unk> , Hibiscus , mistletoe , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> ."],"string":"[\n \"It <unk> within the colony 's territory throughout the year , usually in groups of five to eight birds although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees such as banksia .\",\n \"In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens , the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia , grevillea and eucalypt species , and when in flower , <unk> , than in other plants including <unk> .\",\n \"Detailed studies of the diet of the noisy miner record it eating a range of foods including : spiders ; insects ( leaf beetles , <unk> , <unk> bugs , ants , moth and butterfly larvae ) ; nectar ( from <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , eucalypts Argyle <unk> , sugar gum , yellow gum , grey ironbark , and grey gum , Banksia <unk> , B.\",\n \"The nest is built in prickly or leafy trees , and the noisy miner is often recorded nesting in eucalypts , and also in <unk> , <unk> , Banksia , <unk> , Hibiscus , mistletoe , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Noisy miner = \n \n The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , <unk> , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia .","This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips on the tail feathers .","The Tasmanian race has a more intense yellow panel in the wing , and a broader white tip to the tail .","Males , females and juveniles are similar in appearance , though young birds are a brownish @-@ grey .","As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is a vocal species with a large range of songs , calls , <unk> and alarms , and almost constant vocalizations particularly from young birds .","One of four species in the genus Manorina , the noisy miner itself is divided into four subspecies .","The separation of the Tasmanian M. <unk> leachi is of long standing , and the mainland birds were further split in 1999 .","Found in a broad arc from Far North Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania and southeastern South Australia , the noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests that lack understory shrubs .","These include forests dominated by spotted gum , box and ironbark , as well as in degraded woodland where the understory has been cleared , such as recently burned areas , farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .","The density of noisy miner populations has significantly increased in many locations across its range , particularly human @-@ dominated habitats .","The popularity of nectar @-@ producing garden plants such as the large @-@ <unk> <unk> was thought to play a role in its proliferation , but studies now show that the noisy miner has benefited primarily from <unk> practices that create open areas dominated by eucalypts .","Noisy miners are gregarious and territorial ; they forage , bathe , roost , breed and defend territory <unk> , forming colonies that can contain several hundred birds .","Each bird has an ' activity space ' and birds with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , the most stable units within the colony .","The birds also form temporary flocks called ' coalitions ' for specific activities such as mobbing a predator .","Group cohesion is facilitated not only by vocalizations , but also through ritualised displays which have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays .","The noisy miner is a notably aggressive bird , and chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occur throughout the day , targeted at both intruders and colony members .","<unk> in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground , the noisy miner mainly eats nectar , fruit and insects .","Most time is spent <unk> the foliage of eucalypts , and it can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , <unk> and <unk> gathered from the foliage .","The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display , but copulation is a frenzied communal event .","It breeds all year long , building a deep cup @-@ shaped nest and laying two to four eggs .","Incubation is by the female only , although up to twenty male helpers take care of the nestlings and fledglings .","Noisy miners have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods and group mobbing of predators .","The noisy miner 's population increase has been correlated with the reduction of avian diversity in human @-@ affected landscapes .","Its <unk> means that translocation is unlikely to be a solution to its overabundance , and culling has been proposed , although the noisy miner is currently a protected species across Australia .","= = Taxonomy = = \n \n English ornithologist John Latham described the noisy miner four times in his 1801 work <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : the chattering bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) , black @-@ headed <unk> ( <unk> melanocephala ) , hooded bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) , and white @-@ fronted bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) .","Early notes recorded its tendency to scare off prey as hunters were about to shoot .","It was as the chattering bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1792 and 1797 by Thomas <unk> , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter .","John Gould treated the name Merops <unk> as the original description , and renamed it <unk> <unk> in his 1865 work <unk> to the Birds of Australia , giving it the common name of garrulous honeyeater , and noting the alternate name of chattering honeyeater .","He noted the colonists of Tasmania called it a miner , and aboriginal people of New South Wales called it <unk> .","Que <unk> gang was a local aboriginal name from the Blue Mountains .","In the early 20th century , Australian ornithologists started using the name Manorina melanocephala instead , because it was listed first by Latham in 1801 .","This usage did not follow the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , and in 2009 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature <unk> the current name by formally suppressing the name M. <unk> .","The species name melanocephala is derived from the Ancient Greek words <unk> \" black \" , and <unk> \" head \" , referring to its black crown .","Other common names include Mickey miner and <unk> .","Four subspecies are recognised , including subspecies leachi found in eastern Tasmania .","The mainland population was split into three subspecies in 1999 by Richard <unk> — <unk> from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland as far south as <unk> , <unk> from central Queensland and inland New South Wales west of <unk> , and the nominate subspecies melanocephala from southeastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southern South Australia .","There are broad zones where birds are intermediate between subspecies .","Further study is required to settle the taxonomic status of these populations .","The noisy miner is one of four species in the genus Manorina in the large family of honeyeaters known as <unk> , the other three being the black @-@ eared miner ( M. <unk> ) , the yellow @-@ throated miner ( M. <unk> ) , and the bell miner ( M. <unk> ) .","One of the most obvious characteristics of the genus is a patch of bare yellow skin behind the eyes , which gives them an odd ' cross @-@ eyed ' look .","Within the genus , the noisy , black @-@ eared and yellow @-@ throated miners form the subgenus <unk> .","The noisy miner occasionally <unk> with the yellow @-@ throated miner .","Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( Australian <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , etc . )",", and the <unk> ( Australian fairy @-@ <unk> ) in a large <unk> superfamily .","= = Description = = \n \n \n = = = <unk> = = = \n \n The noisy miner is a large honeyeater , 24 – 28 centimetres ( 9 @.","@ 4 – 11 @.","@ 0 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 36 – 45 centimetres ( 14 – 18 in ) , and weighing 70 – 80 grams ( 2 @.","@ 5 – 2 @.","@ 8 oz ) .","Male , female and juvenile birds all have similar plumage : grey on the back and tail and on the breast , and otherwise white underneath , with white scalloping on the nape and hind @-@ neck and on the breast ; off @-@ white forehead and <unk> ; a black band over the crown , bright orange @-@ yellow bill and a distinctive patch of yellow skin behind the eye ; a prominent white tip to the tail ; a narrow olive @-@ yellow panel in the folded wing ; and orange @-@ yellow legs and feet .","A juvenile can be distinguished by softer plumage , a brownish tinge to the black on its head and the grey on its back , and a duller , greyish @-@ yellow skin patch behind the eye .","The noisy miner is similar in appearance to the yellow @-@ throated miner and the black @-@ eared miner ; it has a dull white forehead and a black crown , while the others have grey heads .","= = = = Geographical variations = = = = \n \n Size variation in the noisy miner over its range follows Bergmann 's rule ; namely , birds tend to be larger where the climate is colder .","Adults from central @-@ eastern and northern Queensland tend to have little or no olive @-@ yellow edging to the feathers of the back and wings , and have a wider white fringe on the feathers of the hind @-@ neck and back , giving birds from Queensland the appearance of having more distinctive scalloping than other populations .","Wing length generally increases with latitude and M. <unk> leachi has <unk> shorter wings than the nominate race , although no significant difference in wing length was found in a study of populations north of 30 ° S and south of the Murray River .","The subspecies leachi also has finer scalloping on the hind @-@ neck than the nominate race , a more intense yellow tinge to the wing panels , and a slightly broader off @-@ white tip to the tail .","The far north Queensland subspecies <unk> has a shorter tail , paler crown , larger yellow skin patch , and paler upper parts without the yellow @-@ olive of the nominate race ; and <unk> , found in western New South Wales , is smaller than the nominate race with a black crown , and darker more mottled upperparts .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is an unusually vocal species .","Previously known as the garrulous honeyeater , it has a large and varied repertoire of songs , calls , <unk> and alarms .","Most are loud and penetrating , and consist of harsh single notes .","It has two broad @-@ frequency alarm calls that are used when mobbing intruders into their territory , or when predators ( including humans ) are sighted ; and a narrow @-@ frequency alarm call that is primarily used when airborne predators are seen , such as the brown falcon ( Falco <unk> ) , or other large flying birds including the Australian <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and the <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) .","The aerial predator alarm call is a series of high @-@ pitched , <unk> whistling notes .","The broad @-@ frequency alarm calls are a series of ' <unk> ' notes , low pitched and harsh , occurring at low and high levels of intensity .","The narrow @-@ band call is used in situations where the bird signals the presence of a predator and <unk> information about its own location , while the broad @-@ band alarm is used to attract attention , and can initiate mobbing behaviour .","These <unk> calls vary between individuals , and laboratory tests show noisy miners can distinguish calls by different birds .","Hence , this may be integral to the complex social structure of the species .","Contact or social <unk> calls are low @-@ pitched sounds that carry long distances . '","<unk> ' calls are given by individual birds when foraging , and a similar call is given by nestlings that call at an increased rate as the mother approaches the nest .","Where there is a high level of social activity , such as during territorial disputes with <unk> , calls are a series of quick , regular , single notes .","The noisy miner has a mating display flight song , a soft <unk> of low @-@ frequency notes , given during short undulating flights by the male , and responded to by the female with a low @-@ frequency whistle .","The noisy miner is found in open woodland habitats , where it is an advantage to call from the air so as to overcome sound <unk> .","Another display call , described as ' yammer ' , is a rapid <unk> series of notes that is uttered during open @-@ bill , wing @-@ waving displays .","The noisy miner has a song described as the ' dawn song ' — a communal song of clear <unk> notes emitted in chorus in the early hours of the morning from May through January .","The dawn song , which is also sung at dusk , is audible over long distances and features duets that often involve <unk> .","A nestling begins to give the ' chip ' call soon after it emerges from the egg , and it calls frequently for the first two thirds of the nestling period and constantly for the last third .","The call does not vary in the presence of an adult at the nest , so it seems likely that the call is not directed at the adult bird .","The nestling becomes silent when an adult gives an alarm call , and makes a <unk> sound when the adult delivers food .","The <unk> call of a fledgling is similar to the call of the nestling , but significantly louder and covering a greater frequency range ( which may make it more directional ) .","The rate of calling , on average , is 85 to 100 calls in a minute , and in open scrub the call can be heard up to a kilometre away .","<unk> , a juvenile vocalization comprising elements of various calls , begins to be uttered when the fledgling is around thirty days old .","The noisy miner also produces non @-@ vocal sounds by clicking or snapping its bill , usually during antagonistic encounters with other bird species , or when mobbing a predator .","= = Distribution and habitat = = \n \n The noisy miner is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia , occupying a broad arc from Far North Queensland where there are scattered populations , to New South Wales where it is widespread and common from the coast to a line from <unk> to <unk> , through Victoria into south @-@ eastern South Australia , and eastern Tasmania .","Its range in South Australia has been steadily expanding since it was first recorded near Adelaide in the early 1890s .","It is sedentary over its entire range .","The noisy miner is territorial , and the territory of a colony is aggressively defended — which has led to a significant reduction in avian diversity in areas occupied by the noisy miner , with smaller species excluded .","The noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests without understory shrubs .","It is commonly found in open <unk> forests , including those on coastal dunes or granite <unk> ; forests dominated by spotted gum on mountain ridges and exposed slopes ; box and ironbark forests on the foothills of the Great <unk> Range ; mixed forests of eucalypts and <unk> ( <unk> ) ; forests dominated by <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> or <unk> bush ; in stands of <unk> and scattered clumps of <unk> ; on the edges of woodlands of river red gum including swamp woodlands bordering floodplains , and areas dominated by exotic species such as European ash and <unk> .","It regularly inhabits degraded patches of forest where the understory has been cleared , including recently burned areas , and modified habitats such as lightly @-@ <unk> farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , <unk> remnants in towns and cities , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .","The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties , heavy grazing that removes the understory , fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat , and urban <unk> practices that increase open eucalypt environments .","It has been described as a ' reverse keystone ' species , as it is <unk> an ever @-@ increasing range of human @-@ dominated habitats , and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments .","This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas .","A field study across the South West <unk> of New South Wales , showed that the noisy miner 's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as <unk> , <unk> , the restless <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , and other honeyeater species , and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients .","While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large @-@ flowering grevillea <unk> has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners , recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas , and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase .","Large @-@ <unk> grevillea hybrids such as <unk> ' Robyn Gordon ' can benefit the noisy miner , in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters , and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non @-@ migratory species .","A field study in box @-@ ironbark country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum ( Eucalyptus <unk> ) , which reliably produces flowers ( and nectar ) each year .","The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure .","While the range of the noisy miner has not significantly expanded , the density of the population within that range has substantially increased .","High densities of noisy miners are regularly recorded in forests with thick understory in southern Queensland , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) or more from the forest / agricultural land edge .","Many of these sites have extensive road networks used for forest management , and picnic areas and walking tracks for recreational use , and it has been found that these cleared spaces play a role in the abundance of noisy miners in the forests .","There is evidence to suggest that higher road densities correspond with higher noisy miner population levels .","Field work in Victoria showed noisy miners infiltrated anywhere from 150 to 300 m ( 490 to 980 ft ) into remnant woodland from the edges , with greater penetration occurring in less densely forested areas .","This has implications for the size of woodland habitat needed to contain miner @-@ free areas — around 36 hectares ( 89 acres ) .","<unk> projects restoring <unk> woodland , a species of she @-@ oak integral to the survival of the red @-@ tailed black <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , have been <unk> with a nurse species , usually fast @-@ growing eucalypts .","Noisy miner populations were more likely in those <unk> woodlands where eucalypts had been planted at densities of up to 16 per hectare ( 6 @.","@ 4 per acre ) .","The presence of noisy miners was accompanied by a substantial difference in number and types of other birds found in the woodland .","= = Behaviour = = \n \n \n = = = Social organization = = = \n \n The noisy miner is a gregarious species , and the birds are rarely seen singly or in <unk> ; they forage , move and roost in colonies that can consist of several hundred birds \n Within a colony , a male bird will occupy an ' activity space ' , which will overlap with the activity spaces of other males .","Males with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , usually consisting of 10 to 25 birds .","<unk> are the most stable unit within the colony .","The birds also form temporary flocks when engaged in the same activity .","These flocks , called ' coalitions ' , usually comprise five to eight birds , although coalitions of up to 40 birds can occur when mobbing a potential predator .","<unk> of the coalition changes frequently as individuals leave the group as it passes beyond the boundary of their activity space , or the activity ends or changes , as when the breeding season begins .","Females use activity spaces that overlap with those of male birds , but not other females , so that females will join coalitions with males in their area , but only rarely will there be more than one female in the coalition .","The exclusivity of female activity spaces leads to young females being driven out of the colony in which they were born , and also makes it difficult for them to gain a place in a new colony .","A study of banded nestlings that survived in one colony until the next breeding season , found that they were all male birds , suggesting that all female nestlings had died or left the colony .","Emigration of males does not seem to occur until the population density of the colony reaches a critical level .","Looking after the young is communal , with males of the coterie bringing food to the nestlings and removing <unk> sacs .","Communal feeding increases after fledging , when males from nearby coteries may even bring food to the young birds if not driven off .","<unk> is usually communal , with two to six adults and juveniles roosting in contact with each other , usually near the end of a hanging branch up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) above ground , within their activity space .","They select a new site each evening , often selecting and rejecting several sites , and engaging in aggressive calling and chasing as other birds attempt to join the group .","They are often the last birds to roost at night , but appear to sleep soundly , undisturbed by <unk> .","Noisy miners drink together at the edge of lakes and dams , and from cattle troughs , often <unk> on a submerged branch .","They bathe by diving head first into water and , when almost totally submerged , flapping their wings vigorously and <unk> their heads under the water .","They shake excess water off and then fly to a nearby branch to <unk> .","They have been observed using <unk> or <unk> @-@ soaked foliage to bathe , and in dry weather will dust @-@ bathe in dry soil or fine litter such as grass <unk> .","<unk> is communal , with birds stimulated to participate by observing others .","They are occasionally observed <unk> .","= = = = <unk> behaviour = = = = \n \n The noisy miner engages in most activities in a group .","<unk> , foraging , <unk> , bathing and dust @-@ bathing or <unk> are communal activities .","Dawn song is a communal chorus , particularly during the breeding season .","The communal interaction is facilitated by ritualised displays that have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays .","In ' long flight ' displays , initiated by either male or female birds , groups of up to twenty birds from more than one coterie fly about 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above the canopy for distances of up to 1 @.","@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.","@ 93 mi ) from the colony , constantly calling and not returning to the colony for about twenty minutes .","As they return the remaining birds show signs of agitation , and sometimes fly up to join them .","The ' short flight ' display is performed by the male , and may be analogous to the territorial advertising displays of other birds .","In a ritualised movement , the noisy miner flies out from a perch across an open area , in a rhythmic undulating pattern , usually calling in flight .","At the end of the clearing it turns on an upward <unk> and flies silently back to a perch near the starting point .","The ' head @-@ up flight ' is performed by the female during the nesting period , and may function to attract male helpers .","In its most intense form the body and tail are held almost vertically , with legs dangling and the head held up and back .","It is performed by the female when she is selecting the nest site , and when carrying nest @-@ building material , and probably has the function of indicating the location of the nest to other group members .","<unk> displays include tall and low poses , pointing , open bill , and wing waving .","The ' tall posture ' is used when in close contact with another bird and is a mild threat .","The bird holds itself upright with neck and legs stretched , and it faces the other bird .","The ' low posture ' is a submissive gesture ; the bird sits low on the perch with legs obscured by <unk> feathers and often faces away from the other bird .","Fledglings threatened by adult birds will adopt a low posture and open their bill widely . '","Pointing ' is a threat display where the bird stretches out horizontally , with feathers <unk> and the bill pointed at the target of the aggression .","A bill snap will sometimes accompany pointing .","An ' open bill display ' is used by subordinates in encounters between two birds , and by a female on the nest when other birds approach .","The ' trident bill display ' involves a fully open bill with the tongue raised and protruding and is a higher @-@ intensity submissive display . '","Wing waving ' is often performed at the same time as an open bill display .","The wings are <unk> and held slightly away from the body , and <unk> out and up around three to six times .","Wing waving may be accompanied by a yammer call . '","Eagle ' displays involve holding the wings and tail spread out , in either a vertical or horizontal position .","Eye displays are made by exposing or covering the bare yellow patch behind the eye — when the feathers are completely <unk> the entire patch is visible , and when they are <unk> the patch is hidden .","Eye displays are used in conjunction with postural displays , with the yellow patch fully displayed by dominant birds using threat <unk> , and immature birds tending to reduce the size of the eye patch when under attack from other members of the coterie .","On occasion early in the breeding season , mass displays erupt , where twenty or thirty birds perform the various wing @-@ spreading displays , short flights , and constant calling .","<unk> birds are attacked by others , and groups of silent but agitated birds watch the interactions .","Mass displays are more common in the early morning , can last for up to 40 minutes , and seem to be a combination of sexual and agonistic behaviour .","A ' corroboree ' ( from the word for a ceremonial meeting of Aboriginal Australians ) is a group display where birds converge on adjacent branches and simultaneously pose <unk> , giving wing @-@ waving and open @-@ bill displays and the yammer call .","A corroboree occurs when birds meet after a change in the social environment , such as a bird returning after an absence , or the <unk> of an intruder , or the coming together of different coteries .","The corroboree appears to have a bonding function , and may involve all members of a colony .","= = = = <unk> behaviour = = = = \n \n Described as \" always at war with others of the feathered kind \" in early notes , the noisy miner is one of the most aggressive of the honeyeaters .","Much of the activity within a noisy miner colony is antagonistic with chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occurring frequently throughout the day .","The birds unite to attack predators and to defend the colony area against all other species of birds ; the species is also highly aggressive <unk> .","Female noisy miners are aggressive towards each other , and one cause of a male @-@ biased sex @-@ ratio in colonies may be the females ' greater intolerance for each other , driving <unk> out of the colony and preventing the immigration of new females .","<unk> at the nest is common between males .","Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old , and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling .","Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds , although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring , and <unk> has been recorded .","There is little male to female aggression other than the ' driving flights ' that form part of the mating ritual .","In direct attacks of young birds <unk> are directed at the eye patch .","<unk> behaviour has been observed among nestlings , with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the death of a sibling .","The noisy miner colony <unk> to mob inter @-@ specific intruders and predators .","The noisy miner will approach the threat closely and point , expose eye patches , and often bill @-@ snap .","Five to fifteen birds will fly around the intruder , some birds diving at it and either pulling away or striking the intruder .","The mobbing continues until the intruder remains still , as with a tawny <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , or it leaves the area .","<unk> of snakes and <unk> is particularly intense , and most species of bird , even non @-@ predators , entering the territory are immediately chased .","The noisy miner has been recorded attacking an Australian <unk> @-@ <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) during the day , <unk> , <unk> , ducks and <unk> on lakes at the edge of territories , crested pigeons ( <unk> <unk> ) , <unk> , and rosellas .","Non @-@ predatory mammals such as bats , cattle , sheep , and <unk> are also attacked , though less vigorously than birds .","Noisy miner attacks are not limited to chasing the intruder , and aggressive incidents often result in the death of the <unk> .","Reports include those of two noisy miners repeatedly pecking a house sparrow ( <unk> <unk> ) at the base of its skull and killing it in six minutes ; one noisy miner grasping a <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) by the wing while another <unk> it on the head until it died ; and a sacred <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) being chased and harassed for over five hours and then found dead with a fractured skull .","= = = = Response to threats = = = = \n \n Noisy miners make louder alarm calls in <unk> sections of urban environments , such as main roads .","The most common initial response to alarm calls is to stay in the area and scan for threats , rather than withdraw .","A study conducted in Melbourne and a nearby rural area found that noisy miners in urban areas were less likely to take flight , and when they did they flew shorter distances .","It is unclear whether this is an adaptation or bolder miners had been the ones to settle in the city .","A field study in Canberra found that superb <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners recognised miner alarm calls and took flight , and had learnt to ignore their non @-@ alarm calls , while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls .","This suggests the species has adapted and learnt to discriminate and respond to another species ' <unk> .","= = = Feeding = = = \n \n The noisy miner primarily eats nectar , fruit and insects , and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians .","It is both <unk> and terrestrial , feeding in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground .","The noisy miner collects nectar directly from flowers , hanging upside down or <unk> thin branches <unk> to access the nectar ; it takes fruit from trees or fallen on the ground ; <unk> or hawks for invertebrates ; and picks through leaf litter for insects .","It has been recorded turning over the dried droppings of <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and eastern grey <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) searching for insects .","Most time was spent <unk> the foliage of eucalypts , and noisy miners were significantly more abundant in sites where eucalypts were present .","The noisy miner can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , <unk> and <unk> gathered from the foliage of eucalypts .","Lower numbers of noisy miner were recorded at <unk> and <unk> than other large honeyeaters such as little <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and red <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) .","<unk> , B.","<unk> , <unk> <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , and flowering <unk> ) ; seeds from oats , wheat and <unk> tree ; fruit from <unk> , mistletoe and <unk> ; frogs and <unk> ; and other matter such as bread , pieces of meat and cheese , and food scraps .","In the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species , the noisy miner was found to employ different cognitive strategies depending upon the resource it was foraging .","When searching for nectar , which does not move but is readily depleted , the noisy miner uses a spatial memory @-@ based strategy , identifying characteristics of the environment — a strategy that is efficient in new environments and is not affected by changes in the bird 's activities .","When searching for invertebrates , it appears to employ a different strategy based on learned rules of insect movement ( they improve at finding invertebrates with practice ) .","The two different strategies imply the existence of adapted cognitive mechanisms , capable of responding appropriately to different foraging contexts .","= = = Breeding = = = \n \n The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display ; displays can involve ' driving ' where the male jumps or flies at the female from 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.","@ 3 – 6 @.","@ 6 ft ) away , and if she moves away he pursues her aggressively .","The female may perform a ' bowed @-@ wing display ' where the wings and tail are spread and <unk> , with the wings arched and the head pointing down .","The male may adopt a vertical or horizontal ' eagle display ' with wings and tail spread wide and held still for several seconds .","Copulation is frequent and conspicuous , with both males and females <unk> with several birds , while other members of the colony display or otherwise interfere with the mating pair .","Copulation usually occurs on larger , exposed branches close to the nest site and can occur at any time of the day , although slightly more often between 11 : 00 and 13 : 00 when communal activities are less frequent .","The frenzied courtship activity had led to speculation that the female mates <unk> to recruit males to help care for the young , but recent genetic testing shows that 96 @.","@ 5 % of noisy miner broods result from monogamous mating and that multiple paternity is rare .","An observation of banded birds noted that while females <unk> repeatedly , it was always with the same male .","<unk> switching between broods is uncommon , with pairs staying together over several years .","The noisy miner breeds all year long , with most activity from July through November , though the peak period is subject to seasonal variations with sharp peaks in laying activity when conditions are particularly favourable for raising young .","It seems to prefer moderately dense foliage for nesting , often near the end of <unk> horizontal branches .","Support for the nest may be the primary criterion of a suitable nest site , rather than characteristics of the vegetation or location .","The female alone builds the nest , which is deep and cup @-@ shaped , woven of twigs and grasses with other plant material , animal hair and spider <unk> .","Occasionally the nest will include man @-@ made materials such as <unk> , scraps of material , and tissue paper .","It is lined with wool , hair , feathers , flowers or plant down , and padded with a circular mat woven from fibres pulled from the <unk> of the processional <unk> .","The female noisy miner walks around on the ground close to the nest site , picking up material .","She <unk> material from disused nests of other birds , or <unk> its most recent nest to build a new one .","The female completes the nest in five or six days .","On average nests have an external diameter of 15 – 17 @.","@ 8 centimetres ( 5 @.","@ 9 – 7 @.","@ 0 in ) and an external depth of 9 – 11 @.","@ 4 centimetres ( 3 @.","@ 5 – 4 @.","@ 5 in ) .","The internal depth of the nest is around 5 @.","@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.","@ 2 in ) .","<unk> vary greatly in size , shape and markings , but are generally elongated <unk> ; white to cream or pinkish or buff coloured ; <unk> , spotted or blotched with reddish brown to chestnut or a purplish red , sometimes with underlying markings of violet or purplish grey .","The clutch consists of two to four eggs .","Incubation is by the female only , and the incubation period is around sixteen days .","<unk> is <unk> , with up to six days being recorded between the hatching of the first and last chicks in a clutch .","Young are naked at hatching , and develop a cover of down within two to three days .","The fledging period is around sixteen days , and young begin to find food for themselves between twenty @-@ six and thirty days after fledging , but are still regularly fed by adults to thirty @-@ five days .","The young leave the nest before they are fully fledged , and only able to fly downwards , and scramble up .","They do not go far from the nest , return to it at night , and take some weeks to completely leave the nest .","Many fledglings are found on the ground and in low shrubs during this period , where they continue to be cared for until they can make their way up into the trees .","These birds are often mistakenly \" rescued \" .","The fledglings seek out siblings if separated , and <unk> together for up to three weeks after fledging .","The noisy miner has some of the largest group sizes of any <unk> breeding bird , with up to twenty males and one female attending a single brood .","Only males help with a nest , and while many birds may be associated with a particular brood , some males devote all their time to a single nest , while others spread their helping efforts across five or six nests .","<unk> evidence and genetic testing indicate that helpers are male offspring of the breeding pair , or full siblings of the male parent .","Males nearly always bring food to the nestling singly , and if several arrive at once one will pass food to a nestling while the others wait .","The female leaves the nest quickly when a male bird arrives , and never takes food from one of the helpers .","Communal feeding of the young increases after fledging , and the young beg for food with constant ' chip chip ' calls and <unk> mouths .","The female rarely feeds the young birds after they have fledged .","= = = = Nest predation = = = = \n \n Cooperative breeding has been described as a strategy for decreasing nest predation , although one study found no relationship between the number of helpers visiting a nest site and its success or failure .","Noisy miners were seen to have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods , laying eggs early in the season , nesting low in the canopy and group mobbing of predators ; these measures did not guarantee against nest failure due to the diversity of potential predators in the noisy miner 's open woodland habitat .","= = Conservation status = = \n \n Being abundant throughout its significant range , the noisy miner is considered of least concern for conservation , and its extreme population densities in some areas actually constitute a threat to other species .","The strong correlation between the presence of noisy miners and the absence of avian diversity has been well documented .","The role played by the noisy miner in the steep decline of many woodland birds , its impact on endangered species with similar foraging requirements , and the level of leaf damage leading to die @-@ back that accompanies the exclusion of insectivorous birds from remnant woodlands , means that any strategy to restore avian diversity will need to take account of the management of noisy miner populations .","Some habitat restoration and <unk> projects have inadvertently increased the problem of the noisy miner by establishing the open eucalypt habit that they prefer .","A focus of many regeneration projects has been the establishing of habitat corridors that connect patches of remnant forest , and the use of eucalypts as fast @-@ growing nurse species .","Both practices have sound ecological value , but allow the noisy miner to <unk> , so conservation efforts are being modified by planting a shrubby understory with the eucalypts , and avoiding the creation of narrow <unk> , corners or clumps of trees in vegetation corridors .","A field study conducted in the Southern Highlands found that noisy miners tended to avoid areas dominated by <unk> , species of which in the study area had <unk> leaves .","Hence the authors proposed <unk> projects include at least 15 % <unk> species with <unk> leaves if possible , as well as shrubby understory plants .","<unk> of noisy miners is unlikely to be a solution to their overabundance in remnant habitats .","In a Victorian study where birds were banded and relocated , colonies moved into the now unpopulated area but soon returned to their original territories .","The <unk> birds did not settle in a new territory .","They were not assimilated into resident populations of miners , but instead wandered up to 4 @.","@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.","@ 6 mi ) from the release point , moving through apparently suitable habitat occupied by other miners — at least for the first 50 days following translocation .","Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) back to their site of capture .","Although noisy miners are protected across Australia , and a permit is required to <unk> them , culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact , particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life .","An <unk> <unk> took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992 , which reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity ."],"string":"[\n \" = Noisy miner = \\n \\n The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , <unk> , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia .\",\n \"This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips on the tail feathers .\",\n \"The Tasmanian race has a more intense yellow panel in the wing , and a broader white tip to the tail .\",\n \"Males , females and juveniles are similar in appearance , though young birds are a brownish @-@ grey .\",\n \"As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is a vocal species with a large range of songs , calls , <unk> and alarms , and almost constant vocalizations particularly from young birds .\",\n \"One of four species in the genus Manorina , the noisy miner itself is divided into four subspecies .\",\n \"The separation of the Tasmanian M. <unk> leachi is of long standing , and the mainland birds were further split in 1999 .\",\n \"Found in a broad arc from Far North Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania and southeastern South Australia , the noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests that lack understory shrubs .\",\n \"These include forests dominated by spotted gum , box and ironbark , as well as in degraded woodland where the understory has been cleared , such as recently burned areas , farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .\",\n \"The density of noisy miner populations has significantly increased in many locations across its range , particularly human @-@ dominated habitats .\",\n \"The popularity of nectar @-@ producing garden plants such as the large @-@ <unk> <unk> was thought to play a role in its proliferation , but studies now show that the noisy miner has benefited primarily from <unk> practices that create open areas dominated by eucalypts .\",\n \"Noisy miners are gregarious and territorial ; they forage , bathe , roost , breed and defend territory <unk> , forming colonies that can contain several hundred birds .\",\n \"Each bird has an ' activity space ' and birds with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , the most stable units within the colony .\",\n \"The birds also form temporary flocks called ' coalitions ' for specific activities such as mobbing a predator .\",\n \"Group cohesion is facilitated not only by vocalizations , but also through ritualised displays which have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays .\",\n \"The noisy miner is a notably aggressive bird , and chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occur throughout the day , targeted at both intruders and colony members .\",\n \"<unk> in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground , the noisy miner mainly eats nectar , fruit and insects .\",\n \"Most time is spent <unk> the foliage of eucalypts , and it can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , <unk> and <unk> gathered from the foliage .\",\n \"The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display , but copulation is a frenzied communal event .\",\n \"It breeds all year long , building a deep cup @-@ shaped nest and laying two to four eggs .\",\n \"Incubation is by the female only , although up to twenty male helpers take care of the nestlings and fledglings .\",\n \"Noisy miners have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods and group mobbing of predators .\",\n \"The noisy miner 's population increase has been correlated with the reduction of avian diversity in human @-@ affected landscapes .\",\n \"Its <unk> means that translocation is unlikely to be a solution to its overabundance , and culling has been proposed , although the noisy miner is currently a protected species across Australia .\",\n \"= = Taxonomy = = \\n \\n English ornithologist John Latham described the noisy miner four times in his 1801 work <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : the chattering bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) , black @-@ headed <unk> ( <unk> melanocephala ) , hooded bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) , and white @-@ fronted bee @-@ eater ( Merops <unk> ) .\",\n \"Early notes recorded its tendency to scare off prey as hunters were about to shoot .\",\n \"It was as the chattering bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1792 and 1797 by Thomas <unk> , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter .\",\n \"John Gould treated the name Merops <unk> as the original description , and renamed it <unk> <unk> in his 1865 work <unk> to the Birds of Australia , giving it the common name of garrulous honeyeater , and noting the alternate name of chattering honeyeater .\",\n \"He noted the colonists of Tasmania called it a miner , and aboriginal people of New South Wales called it <unk> .\",\n \"Que <unk> gang was a local aboriginal name from the Blue Mountains .\",\n \"In the early 20th century , Australian ornithologists started using the name Manorina melanocephala instead , because it was listed first by Latham in 1801 .\",\n \"This usage did not follow the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , and in 2009 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature <unk> the current name by formally suppressing the name M. <unk> .\",\n \"The species name melanocephala is derived from the Ancient Greek words <unk> \\\" black \\\" , and <unk> \\\" head \\\" , referring to its black crown .\",\n \"Other common names include Mickey miner and <unk> .\",\n \"Four subspecies are recognised , including subspecies leachi found in eastern Tasmania .\",\n \"The mainland population was split into three subspecies in 1999 by Richard <unk> — <unk> from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland as far south as <unk> , <unk> from central Queensland and inland New South Wales west of <unk> , and the nominate subspecies melanocephala from southeastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southern South Australia .\",\n \"There are broad zones where birds are intermediate between subspecies .\",\n \"Further study is required to settle the taxonomic status of these populations .\",\n \"The noisy miner is one of four species in the genus Manorina in the large family of honeyeaters known as <unk> , the other three being the black @-@ eared miner ( M. <unk> ) , the yellow @-@ throated miner ( M. <unk> ) , and the bell miner ( M. <unk> ) .\",\n \"One of the most obvious characteristics of the genus is a patch of bare yellow skin behind the eyes , which gives them an odd ' cross @-@ eyed ' look .\",\n \"Within the genus , the noisy , black @-@ eared and yellow @-@ throated miners form the subgenus <unk> .\",\n \"The noisy miner occasionally <unk> with the yellow @-@ throated miner .\",\n \"Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( Australian <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , etc . )\",\n \", and the <unk> ( Australian fairy @-@ <unk> ) in a large <unk> superfamily .\",\n \"= = Description = = \\n \\n \\n = = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner is a large honeyeater , 24 – 28 centimetres ( 9 @.\",\n \"@ 4 – 11 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 36 – 45 centimetres ( 14 – 18 in ) , and weighing 70 – 80 grams ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 5 – 2 @.\",\n \"@ 8 oz ) .\",\n \"Male , female and juvenile birds all have similar plumage : grey on the back and tail and on the breast , and otherwise white underneath , with white scalloping on the nape and hind @-@ neck and on the breast ; off @-@ white forehead and <unk> ; a black band over the crown , bright orange @-@ yellow bill and a distinctive patch of yellow skin behind the eye ; a prominent white tip to the tail ; a narrow olive @-@ yellow panel in the folded wing ; and orange @-@ yellow legs and feet .\",\n \"A juvenile can be distinguished by softer plumage , a brownish tinge to the black on its head and the grey on its back , and a duller , greyish @-@ yellow skin patch behind the eye .\",\n \"The noisy miner is similar in appearance to the yellow @-@ throated miner and the black @-@ eared miner ; it has a dull white forehead and a black crown , while the others have grey heads .\",\n \"= = = = Geographical variations = = = = \\n \\n Size variation in the noisy miner over its range follows Bergmann 's rule ; namely , birds tend to be larger where the climate is colder .\",\n \"Adults from central @-@ eastern and northern Queensland tend to have little or no olive @-@ yellow edging to the feathers of the back and wings , and have a wider white fringe on the feathers of the hind @-@ neck and back , giving birds from Queensland the appearance of having more distinctive scalloping than other populations .\",\n \"Wing length generally increases with latitude and M. <unk> leachi has <unk> shorter wings than the nominate race , although no significant difference in wing length was found in a study of populations north of 30 ° S and south of the Murray River .\",\n \"The subspecies leachi also has finer scalloping on the hind @-@ neck than the nominate race , a more intense yellow tinge to the wing panels , and a slightly broader off @-@ white tip to the tail .\",\n \"The far north Queensland subspecies <unk> has a shorter tail , paler crown , larger yellow skin patch , and paler upper parts without the yellow @-@ olive of the nominate race ; and <unk> , found in western New South Wales , is smaller than the nominate race with a black crown , and darker more mottled upperparts .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is an unusually vocal species .\",\n \"Previously known as the garrulous honeyeater , it has a large and varied repertoire of songs , calls , <unk> and alarms .\",\n \"Most are loud and penetrating , and consist of harsh single notes .\",\n \"It has two broad @-@ frequency alarm calls that are used when mobbing intruders into their territory , or when predators ( including humans ) are sighted ; and a narrow @-@ frequency alarm call that is primarily used when airborne predators are seen , such as the brown falcon ( Falco <unk> ) , or other large flying birds including the Australian <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and the <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) .\",\n \"The aerial predator alarm call is a series of high @-@ pitched , <unk> whistling notes .\",\n \"The broad @-@ frequency alarm calls are a series of ' <unk> ' notes , low pitched and harsh , occurring at low and high levels of intensity .\",\n \"The narrow @-@ band call is used in situations where the bird signals the presence of a predator and <unk> information about its own location , while the broad @-@ band alarm is used to attract attention , and can initiate mobbing behaviour .\",\n \"These <unk> calls vary between individuals , and laboratory tests show noisy miners can distinguish calls by different birds .\",\n \"Hence , this may be integral to the complex social structure of the species .\",\n \"Contact or social <unk> calls are low @-@ pitched sounds that carry long distances . '\",\n \"<unk> ' calls are given by individual birds when foraging , and a similar call is given by nestlings that call at an increased rate as the mother approaches the nest .\",\n \"Where there is a high level of social activity , such as during territorial disputes with <unk> , calls are a series of quick , regular , single notes .\",\n \"The noisy miner has a mating display flight song , a soft <unk> of low @-@ frequency notes , given during short undulating flights by the male , and responded to by the female with a low @-@ frequency whistle .\",\n \"The noisy miner is found in open woodland habitats , where it is an advantage to call from the air so as to overcome sound <unk> .\",\n \"Another display call , described as ' yammer ' , is a rapid <unk> series of notes that is uttered during open @-@ bill , wing @-@ waving displays .\",\n \"The noisy miner has a song described as the ' dawn song ' — a communal song of clear <unk> notes emitted in chorus in the early hours of the morning from May through January .\",\n \"The dawn song , which is also sung at dusk , is audible over long distances and features duets that often involve <unk> .\",\n \"A nestling begins to give the ' chip ' call soon after it emerges from the egg , and it calls frequently for the first two thirds of the nestling period and constantly for the last third .\",\n \"The call does not vary in the presence of an adult at the nest , so it seems likely that the call is not directed at the adult bird .\",\n \"The nestling becomes silent when an adult gives an alarm call , and makes a <unk> sound when the adult delivers food .\",\n \"The <unk> call of a fledgling is similar to the call of the nestling , but significantly louder and covering a greater frequency range ( which may make it more directional ) .\",\n \"The rate of calling , on average , is 85 to 100 calls in a minute , and in open scrub the call can be heard up to a kilometre away .\",\n \"<unk> , a juvenile vocalization comprising elements of various calls , begins to be uttered when the fledgling is around thirty days old .\",\n \"The noisy miner also produces non @-@ vocal sounds by clicking or snapping its bill , usually during antagonistic encounters with other bird species , or when mobbing a predator .\",\n \"= = Distribution and habitat = = \\n \\n The noisy miner is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia , occupying a broad arc from Far North Queensland where there are scattered populations , to New South Wales where it is widespread and common from the coast to a line from <unk> to <unk> , through Victoria into south @-@ eastern South Australia , and eastern Tasmania .\",\n \"Its range in South Australia has been steadily expanding since it was first recorded near Adelaide in the early 1890s .\",\n \"It is sedentary over its entire range .\",\n \"The noisy miner is territorial , and the territory of a colony is aggressively defended — which has led to a significant reduction in avian diversity in areas occupied by the noisy miner , with smaller species excluded .\",\n \"The noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests without understory shrubs .\",\n \"It is commonly found in open <unk> forests , including those on coastal dunes or granite <unk> ; forests dominated by spotted gum on mountain ridges and exposed slopes ; box and ironbark forests on the foothills of the Great <unk> Range ; mixed forests of eucalypts and <unk> ( <unk> ) ; forests dominated by <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> or <unk> bush ; in stands of <unk> and scattered clumps of <unk> ; on the edges of woodlands of river red gum including swamp woodlands bordering floodplains , and areas dominated by exotic species such as European ash and <unk> .\",\n \"It regularly inhabits degraded patches of forest where the understory has been cleared , including recently burned areas , and modified habitats such as lightly @-@ <unk> farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , <unk> remnants in towns and cities , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .\",\n \"The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties , heavy grazing that removes the understory , fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat , and urban <unk> practices that increase open eucalypt environments .\",\n \"It has been described as a ' reverse keystone ' species , as it is <unk> an ever @-@ increasing range of human @-@ dominated habitats , and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments .\",\n \"This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas .\",\n \"A field study across the South West <unk> of New South Wales , showed that the noisy miner 's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as <unk> , <unk> , the restless <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , and other honeyeater species , and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients .\",\n \"While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large @-@ flowering grevillea <unk> has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners , recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas , and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase .\",\n \"Large @-@ <unk> grevillea hybrids such as <unk> ' Robyn Gordon ' can benefit the noisy miner , in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters , and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non @-@ migratory species .\",\n \"A field study in box @-@ ironbark country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum ( Eucalyptus <unk> ) , which reliably produces flowers ( and nectar ) each year .\",\n \"The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure .\",\n \"While the range of the noisy miner has not significantly expanded , the density of the population within that range has substantially increased .\",\n \"High densities of noisy miners are regularly recorded in forests with thick understory in southern Queensland , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) or more from the forest / agricultural land edge .\",\n \"Many of these sites have extensive road networks used for forest management , and picnic areas and walking tracks for recreational use , and it has been found that these cleared spaces play a role in the abundance of noisy miners in the forests .\",\n \"There is evidence to suggest that higher road densities correspond with higher noisy miner population levels .\",\n \"Field work in Victoria showed noisy miners infiltrated anywhere from 150 to 300 m ( 490 to 980 ft ) into remnant woodland from the edges , with greater penetration occurring in less densely forested areas .\",\n \"This has implications for the size of woodland habitat needed to contain miner @-@ free areas — around 36 hectares ( 89 acres ) .\",\n \"<unk> projects restoring <unk> woodland , a species of she @-@ oak integral to the survival of the red @-@ tailed black <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , have been <unk> with a nurse species , usually fast @-@ growing eucalypts .\",\n \"Noisy miner populations were more likely in those <unk> woodlands where eucalypts had been planted at densities of up to 16 per hectare ( 6 @.\",\n \"@ 4 per acre ) .\",\n \"The presence of noisy miners was accompanied by a substantial difference in number and types of other birds found in the woodland .\",\n \"= = Behaviour = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Social organization = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner is a gregarious species , and the birds are rarely seen singly or in <unk> ; they forage , move and roost in colonies that can consist of several hundred birds \\n Within a colony , a male bird will occupy an ' activity space ' , which will overlap with the activity spaces of other males .\",\n \"Males with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , usually consisting of 10 to 25 birds .\",\n \"<unk> are the most stable unit within the colony .\",\n \"The birds also form temporary flocks when engaged in the same activity .\",\n \"These flocks , called ' coalitions ' , usually comprise five to eight birds , although coalitions of up to 40 birds can occur when mobbing a potential predator .\",\n \"<unk> of the coalition changes frequently as individuals leave the group as it passes beyond the boundary of their activity space , or the activity ends or changes , as when the breeding season begins .\",\n \"Females use activity spaces that overlap with those of male birds , but not other females , so that females will join coalitions with males in their area , but only rarely will there be more than one female in the coalition .\",\n \"The exclusivity of female activity spaces leads to young females being driven out of the colony in which they were born , and also makes it difficult for them to gain a place in a new colony .\",\n \"A study of banded nestlings that survived in one colony until the next breeding season , found that they were all male birds , suggesting that all female nestlings had died or left the colony .\",\n \"Emigration of males does not seem to occur until the population density of the colony reaches a critical level .\",\n \"Looking after the young is communal , with males of the coterie bringing food to the nestlings and removing <unk> sacs .\",\n \"Communal feeding increases after fledging , when males from nearby coteries may even bring food to the young birds if not driven off .\",\n \"<unk> is usually communal , with two to six adults and juveniles roosting in contact with each other , usually near the end of a hanging branch up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) above ground , within their activity space .\",\n \"They select a new site each evening , often selecting and rejecting several sites , and engaging in aggressive calling and chasing as other birds attempt to join the group .\",\n \"They are often the last birds to roost at night , but appear to sleep soundly , undisturbed by <unk> .\",\n \"Noisy miners drink together at the edge of lakes and dams , and from cattle troughs , often <unk> on a submerged branch .\",\n \"They bathe by diving head first into water and , when almost totally submerged , flapping their wings vigorously and <unk> their heads under the water .\",\n \"They shake excess water off and then fly to a nearby branch to <unk> .\",\n \"They have been observed using <unk> or <unk> @-@ soaked foliage to bathe , and in dry weather will dust @-@ bathe in dry soil or fine litter such as grass <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> is communal , with birds stimulated to participate by observing others .\",\n \"They are occasionally observed <unk> .\",\n \"= = = = <unk> behaviour = = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner engages in most activities in a group .\",\n \"<unk> , foraging , <unk> , bathing and dust @-@ bathing or <unk> are communal activities .\",\n \"Dawn song is a communal chorus , particularly during the breeding season .\",\n \"The communal interaction is facilitated by ritualised displays that have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays .\",\n \"In ' long flight ' displays , initiated by either male or female birds , groups of up to twenty birds from more than one coterie fly about 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above the canopy for distances of up to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 93 mi ) from the colony , constantly calling and not returning to the colony for about twenty minutes .\",\n \"As they return the remaining birds show signs of agitation , and sometimes fly up to join them .\",\n \"The ' short flight ' display is performed by the male , and may be analogous to the territorial advertising displays of other birds .\",\n \"In a ritualised movement , the noisy miner flies out from a perch across an open area , in a rhythmic undulating pattern , usually calling in flight .\",\n \"At the end of the clearing it turns on an upward <unk> and flies silently back to a perch near the starting point .\",\n \"The ' head @-@ up flight ' is performed by the female during the nesting period , and may function to attract male helpers .\",\n \"In its most intense form the body and tail are held almost vertically , with legs dangling and the head held up and back .\",\n \"It is performed by the female when she is selecting the nest site , and when carrying nest @-@ building material , and probably has the function of indicating the location of the nest to other group members .\",\n \"<unk> displays include tall and low poses , pointing , open bill , and wing waving .\",\n \"The ' tall posture ' is used when in close contact with another bird and is a mild threat .\",\n \"The bird holds itself upright with neck and legs stretched , and it faces the other bird .\",\n \"The ' low posture ' is a submissive gesture ; the bird sits low on the perch with legs obscured by <unk> feathers and often faces away from the other bird .\",\n \"Fledglings threatened by adult birds will adopt a low posture and open their bill widely . '\",\n \"Pointing ' is a threat display where the bird stretches out horizontally , with feathers <unk> and the bill pointed at the target of the aggression .\",\n \"A bill snap will sometimes accompany pointing .\",\n \"An ' open bill display ' is used by subordinates in encounters between two birds , and by a female on the nest when other birds approach .\",\n \"The ' trident bill display ' involves a fully open bill with the tongue raised and protruding and is a higher @-@ intensity submissive display . '\",\n \"Wing waving ' is often performed at the same time as an open bill display .\",\n \"The wings are <unk> and held slightly away from the body , and <unk> out and up around three to six times .\",\n \"Wing waving may be accompanied by a yammer call . '\",\n \"Eagle ' displays involve holding the wings and tail spread out , in either a vertical or horizontal position .\",\n \"Eye displays are made by exposing or covering the bare yellow patch behind the eye — when the feathers are completely <unk> the entire patch is visible , and when they are <unk> the patch is hidden .\",\n \"Eye displays are used in conjunction with postural displays , with the yellow patch fully displayed by dominant birds using threat <unk> , and immature birds tending to reduce the size of the eye patch when under attack from other members of the coterie .\",\n \"On occasion early in the breeding season , mass displays erupt , where twenty or thirty birds perform the various wing @-@ spreading displays , short flights , and constant calling .\",\n \"<unk> birds are attacked by others , and groups of silent but agitated birds watch the interactions .\",\n \"Mass displays are more common in the early morning , can last for up to 40 minutes , and seem to be a combination of sexual and agonistic behaviour .\",\n \"A ' corroboree ' ( from the word for a ceremonial meeting of Aboriginal Australians ) is a group display where birds converge on adjacent branches and simultaneously pose <unk> , giving wing @-@ waving and open @-@ bill displays and the yammer call .\",\n \"A corroboree occurs when birds meet after a change in the social environment , such as a bird returning after an absence , or the <unk> of an intruder , or the coming together of different coteries .\",\n \"The corroboree appears to have a bonding function , and may involve all members of a colony .\",\n \"= = = = <unk> behaviour = = = = \\n \\n Described as \\\" always at war with others of the feathered kind \\\" in early notes , the noisy miner is one of the most aggressive of the honeyeaters .\",\n \"Much of the activity within a noisy miner colony is antagonistic with chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occurring frequently throughout the day .\",\n \"The birds unite to attack predators and to defend the colony area against all other species of birds ; the species is also highly aggressive <unk> .\",\n \"Female noisy miners are aggressive towards each other , and one cause of a male @-@ biased sex @-@ ratio in colonies may be the females ' greater intolerance for each other , driving <unk> out of the colony and preventing the immigration of new females .\",\n \"<unk> at the nest is common between males .\",\n \"Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old , and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling .\",\n \"Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds , although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring , and <unk> has been recorded .\",\n \"There is little male to female aggression other than the ' driving flights ' that form part of the mating ritual .\",\n \"In direct attacks of young birds <unk> are directed at the eye patch .\",\n \"<unk> behaviour has been observed among nestlings , with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the death of a sibling .\",\n \"The noisy miner colony <unk> to mob inter @-@ specific intruders and predators .\",\n \"The noisy miner will approach the threat closely and point , expose eye patches , and often bill @-@ snap .\",\n \"Five to fifteen birds will fly around the intruder , some birds diving at it and either pulling away or striking the intruder .\",\n \"The mobbing continues until the intruder remains still , as with a tawny <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , or it leaves the area .\",\n \"<unk> of snakes and <unk> is particularly intense , and most species of bird , even non @-@ predators , entering the territory are immediately chased .\",\n \"The noisy miner has been recorded attacking an Australian <unk> @-@ <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) during the day , <unk> , <unk> , ducks and <unk> on lakes at the edge of territories , crested pigeons ( <unk> <unk> ) , <unk> , and rosellas .\",\n \"Non @-@ predatory mammals such as bats , cattle , sheep , and <unk> are also attacked , though less vigorously than birds .\",\n \"Noisy miner attacks are not limited to chasing the intruder , and aggressive incidents often result in the death of the <unk> .\",\n \"Reports include those of two noisy miners repeatedly pecking a house sparrow ( <unk> <unk> ) at the base of its skull and killing it in six minutes ; one noisy miner grasping a <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) by the wing while another <unk> it on the head until it died ; and a sacred <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) being chased and harassed for over five hours and then found dead with a fractured skull .\",\n \"= = = = Response to threats = = = = \\n \\n Noisy miners make louder alarm calls in <unk> sections of urban environments , such as main roads .\",\n \"The most common initial response to alarm calls is to stay in the area and scan for threats , rather than withdraw .\",\n \"A study conducted in Melbourne and a nearby rural area found that noisy miners in urban areas were less likely to take flight , and when they did they flew shorter distances .\",\n \"It is unclear whether this is an adaptation or bolder miners had been the ones to settle in the city .\",\n \"A field study in Canberra found that superb <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners recognised miner alarm calls and took flight , and had learnt to ignore their non @-@ alarm calls , while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls .\",\n \"This suggests the species has adapted and learnt to discriminate and respond to another species ' <unk> .\",\n \"= = = Feeding = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner primarily eats nectar , fruit and insects , and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians .\",\n \"It is both <unk> and terrestrial , feeding in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground .\",\n \"The noisy miner collects nectar directly from flowers , hanging upside down or <unk> thin branches <unk> to access the nectar ; it takes fruit from trees or fallen on the ground ; <unk> or hawks for invertebrates ; and picks through leaf litter for insects .\",\n \"It has been recorded turning over the dried droppings of <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and eastern grey <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) searching for insects .\",\n \"Most time was spent <unk> the foliage of eucalypts , and noisy miners were significantly more abundant in sites where eucalypts were present .\",\n \"The noisy miner can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , <unk> and <unk> gathered from the foliage of eucalypts .\",\n \"Lower numbers of noisy miner were recorded at <unk> and <unk> than other large honeyeaters such as little <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and red <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) .\",\n \"<unk> , B.\",\n \"<unk> , <unk> <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , and flowering <unk> ) ; seeds from oats , wheat and <unk> tree ; fruit from <unk> , mistletoe and <unk> ; frogs and <unk> ; and other matter such as bread , pieces of meat and cheese , and food scraps .\",\n \"In the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species , the noisy miner was found to employ different cognitive strategies depending upon the resource it was foraging .\",\n \"When searching for nectar , which does not move but is readily depleted , the noisy miner uses a spatial memory @-@ based strategy , identifying characteristics of the environment — a strategy that is efficient in new environments and is not affected by changes in the bird 's activities .\",\n \"When searching for invertebrates , it appears to employ a different strategy based on learned rules of insect movement ( they improve at finding invertebrates with practice ) .\",\n \"The two different strategies imply the existence of adapted cognitive mechanisms , capable of responding appropriately to different foraging contexts .\",\n \"= = = Breeding = = = \\n \\n The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display ; displays can involve ' driving ' where the male jumps or flies at the female from 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 3 – 6 @.\",\n \"@ 6 ft ) away , and if she moves away he pursues her aggressively .\",\n \"The female may perform a ' bowed @-@ wing display ' where the wings and tail are spread and <unk> , with the wings arched and the head pointing down .\",\n \"The male may adopt a vertical or horizontal ' eagle display ' with wings and tail spread wide and held still for several seconds .\",\n \"Copulation is frequent and conspicuous , with both males and females <unk> with several birds , while other members of the colony display or otherwise interfere with the mating pair .\",\n \"Copulation usually occurs on larger , exposed branches close to the nest site and can occur at any time of the day , although slightly more often between 11 : 00 and 13 : 00 when communal activities are less frequent .\",\n \"The frenzied courtship activity had led to speculation that the female mates <unk> to recruit males to help care for the young , but recent genetic testing shows that 96 @.\",\n \"@ 5 % of noisy miner broods result from monogamous mating and that multiple paternity is rare .\",\n \"An observation of banded birds noted that while females <unk> repeatedly , it was always with the same male .\",\n \"<unk> switching between broods is uncommon , with pairs staying together over several years .\",\n \"The noisy miner breeds all year long , with most activity from July through November , though the peak period is subject to seasonal variations with sharp peaks in laying activity when conditions are particularly favourable for raising young .\",\n \"It seems to prefer moderately dense foliage for nesting , often near the end of <unk> horizontal branches .\",\n \"Support for the nest may be the primary criterion of a suitable nest site , rather than characteristics of the vegetation or location .\",\n \"The female alone builds the nest , which is deep and cup @-@ shaped , woven of twigs and grasses with other plant material , animal hair and spider <unk> .\",\n \"Occasionally the nest will include man @-@ made materials such as <unk> , scraps of material , and tissue paper .\",\n \"It is lined with wool , hair , feathers , flowers or plant down , and padded with a circular mat woven from fibres pulled from the <unk> of the processional <unk> .\",\n \"The female noisy miner walks around on the ground close to the nest site , picking up material .\",\n \"She <unk> material from disused nests of other birds , or <unk> its most recent nest to build a new one .\",\n \"The female completes the nest in five or six days .\",\n \"On average nests have an external diameter of 15 – 17 @.\",\n \"@ 8 centimetres ( 5 @.\",\n \"@ 9 – 7 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) and an external depth of 9 – 11 @.\",\n \"@ 4 centimetres ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 – 4 @.\",\n \"@ 5 in ) .\",\n \"The internal depth of the nest is around 5 @.\",\n \"@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 2 in ) .\",\n \"<unk> vary greatly in size , shape and markings , but are generally elongated <unk> ; white to cream or pinkish or buff coloured ; <unk> , spotted or blotched with reddish brown to chestnut or a purplish red , sometimes with underlying markings of violet or purplish grey .\",\n \"The clutch consists of two to four eggs .\",\n \"Incubation is by the female only , and the incubation period is around sixteen days .\",\n \"<unk> is <unk> , with up to six days being recorded between the hatching of the first and last chicks in a clutch .\",\n \"Young are naked at hatching , and develop a cover of down within two to three days .\",\n \"The fledging period is around sixteen days , and young begin to find food for themselves between twenty @-@ six and thirty days after fledging , but are still regularly fed by adults to thirty @-@ five days .\",\n \"The young leave the nest before they are fully fledged , and only able to fly downwards , and scramble up .\",\n \"They do not go far from the nest , return to it at night , and take some weeks to completely leave the nest .\",\n \"Many fledglings are found on the ground and in low shrubs during this period , where they continue to be cared for until they can make their way up into the trees .\",\n \"These birds are often mistakenly \\\" rescued \\\" .\",\n \"The fledglings seek out siblings if separated , and <unk> together for up to three weeks after fledging .\",\n \"The noisy miner has some of the largest group sizes of any <unk> breeding bird , with up to twenty males and one female attending a single brood .\",\n \"Only males help with a nest , and while many birds may be associated with a particular brood , some males devote all their time to a single nest , while others spread their helping efforts across five or six nests .\",\n \"<unk> evidence and genetic testing indicate that helpers are male offspring of the breeding pair , or full siblings of the male parent .\",\n \"Males nearly always bring food to the nestling singly , and if several arrive at once one will pass food to a nestling while the others wait .\",\n \"The female leaves the nest quickly when a male bird arrives , and never takes food from one of the helpers .\",\n \"Communal feeding of the young increases after fledging , and the young beg for food with constant ' chip chip ' calls and <unk> mouths .\",\n \"The female rarely feeds the young birds after they have fledged .\",\n \"= = = = Nest predation = = = = \\n \\n Cooperative breeding has been described as a strategy for decreasing nest predation , although one study found no relationship between the number of helpers visiting a nest site and its success or failure .\",\n \"Noisy miners were seen to have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods , laying eggs early in the season , nesting low in the canopy and group mobbing of predators ; these measures did not guarantee against nest failure due to the diversity of potential predators in the noisy miner 's open woodland habitat .\",\n \"= = Conservation status = = \\n \\n Being abundant throughout its significant range , the noisy miner is considered of least concern for conservation , and its extreme population densities in some areas actually constitute a threat to other species .\",\n \"The strong correlation between the presence of noisy miners and the absence of avian diversity has been well documented .\",\n \"The role played by the noisy miner in the steep decline of many woodland birds , its impact on endangered species with similar foraging requirements , and the level of leaf damage leading to die @-@ back that accompanies the exclusion of insectivorous birds from remnant woodlands , means that any strategy to restore avian diversity will need to take account of the management of noisy miner populations .\",\n \"Some habitat restoration and <unk> projects have inadvertently increased the problem of the noisy miner by establishing the open eucalypt habit that they prefer .\",\n \"A focus of many regeneration projects has been the establishing of habitat corridors that connect patches of remnant forest , and the use of eucalypts as fast @-@ growing nurse species .\",\n \"Both practices have sound ecological value , but allow the noisy miner to <unk> , so conservation efforts are being modified by planting a shrubby understory with the eucalypts , and avoiding the creation of narrow <unk> , corners or clumps of trees in vegetation corridors .\",\n \"A field study conducted in the Southern Highlands found that noisy miners tended to avoid areas dominated by <unk> , species of which in the study area had <unk> leaves .\",\n \"Hence the authors proposed <unk> projects include at least 15 % <unk> species with <unk> leaves if possible , as well as shrubby understory plants .\",\n \"<unk> of noisy miners is unlikely to be a solution to their overabundance in remnant habitats .\",\n \"In a Victorian study where birds were banded and relocated , colonies moved into the now unpopulated area but soon returned to their original territories .\",\n \"The <unk> birds did not settle in a new territory .\",\n \"They were not assimilated into resident populations of miners , but instead wandered up to 4 @.\",\n \"@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 6 mi ) from the release point , moving through apparently suitable habitat occupied by other miners — at least for the first 50 days following translocation .\",\n \"Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) back to their site of capture .\",\n \"Although noisy miners are protected across Australia , and a permit is required to <unk> them , culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact , particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life .\",\n \"An <unk> <unk> took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992 , which reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":91,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Florida Atlantic University = \n \n Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution .","FAU belongs to the 12 @-@ campus State University System of Florida and serves South Florida , which has a population of more than five million people and spans more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of coastline .","Florida Atlantic University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a research university with high research activity .","The university offers more than 180 undergraduate and graduate degree programs within its 10 colleges in addition to a professional degree from the College of Medicine .","<unk> of study cover arts and humanities , the sciences , medicine , nursing , accounting , business , education , public administration , social work , architecture , engineering , and computer science .","Florida Atlantic opened in 1964 as the first public university in southeast Florida , offering only upper @-@ division and graduate level courses .","Initial enrollment was only <unk> students , increasing in 1984 when the university admitted its first lower @-@ division undergraduate students .","As of 2012 , enrollment has grown to over 30 @,@ 000 students representing 140 countries , 50 states , and the District of Columbia .","Since its inception , Florida Atlantic has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni .","In recent years , FAU has undertaken an effort to increase its academic and research standings while also evolving into a more traditional university .","The university has raised admissions standards , increased research funding , built new facilities , and established notable partnerships with major research institutions .","Changes include an on @-@ campus stadium , additional on @-@ campus housing , and the establishment of a College of Medicine in 2010 .","= = History = = \n \n \n = = = Establishment = = = \n \n On July 15 , 1961 , to meet the burgeoning educational demands of South Florida , the state legislature passed an act authorizing the establishment of a new university in the City of Boca Raton .","Florida Atlantic University was built on Boca Raton Army Airfield , a 1940s @-@ era army airbase .","During World War II , the airfield served as the Army Air Corps ' sole radar training facility .","The base was built on the existing Boca Raton Airport and on 5 @,@ 860 acres ( 23 @.","@ 7 km ² ) of adjacent land .","A majority of the land was acquired from Japanese @-@ American farmers from the failing Yamato Colony .","The land was seized through eminent domain , leaving many Japanese @-@ Americans little recourse in the early days of World War II .","The airbase was used for radar training , anti @-@ submarine patrols along the coast , and as a stop @-@ over point for planes being ferried to Africa and Europe via South America .","The airfield was composed of four runways , still visible on the Boca Campus today and mainly used for parking .","By early 1947 , the military decided to transfer future radar training operations to <unk> Air Force Base in Mississippi .","The departure of the air force in 1947 would leave Boca Raton Army Airfield essentially abandoned .","= = = <unk> and growth = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University opened on September 14 , 1964 , with an initial student body of <unk> students in five colleges .","The first degree awarded was an honorary doctorate given to President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 25 , 1964 , at the dedication and opening of the university .","At the time of its opening , there were 120 faculty out of a total of 350 employees .","On @-@ campus housing for students was first added in September 1965 , when Algonquin Hall opened .","Florida Atlantic 's history is one of continuing expansion as the university 's service population has grown .","The university originally served only upper @-@ division and graduate level students , because Florida intended the institution \" to complement the state 's community college system , accepting students who had earned their associate degrees from those institutions . \"","Florida Atlantic began its expansion beyond a one @-@ campus university in 1971 , when it opened its Commercial Boulevard campus in Fort Lauderdale .","Due to a rapidly expanding population in South Florida , in 1984 Florida Atlantic opened its doors to lower @-@ division undergraduate students .","The following year , the university added its third campus , in downtown Fort Lauderdale on Las <unk> Boulevard .","= = = Recent history = = = \n \n In 1989 , the Florida Legislature recognized demands for higher education in South Florida by designating Florida Atlantic as the lead state university serving Broward County .","To fill this role , the university would establish a campus in Dania Beach in 1997 and another campus in the City of Davie in western Broward County in 1990 .","Florida Atlantic later purchased 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 to establish a campus on the Treasure Coast .","This would be the institution 's fifth campus .","The university continued its expansion in 1999 when it opened its Jupiter Campus , named for the late John D. MacArthur .","This campus houses the university 's honors college .","Florida Atlantic University and the University of Miami 's Miller School of Medicine established a medical training program within the Charles E. Schmidt College of <unk> Science in 2004 .","Plans originally called for the construction of a new teaching hospital in coordination with Boca Raton Community Hospital on the main campus .","Following successive budgets deficits in 2007 , the hospital delayed its participation indefinitely .","However , Florida Atlantic later established its own College of Medicine in 2010 .","The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution ( HBOI ) also joined the university in 2007 , creating Florida Atlantic 's seventh campus .","To bring HBOI into the university family the Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million to Florida Atlantic to acquire the institution .","Florida Atlantic has changed dramatically since its opening in 1964 .","As of 2013 , there are more than 30 @,@ 000 students attending classes on seven campuses spread across 120 miles ( 193 km ) .","The university consists of ten colleges and employs more than 3 @,@ 200 faculty and staff .","The university 's endowment decreased from $ 182 million in June 2008 to $ 142 million in January 2009 due to a worsening economy .","However , with the national economic recovery the endowment has increased to $ 179 million by the end of 2012 .","Since its founding , the university has been led by seven presidents .","The university 's immediate past president is Dr. Mary Jane Saunders .","She was named president on March 3 , 2010 , then resigned on May 15 , 2013 .","Her appointment followed the resignation of Frank Brogan .","Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida , left the university in late 2009 to become Chancellor of the State University System of Florida .","Past university presidents also included Dr. Anthony J.","<unk> , Dr. Helen <unk> , Dr. Glenwood <unk> , and Dr. Kenneth <unk> Williams .","On January 17 , 2014 , the Board of Trustees announced the selection of Dr. John W. Kelly , formerly a <unk> of Clemson University , to be the seventh president of the university with a starting date of March 1 , 2014 .","= = Academics = = \n \n \n = = = <unk> = = = \n \n As of fall 2013 , the university 's student body consists of 24 @,@ <unk> undergraduates , 4 @,@ <unk> graduate and professional students , 64 medical students , and 1 @,@ 451 <unk> students .","As of 2013 , the undergraduate student body contains 47 % ethnic minorities and includes students from more than 180 countries , 49 states , and the District of Columbia .","For the undergraduate class of 2012 , the acceptance rate was 35 % for first @-@ time @-@ in @-@ college students .","The university has ten colleges which altogether offer over 180 different bachelor 's , master 's and doctoral degree programs : the Charles E. Schmidt College of Science , Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine , Christine E. Lynn College of Nursing , College for Design and Social Inquiry , College of Business , College of Education , College of Engineering and Computer Science , Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters , Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , and the <unk> College .","The university offers two honors options : the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College and a University Scholars Program .","The Wilkes Honors College is located on the John D. MacArthur campus in Jupiter , Florida .","It offers a liberal arts education in the platform of a public university , yet is comparable to a private liberal arts college .","The Boca Raton campus houses the University Scholars Program , which offers special honors <unk> , forums , courses , and advanced course substitution for freshmen .","In recent years , FAU has increased its admission requirements for prospective freshmen .","The fall 2013 freshmen profile for the mid @-@ 50 % includes 3 @.","@ 38 @-@ 3 @.","@ 98 high school <unk> , a 22 @-@ 26 <unk> composite score , and a <unk> @-@ 1740 SAT total score .","Following a surge in the university 's popularity , in early 2009 , the university created its first wait @-@ list for undergraduate enrollment .","After February 15 , 2009 , applicants for admission in the 2009 – 2010 academic year were required to have a 3 @.","@ 5 <unk> or an SAT score of 1600 to be considered for admission .","The average class size at FAU for undergraduates is 33 students , and for graduate classes , 12 students .","The student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio is 20 : 1 .","The top three undergraduate majors by enrollment are elementary education , accounting , and management , respectively .","The top three graduate majors by enrollment are business administration , educational leadership , and accounting , respectively .","The average age for first @-@ year students is 18 ; however , the average age for all undergraduates is 24 and the average age for graduate students is 33 .","The average 4 @-@ year graduation rate for first @-@ time , non @-@ transfer students is 14 % while the 6 @-@ year graduation rate is 39 % .","Florida Atlantic University has long ranked as the most racially , ethnically and culturally diverse institution in Florida 's State University System .","U.S. News & World Report has ranked FAU the 27th most diverse university in the nation .","Florida Atlantic University students come from all 50 states , every county in Florida , and more than 180 countries .","<unk> opportunities include <unk> , hands @-@ on research , study abroad experiences , and 310 clubs and campus organizations .","The <unk> Learning Society operates programs that serve the educational interests of more than 19 @,@ 000 senior citizens by providing classes focusing on subjects of specific interest , and audit options for regular university classes .","Under the university 's Commercial Music Program , Hoot / <unk> Recordings was created in 2002 , enabling students to work in all creative and business aspects of the music industry .","This program generated music that landed a Top 10 spot on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales Chart during its first week of release .","The university 's two @-@ story trading room simulator , located in the College of Business , provides hands @-@ on financial education using 25 dual @-@ monitor computers and can accommodate 50 people at one time .","A second lab provides full audio / visual <unk> and 25 additional <unk> .","Florida Atlantic allows local financial businesses to use the Trading Room for training .","= = = Research = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic is classified by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a research university with high research activity .","The university has established notable partnerships with major research institutions such as The <unk> Research Institute , the <unk> <unk> Institute for Molecular Studies , and the Max Planck Society .","The university is the home of two centers of excellence : The Center of Excellence in <unk> and Marine <unk> and The Center for Ocean Energy Technology .","These centers have been selected by Florida 's <unk> Technology Commission to receive grants to continue and increase their operations .","Florida Atlantic beat out some of Florida 's top research universities , including the University of Florida and Florida State University , for the initial money from the state .","Since receiving its startup funding , Florida Atlantic has secured additional funds from other sources , including federal and private research grants .","As a result , both centers have engaged in academic and industry partnerships , combining expertise in ocean engineering , marine <unk> , functional genomics , proteomics , and <unk> .","Researchers , scientists , and students at the centers are designing technologies to explore the sea , harvest renewable energy , discover new medicines , and develop new <unk> to combat agents of <unk> .","As a result of this research , in 2007 the university and Lockheed Martin announced an exclusive licensing agreement to develop and produce a rapidly <unk> and autonomous <unk> buoy system for military and scientific uses .","In 2010 , the United States Department of Energy designated FAU as one of three national centers for ocean energy research and development .","The Southeast National Marine <unk> Energy Center joins centers in the Pacific Northwest ( University of Washington and Oregon State University ) and in Hawaii ( University of Hawaii ) .","The Southeast National Marine <unk> Energy Center is undertaking research and development of technologies capable of generating renewable power from ocean currents and ocean thermal energy .","The university houses both an Imaging Technology Center and a NASA Imaging Technology Space Center .","Located in the College of Engineering and Computer Science , the centers <unk> in digital imaging research and development for use in both government and commercial applications in the areas of medical technology , surveillance , communications , education , inspection , scientific observation , manufacturing , visual recognition and identification , and motion picture and digital video .","The Florida Atlantic Imaging Technology Center is developing a curriculum for digital imaging and processing , thereby establishing Florida Atlantic as the only university in the nation to offer this technical concentration .","The NASA Imaging Technology Center is one of 12 NASA Research Partnership Centers throughout the nation which develop dual @-@ use research and development with the participation of NASA and other related industries in the US .","The center occupies two sets of laboratories and administrative offices , one on Florida Atlantic 's main campus in Boca Raton , the other at the Fort Lauderdale campus .","Florida Atlantic is affiliated to the Research Park at Florida Atlantic University , with properties in <unk> Beach and Boca Raton .","The Research Park provides outside research facilities for companies which enable them to interact with the university community and its facilities , resources , and expertise .","The Research Park operates the Technology Business <unk> ; The <unk> works to foster the start @-@ up and growth of technology @-@ based businesses , seeking to scale them and build relationships for them with the university .","The Boca Raton campus is also home to the Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences , which includes the Machine <unk> and <unk> <unk> Laboratory \n \n = = = Rankings = = = \n \n For 2013 , Florida Atlantic University was classified as a second @-@ tier university by the U.S. News & World Report 's rankings of \" Best Colleges . \"","U.S. News ranks universities into one of two tiers , with one being the highest , based on how they compare with other colleges in a peer assessment , retention rates , student selectivity , faculty resources , financial resources , graduation rates , and the amount of alumni giving .","The university was named one of the 146 \" Best Southeastern Colleges \" in the United States by the Princeton Review .","The Review also recognized FAU 's business program by naming the College of Business to their list of \" Best 296 Business Schools \" for 2009 .","For 2011 , Florida Atlantic was ranked <unk> in the nation by Washington Monthly .","The magazine based its rankings on the following three criteria : \" how well a university performs as an engine of social mobility ( ideally helping the poor to get rich rather than the very rich to get very , very rich ) , how well a university does in <unk> scientific and humanistic research , and how well a university promotes an ethic of service to country . \"","The university was also ranked 28th in the United States and fourth in Florida by The Hispanic <unk> in Higher Education magazine for <unk> 738 bachelor 's degrees to Hispanic students during the 2006 – 2007 academic year .","= = Campus = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University is a distributed university located on seven campuses spread across Palm Beach , Broward , and St. Lucie counties .","The region is home to more than three million people .","The university 's main campus is located in the City of Boca Raton in Palm Beach County .","The county is also home to the John D. MacArthur Campus located in the City of Jupiter .","In addition to its campuses in Palm Beach County , the university operates three campuses in the Broward County cities of Dania Beach , Davie , and Fort Lauderdale .","Florida Atlantic University also operates two campuses in the St. Lucie County cities of Port St. Lucie and Fort Pierce .","In addition to students who attend classes on the universities campuses , there are 1 @,@ 612 distance learning students who conduct their studies over the internet or through other means .","These students account for 6 % of the university 's student body .","Florida Atlantic is a signatory of the American College & University Presidents Climate <unk> Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education .","This commits the institution to ensuring all new construction projects meet the U.S. Green Building Council 's <unk> in Energy and Environmental Design ( <unk> ) Silver standards .","In 2011 , The College of Engineering and Computer Science Building was <unk> Platinum certified .","= = = Palm Beach County campuses = = = \n \n \n = = = = Boca Raton = = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University 's main campus in Boca Raton was established on the remnants of a World War II American Army airbase in 1964 .","<unk> 850 acres ( 3 @.","@ 5 km ² ) , the site is located between the cities of Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale .","The campus was designated a burrowing owl sanctuary in 1971 by the <unk> Society .","The owls find the campus appealing because there are few predators , due to the university 's proximity to the Boca Raton Airport , and because the campus was originally cleared of vegetation when operating as an airbase during World War II . \"","The feisty bird , traditionally associated with wisdom and determination , serves as the university 's mascot . \"","The Boca Raton campus is home to a wide variety of university programs and facilities .","These facilities are <unk> and classrooms , housing for students , a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon shark tank for aquatic research , a movie theater , athletic and recreational facilities , and the student @-@ run record label Hoot / <unk> Recordings .","In addition to academic and cultural programs , the campus also houses Florida Atlantic 's Division I athletics program .","The main campus serves approximately 19 @,@ 077 students , or 70 % of the university 's student body , offering a number of academic programs , activities , and services .","The Boca Raton campus also houses a number of other institutions , including the A. D. Henderson University School , FAU High School , one of two Florida Atlantic University Research Parks , and the <unk> Learning Society .","= = = = Jupiter – John D. MacArthur Campus = = = = \n \n In addition to the Boca Raton campus in southern Palm Beach County , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in northern Palm Beach County , in Jupiter .","The John D. MacArthur Campus , named after businessman and philanthropist John D. MacArthur , was established in 1999 to serve residents of central and northern Palm Beach and southern Martin counties .","The MacArthur Campus occupies 45 acres ( 0 @.","@ 18 km ² ) , upon which are eight classroom and office buildings , a library , a 500 @-@ seat auditorium , two residence halls , a dining hall , museum building , and utility plant .","The MacArthur Campus also houses the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , <unk> Florida , and the Max Planck Florida Institute .","The campus serves approximately 1 @,@ 262 students , or 4 % of the university 's student body .","= = = Broward County campuses = = = \n \n \n = = = = Dania Beach – SeaTech = = = = \n \n The Dania Beach Campus , also known as SeaTech , was founded in 1997 as a state @-@ funded Type II research center .","The institute is part of Florida Atlantic 's Department of Ocean Engineering which was founded in 1965 as the first ocean engineering undergraduate program in the nation .","The campus is located on 8 acres ( 0 @.","@ 03 km ² ) of land between the Atlantic Ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway .","SeaTech is home to university faculty and students engaged in sponsored ocean engineering research and development in the areas of acoustics , marine vehicles , <unk> and physical <unk> , marine materials and <unk> .","The Dania Beach Campus serves approximately 70 students , roughly 1 % of the university 's total student body .","= = = = Davie = = = = \n \n The Davie Campus of Florida Atlantic University was established in 1990 on 38 acres ( 0 @.","@ 15 km ² ) of land in western Broward County .","The campus serves approximately 3 @,@ <unk> students , or 13 % of the Florida Atlantic student body , making it the university 's second largest campus by enrollment .","The campus features a multi @-@ story student union with offices for student government and student organizations , a multipurpose area and student lounge , a bookstore , and <unk> .","The union also contains a student health center that provides medical services and health counseling .","Davie is also the home of \" environmental research initiatives focused on Everglades restoration . \"","FAU colleges offering courses at the FAU Davie campus include Design and Social Inquiry ; Arts and Letters ; Business ; Education ; Nursing ; and Science .","The campus is located on Broward College 's Central Campus .","Students may enter BC as freshmen and graduate from FAU with undergraduate degrees in over 14 disciplines .","More than 315 @,@ 000 square feet of carefully designed classrooms , laboratories and faculty , staff and student offices are located on this campus along with a shared @-@ use , 112 @,@ 000 square @-@ foot FAU / BC library designed for the 21st century .","Other support facilities include a shared <unk> Center , a student Wellness Center and a multi @-@ service Student Union .","The campus also offers a rich and varied program of student activities provided by the Division of Student Affairs .","Students have all of the services they require for career counseling , <unk> , testing and evaluation , <unk> , health services , student government and financial aid , among others .","Like a small college within a large university , the Davie Campus is seen as a \" model \" branch campus for the state of Florida and the nation .","= = = = Fort Lauderdale = = = = \n \n The university has two buildings in downtown Fort Lauderdale , both of which are considered part of one Fort Lauderdale campus .","The Askew Tower ( AT ) and the Higher Education Complex ( <unk> ) on Las <unk> Boulevard .","The campus offers courses in communication , graphic design , architecture , and urban and regional planning .","The campus is home to approximately 900 students or 3 @.","@ 2 % of the university 's student body .","= = = St. Lucie County campuses = = = \n \n \n = = = = Fort Pierce – Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution = = = = \n \n In addition to the Treasure Coast Campus , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution .","Harbor Branch merged with the university in 2007 to become the HBOI at FAU .","The Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million for the university to acquire the institution and its 600 acre ( 2 @.","@ 4 km ² ) campus .","= = = Former <unk> = = = \n \n \n = = = = Port St. Lucie – Treasure Coast Campus = = = = \n \n Treasure Coast Campus of Florida Atlantic University operated through a partnership with Indian River State College ( <unk> ) .","Florida Atlantic purchased 50 acres ( 0 @.","@ 2 km ² ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 .","At the end of Spring 2012 class term , Florida Atlantic University ended offering classes at the Port St. Lucie campus .","= = Athletics = = \n \n Florida Atlantic 's 18 varsity sports teams , the Owls , compete in NCAA 's Division I.","The Owls recently got in C @-@ USA for the 2013 – 14 season .","The university 's athletics program began in 1979 , when Florida Atlantic first started sponsoring intercollegiate teams .","Since then , the university has worked to expand the quality of its intercollegiate program by attracting coaches such as Howard Schnellenberger , Matt Doherty , Rex Walters and Mike Jarvis .","In 2006 , the athletic department was ranked 79th in the nation by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( <unk> ) .","Along with USA Today and the United States Sports Academy , <unk> recognized the university for its Division I athletic programs and accomplishments . \"","This ranking placed Florida Atlantic in the top 24 % of 326 NCAA Division I universities .","The university 's colors are FAU Blue , FAU Red , and FAU Silver .","In 2008 , the Florida Atlantic football team finished six wins and six losses in regular season play and was invited to the Motor City Bowl .","The Owls defeated Central Michigan University 24 – 21 , increasing their bowl record to two wins and zero losses .","During the previous season , the football team beat Troy University in the final game of regular season play to become Sun Belt Co @-@ Champions and receive an invitation to the New Orleans Bowl .","In just the seventh year of the football program 's history , and the third year playing in Division I , Florida Atlantic set NCAA records by both becoming the youngest program ever to receive an invitation to , and win , a bowl game .","As a result of the New Orleans Bowl the university has seen a surge in school spirit .","In past seasons the Owls have garnered a number of accolades for their accomplishments .","During the 2006 – 2007 season , the men 's basketball team was noted as \" one of the Sun Belt Conference 's top offensive teams , \" with a \" scary offense \" that earned it the reputation of the \" best shooting team in the conference . \"","In 2010 , the men 's basketball team defeated its first @-@ ever Southeastern Conference opponent Mississippi State University 61 – 59 as well as Big East opponent the University of South Florida 50 – 42 en route to a 21 – 9 overall record and claimed the Sun Belt Conference title .","The baseball team was also recognized by the NCAA as ranking in the Top 10 in five team categories .","The team was also ranked third in the nation in home runs per game ( 1 @.","@ 66 ) and in <unk> percentage ( <unk> ) .","In 2010 , the Owls baseball team was 37 – 24 ( 21 – 9 ) and claimed their first Sun Belt Conference regular @-@ season title .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University is home to a number of sports @-@ related traditions and school spirit organizations .","Every fall before the first football game of the season , FAU 's Student Government Association sponsors the \" Annual Football Kick @-@ Off <unk> \" wherein the opposing team 's mascot is burned in effigy .","Also in football , Florida Atlantic challenges its rival Florida International ( <unk> ) is the annual Shula Bowl .","This intercollegiate football game is named after legendary coach Don Shula ; so named because at the time of its inception , both head coaches , Florida Atlantic 's Howard Schnellenberger and Florida International coach Don <unk> , had worked under Shula at some point during their careers .","Even though both universities have since moved on to new head coaches , the Shula Bowl is still played .","As a home game , the competition takes place at university 's own stadium ; as an away game , the bowl is played at <unk> Stadium in Miami .","For basketball , Florida Atlantic celebrates a \" Midnight Madness \" <unk> rally that introduces fans to the team and coaches as well as inspires a number of basketball @-@ related contests such as 3 Point Shoot <unk> and Slam <unk> competitions .","During the regular season , the \" Bury the <unk> in Red \" event calls for Florida Atlantic students to wear as much red as possible and fill the <unk> , the university 's multi @-@ purpose arena , during the annual basketball rivalry game between Florida Atlantic and Florida International University .","The official spirit group supporting Florida Atlantic athletics is the \" <unk> . \"","The group began in February 2002 to support the men 's basketball program during the team 's run for the Atlantic Sun Conference Championship .","The group is funded by the Student <unk> Association , and can now be found at most sporting events cheering for Florida Atlantic .","The <unk> are joined by the Owl Rangers , a fan group that paints their bodies in the Florida Atlantic school colors .","The <unk> are a student club that attend <unk> events and assist in recruiting athletes .","Since 2002 , Florida Atlantic students have been using Owl <unk> ( the \" OK \" hand sign ) to show school pride and wish the athletic teams luck during football point after attempts ( <unk> ) and basketball free throws .","The Florida Atlantic University Athletics Department has chosen to use Owl <unk> as part of its \" <unk> the Hoot \" 2012 marketing campaign that encourages students to \" proudly raise the hand salute that depicts the eyes of the owl , FAU 's mascot . \"","= = Student life = = \n \n \n = = = Residential life = = = \n \n Residential housing at Florida Atlantic University is available on the Boca Raton and John D. MacArthur campuses . \"","All full @-@ time freshmen are required to reside in university housing , \" however , \" exemptions from this policy are made for students who : are 21 or older by the first day of class , reside with parent ( s ) or legal guardian ( s ) within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of the Boca Raton campus , or are married . \"","As of 2011 , 4 @,@ 555 students live on @-@ campus in Boca Raton .","The Wilkes Honors College on the MacArthur Campus requires all students live on @-@ campus within its two residence halls , however , exceptions are made for students who are 26 years of age , married , or have dependent children .","As of 2011 , there are 231 students residing on @-@ campus at the honors college .","Boca Raton 's on @-@ campus housing facilities are : Algonquin Hall ( opened 1965 ) , Indian River Towers ( opened 2001 ) , Heritage Park Towers ( opened 2004 ) , Glades Park Towers ( opened 2007 ) , Parliament Hall ( opened 2013 ) , University Village Apartments ( <unk> ) , and Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) ( opened 2011 ) .","Heritage Park and Glades Park Towers each offer <unk> beds with 96 single rooms .","<unk> and IVA exclusively serve <unk> while the other residence halls exclusively serve freshmen students , with Algonquin Hall serving all students .","The university also offers upper @-@ division undergraduate and graduate student housing in the Business and Professional Women 's Scholarship House for women with a strong academic background .","One of the newest residences on the Boca Raton campus is the Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) , consisting of two buildings : IVA North and IVA South .","It is a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed apartment @-@ style housing facility for <unk> , graduate , and medical students .","It offers amenities that one would find in a high @-@ rise apartment complex : lounges , retail dining , fitness centers , a pool / <unk> , a volleyball court , common areas , and more .","The facility opened in fall 2011 .","FAU 's newest residence hall is Parliament Hall , a lakeside freshmen housing facility offering 614 beds , a fitness center , lounges , retail dining , and views of the nearby Atlantic Ocean from top floors .","Within its existing residential life programs , Florida Atlantic offers a number of Learning Communities for freshmen and students with similar interests and concentrations .","Participants meet people with similar interests , live on the same floor and take courses with others in their community , while receiving additional guidance related to those interests .","The university 's Learning Community programs are divided into two categories , Freshman Learning Communities and Living Learning Communities .","The freshman program offers 16 different concentrations , including business , nursing , and education .","The Living program offers six concentrations for students residing in the Heritage Park Towers dormitory , including engineering , computer science , and a Women 's <unk> program .","The university 's Department of Housing and Residential Life and the university 's <unk> and <unk> sponsor a program for freshmen and other students returning to Florida Atlantic in the fall semester .","This program , called the \" Weeks of Welcome , \" spans 11 days and all campuses , and works to <unk> students with university life and to build a good on @-@ campus community .","On each day , a number of different events are scheduled , including Hall Wars , which are athletic competitions between dormitories , <unk> , and a number of other events .","The Weeks of Welcome is the second largest campus @-@ wide event held by Florida Atlantic .","= = = Student housing = = = \n \n \n = = = Campus organizations and activities = = = \n \n For the 2010 – 2011 academic year , Florida Atlantic had approximately 300 registered student organizations .","Among the groups are academic organizations , honor societies , spiritual / religious organizations , diversity @-@ appreciation organizations , service organizations , personal interest organizations , sports clubs , and student government agencies .","These clubs and organizations run the <unk> from sailing to Ultimate <unk> , from varsity and club sports and a jazz group to a pottery guild , from political organizations to chess and video game clubs .","These organizations are funded by student tuition , from which $ 10 @.","@ 00 per credit hour goes toward an activities and service fee fund .","This generates approximately $ 9 million that is then given to student government for allocation to student clubs and organizations .","The student government also finances other student life programs , including career <unk> , the University Press , <unk> TV and Owl Radio , and Homecoming .","Florida Atlantic 's homecoming , also known as the \" Owl <unk> , \" is celebrated annually in the fall semester .","Events occur mainly on the Boca Raton Campus , but a number of other campuses host their own events as well .","In the past , homecoming has had kickoff parties , <unk> dances , <unk> , comedy shows , alumni events and <unk> , a golf cart parade , and <unk> .","Florida Atlantic students have an organized football <unk> area known as the Rat 's Mouth .","The name references the Spanish translation of Boca Raton .","Florida Atlantic completed an $ 18 @.","@ 6 million Recreation and Wellness Center in spring 2010 .","The facility houses an outdoor leisure and lap pool , a <unk> equipment and free weight room , two multipurpose rooms , three indoor courts and health club @-@ style locker rooms .","In 2011 , the facility won the <unk> Outstanding Sports Facilities Award .","Other recreation facilities include a $ 4 @.","@ 2 million track and field complex , with synthetic turf ( opened January 2007 ) , a ropes challenge course and the 6 @.","@ 5 acre Henderson Fields , utilized most often by the FAU <unk> Sports and Club Sports programs .","= = = Greek life = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic is home to approximately 28 chapters of national <unk> and <unk> , encompassing approximately 1 @,@ 077 members or 5 % of the undergraduate population .","The <unk> of Greek life at Florida Atlantic is \" Greek Week . \"","This event is held annually during the spring semester and showcases a number of themed competitions between the university 's Greek organizations .","There are currently no on @-@ campus Greek houses .","However , a Greek Life Housing task force has been formed to explore various housing models , including the cost of construction , \" and make recommendations on how to improve the overall quality of the Greek housing .... \" \n \n = = <unk> = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni worldwide since its opening .","Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David <unk> , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto <unk> , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida .","Charles <unk> or \" Father Goose \" is a children 's poet and former nationally syndicated columnist .","Judith Ortiz Cofer is an acclaimed Puerto <unk> author whose works span a range of literary genres including poetry , short stories , and essays .","Other alumni are Chris <unk> , the lead singer of the band <unk> <unk> ; and Phil Zimmermann , the creator of Pretty Good <unk> .","Entertainers Mary Carey , a pornographic actress and former candidate for Governor of California , prop comedian <unk> Top , and humorist Daniel Dickey also attended the university .","<unk> and NASA astronaut Steven Swanson went to space aboard Space Shuttle <unk> during <unk> @-@ 117 in June 2007 , and Space Shuttle Discovery during <unk> @-@ 119 in March 2009 ."],"string":"[\n \" = Florida Atlantic University = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution .\",\n \"FAU belongs to the 12 @-@ campus State University System of Florida and serves South Florida , which has a population of more than five million people and spans more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of coastline .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a research university with high research activity .\",\n \"The university offers more than 180 undergraduate and graduate degree programs within its 10 colleges in addition to a professional degree from the College of Medicine .\",\n \"<unk> of study cover arts and humanities , the sciences , medicine , nursing , accounting , business , education , public administration , social work , architecture , engineering , and computer science .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic opened in 1964 as the first public university in southeast Florida , offering only upper @-@ division and graduate level courses .\",\n \"Initial enrollment was only <unk> students , increasing in 1984 when the university admitted its first lower @-@ division undergraduate students .\",\n \"As of 2012 , enrollment has grown to over 30 @,@ 000 students representing 140 countries , 50 states , and the District of Columbia .\",\n \"Since its inception , Florida Atlantic has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni .\",\n \"In recent years , FAU has undertaken an effort to increase its academic and research standings while also evolving into a more traditional university .\",\n \"The university has raised admissions standards , increased research funding , built new facilities , and established notable partnerships with major research institutions .\",\n \"Changes include an on @-@ campus stadium , additional on @-@ campus housing , and the establishment of a College of Medicine in 2010 .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Establishment = = = \\n \\n On July 15 , 1961 , to meet the burgeoning educational demands of South Florida , the state legislature passed an act authorizing the establishment of a new university in the City of Boca Raton .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University was built on Boca Raton Army Airfield , a 1940s @-@ era army airbase .\",\n \"During World War II , the airfield served as the Army Air Corps ' sole radar training facility .\",\n \"The base was built on the existing Boca Raton Airport and on 5 @,@ 860 acres ( 23 @.\",\n \"@ 7 km ² ) of adjacent land .\",\n \"A majority of the land was acquired from Japanese @-@ American farmers from the failing Yamato Colony .\",\n \"The land was seized through eminent domain , leaving many Japanese @-@ Americans little recourse in the early days of World War II .\",\n \"The airbase was used for radar training , anti @-@ submarine patrols along the coast , and as a stop @-@ over point for planes being ferried to Africa and Europe via South America .\",\n \"The airfield was composed of four runways , still visible on the Boca Campus today and mainly used for parking .\",\n \"By early 1947 , the military decided to transfer future radar training operations to <unk> Air Force Base in Mississippi .\",\n \"The departure of the air force in 1947 would leave Boca Raton Army Airfield essentially abandoned .\",\n \"= = = <unk> and growth = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University opened on September 14 , 1964 , with an initial student body of <unk> students in five colleges .\",\n \"The first degree awarded was an honorary doctorate given to President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 25 , 1964 , at the dedication and opening of the university .\",\n \"At the time of its opening , there were 120 faculty out of a total of 350 employees .\",\n \"On @-@ campus housing for students was first added in September 1965 , when Algonquin Hall opened .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic 's history is one of continuing expansion as the university 's service population has grown .\",\n \"The university originally served only upper @-@ division and graduate level students , because Florida intended the institution \\\" to complement the state 's community college system , accepting students who had earned their associate degrees from those institutions . \\\"\",\n \"Florida Atlantic began its expansion beyond a one @-@ campus university in 1971 , when it opened its Commercial Boulevard campus in Fort Lauderdale .\",\n \"Due to a rapidly expanding population in South Florida , in 1984 Florida Atlantic opened its doors to lower @-@ division undergraduate students .\",\n \"The following year , the university added its third campus , in downtown Fort Lauderdale on Las <unk> Boulevard .\",\n \"= = = Recent history = = = \\n \\n In 1989 , the Florida Legislature recognized demands for higher education in South Florida by designating Florida Atlantic as the lead state university serving Broward County .\",\n \"To fill this role , the university would establish a campus in Dania Beach in 1997 and another campus in the City of Davie in western Broward County in 1990 .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic later purchased 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 to establish a campus on the Treasure Coast .\",\n \"This would be the institution 's fifth campus .\",\n \"The university continued its expansion in 1999 when it opened its Jupiter Campus , named for the late John D. MacArthur .\",\n \"This campus houses the university 's honors college .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University and the University of Miami 's Miller School of Medicine established a medical training program within the Charles E. Schmidt College of <unk> Science in 2004 .\",\n \"Plans originally called for the construction of a new teaching hospital in coordination with Boca Raton Community Hospital on the main campus .\",\n \"Following successive budgets deficits in 2007 , the hospital delayed its participation indefinitely .\",\n \"However , Florida Atlantic later established its own College of Medicine in 2010 .\",\n \"The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution ( HBOI ) also joined the university in 2007 , creating Florida Atlantic 's seventh campus .\",\n \"To bring HBOI into the university family the Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million to Florida Atlantic to acquire the institution .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic has changed dramatically since its opening in 1964 .\",\n \"As of 2013 , there are more than 30 @,@ 000 students attending classes on seven campuses spread across 120 miles ( 193 km ) .\",\n \"The university consists of ten colleges and employs more than 3 @,@ 200 faculty and staff .\",\n \"The university 's endowment decreased from $ 182 million in June 2008 to $ 142 million in January 2009 due to a worsening economy .\",\n \"However , with the national economic recovery the endowment has increased to $ 179 million by the end of 2012 .\",\n \"Since its founding , the university has been led by seven presidents .\",\n \"The university 's immediate past president is Dr. Mary Jane Saunders .\",\n \"She was named president on March 3 , 2010 , then resigned on May 15 , 2013 .\",\n \"Her appointment followed the resignation of Frank Brogan .\",\n \"Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida , left the university in late 2009 to become Chancellor of the State University System of Florida .\",\n \"Past university presidents also included Dr. Anthony J.\",\n \"<unk> , Dr. Helen <unk> , Dr. Glenwood <unk> , and Dr. Kenneth <unk> Williams .\",\n \"On January 17 , 2014 , the Board of Trustees announced the selection of Dr. John W. Kelly , formerly a <unk> of Clemson University , to be the seventh president of the university with a starting date of March 1 , 2014 .\",\n \"= = Academics = = \\n \\n \\n = = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n As of fall 2013 , the university 's student body consists of 24 @,@ <unk> undergraduates , 4 @,@ <unk> graduate and professional students , 64 medical students , and 1 @,@ 451 <unk> students .\",\n \"As of 2013 , the undergraduate student body contains 47 % ethnic minorities and includes students from more than 180 countries , 49 states , and the District of Columbia .\",\n \"For the undergraduate class of 2012 , the acceptance rate was 35 % for first @-@ time @-@ in @-@ college students .\",\n \"The university has ten colleges which altogether offer over 180 different bachelor 's , master 's and doctoral degree programs : the Charles E. Schmidt College of Science , Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine , Christine E. Lynn College of Nursing , College for Design and Social Inquiry , College of Business , College of Education , College of Engineering and Computer Science , Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters , Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , and the <unk> College .\",\n \"The university offers two honors options : the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College and a University Scholars Program .\",\n \"The Wilkes Honors College is located on the John D. MacArthur campus in Jupiter , Florida .\",\n \"It offers a liberal arts education in the platform of a public university , yet is comparable to a private liberal arts college .\",\n \"The Boca Raton campus houses the University Scholars Program , which offers special honors <unk> , forums , courses , and advanced course substitution for freshmen .\",\n \"In recent years , FAU has increased its admission requirements for prospective freshmen .\",\n \"The fall 2013 freshmen profile for the mid @-@ 50 % includes 3 @.\",\n \"@ 38 @-@ 3 @.\",\n \"@ 98 high school <unk> , a 22 @-@ 26 <unk> composite score , and a <unk> @-@ 1740 SAT total score .\",\n \"Following a surge in the university 's popularity , in early 2009 , the university created its first wait @-@ list for undergraduate enrollment .\",\n \"After February 15 , 2009 , applicants for admission in the 2009 – 2010 academic year were required to have a 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 <unk> or an SAT score of 1600 to be considered for admission .\",\n \"The average class size at FAU for undergraduates is 33 students , and for graduate classes , 12 students .\",\n \"The student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio is 20 : 1 .\",\n \"The top three undergraduate majors by enrollment are elementary education , accounting , and management , respectively .\",\n \"The top three graduate majors by enrollment are business administration , educational leadership , and accounting , respectively .\",\n \"The average age for first @-@ year students is 18 ; however , the average age for all undergraduates is 24 and the average age for graduate students is 33 .\",\n \"The average 4 @-@ year graduation rate for first @-@ time , non @-@ transfer students is 14 % while the 6 @-@ year graduation rate is 39 % .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University has long ranked as the most racially , ethnically and culturally diverse institution in Florida 's State University System .\",\n \"U.S. News & World Report has ranked FAU the 27th most diverse university in the nation .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University students come from all 50 states , every county in Florida , and more than 180 countries .\",\n \"<unk> opportunities include <unk> , hands @-@ on research , study abroad experiences , and 310 clubs and campus organizations .\",\n \"The <unk> Learning Society operates programs that serve the educational interests of more than 19 @,@ 000 senior citizens by providing classes focusing on subjects of specific interest , and audit options for regular university classes .\",\n \"Under the university 's Commercial Music Program , Hoot / <unk> Recordings was created in 2002 , enabling students to work in all creative and business aspects of the music industry .\",\n \"This program generated music that landed a Top 10 spot on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales Chart during its first week of release .\",\n \"The university 's two @-@ story trading room simulator , located in the College of Business , provides hands @-@ on financial education using 25 dual @-@ monitor computers and can accommodate 50 people at one time .\",\n \"A second lab provides full audio / visual <unk> and 25 additional <unk> .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic allows local financial businesses to use the Trading Room for training .\",\n \"= = = Research = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic is classified by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a research university with high research activity .\",\n \"The university has established notable partnerships with major research institutions such as The <unk> Research Institute , the <unk> <unk> Institute for Molecular Studies , and the Max Planck Society .\",\n \"The university is the home of two centers of excellence : The Center of Excellence in <unk> and Marine <unk> and The Center for Ocean Energy Technology .\",\n \"These centers have been selected by Florida 's <unk> Technology Commission to receive grants to continue and increase their operations .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic beat out some of Florida 's top research universities , including the University of Florida and Florida State University , for the initial money from the state .\",\n \"Since receiving its startup funding , Florida Atlantic has secured additional funds from other sources , including federal and private research grants .\",\n \"As a result , both centers have engaged in academic and industry partnerships , combining expertise in ocean engineering , marine <unk> , functional genomics , proteomics , and <unk> .\",\n \"Researchers , scientists , and students at the centers are designing technologies to explore the sea , harvest renewable energy , discover new medicines , and develop new <unk> to combat agents of <unk> .\",\n \"As a result of this research , in 2007 the university and Lockheed Martin announced an exclusive licensing agreement to develop and produce a rapidly <unk> and autonomous <unk> buoy system for military and scientific uses .\",\n \"In 2010 , the United States Department of Energy designated FAU as one of three national centers for ocean energy research and development .\",\n \"The Southeast National Marine <unk> Energy Center joins centers in the Pacific Northwest ( University of Washington and Oregon State University ) and in Hawaii ( University of Hawaii ) .\",\n \"The Southeast National Marine <unk> Energy Center is undertaking research and development of technologies capable of generating renewable power from ocean currents and ocean thermal energy .\",\n \"The university houses both an Imaging Technology Center and a NASA Imaging Technology Space Center .\",\n \"Located in the College of Engineering and Computer Science , the centers <unk> in digital imaging research and development for use in both government and commercial applications in the areas of medical technology , surveillance , communications , education , inspection , scientific observation , manufacturing , visual recognition and identification , and motion picture and digital video .\",\n \"The Florida Atlantic Imaging Technology Center is developing a curriculum for digital imaging and processing , thereby establishing Florida Atlantic as the only university in the nation to offer this technical concentration .\",\n \"The NASA Imaging Technology Center is one of 12 NASA Research Partnership Centers throughout the nation which develop dual @-@ use research and development with the participation of NASA and other related industries in the US .\",\n \"The center occupies two sets of laboratories and administrative offices , one on Florida Atlantic 's main campus in Boca Raton , the other at the Fort Lauderdale campus .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic is affiliated to the Research Park at Florida Atlantic University , with properties in <unk> Beach and Boca Raton .\",\n \"The Research Park provides outside research facilities for companies which enable them to interact with the university community and its facilities , resources , and expertise .\",\n \"The Research Park operates the Technology Business <unk> ; The <unk> works to foster the start @-@ up and growth of technology @-@ based businesses , seeking to scale them and build relationships for them with the university .\",\n \"The Boca Raton campus is also home to the Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences , which includes the Machine <unk> and <unk> <unk> Laboratory \\n \\n = = = Rankings = = = \\n \\n For 2013 , Florida Atlantic University was classified as a second @-@ tier university by the U.S. News & World Report 's rankings of \\\" Best Colleges . \\\"\",\n \"U.S. News ranks universities into one of two tiers , with one being the highest , based on how they compare with other colleges in a peer assessment , retention rates , student selectivity , faculty resources , financial resources , graduation rates , and the amount of alumni giving .\",\n \"The university was named one of the 146 \\\" Best Southeastern Colleges \\\" in the United States by the Princeton Review .\",\n \"The Review also recognized FAU 's business program by naming the College of Business to their list of \\\" Best 296 Business Schools \\\" for 2009 .\",\n \"For 2011 , Florida Atlantic was ranked <unk> in the nation by Washington Monthly .\",\n \"The magazine based its rankings on the following three criteria : \\\" how well a university performs as an engine of social mobility ( ideally helping the poor to get rich rather than the very rich to get very , very rich ) , how well a university does in <unk> scientific and humanistic research , and how well a university promotes an ethic of service to country . \\\"\",\n \"The university was also ranked 28th in the United States and fourth in Florida by The Hispanic <unk> in Higher Education magazine for <unk> 738 bachelor 's degrees to Hispanic students during the 2006 – 2007 academic year .\",\n \"= = Campus = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University is a distributed university located on seven campuses spread across Palm Beach , Broward , and St. Lucie counties .\",\n \"The region is home to more than three million people .\",\n \"The university 's main campus is located in the City of Boca Raton in Palm Beach County .\",\n \"The county is also home to the John D. MacArthur Campus located in the City of Jupiter .\",\n \"In addition to its campuses in Palm Beach County , the university operates three campuses in the Broward County cities of Dania Beach , Davie , and Fort Lauderdale .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University also operates two campuses in the St. Lucie County cities of Port St. Lucie and Fort Pierce .\",\n \"In addition to students who attend classes on the universities campuses , there are 1 @,@ 612 distance learning students who conduct their studies over the internet or through other means .\",\n \"These students account for 6 % of the university 's student body .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic is a signatory of the American College & University Presidents Climate <unk> Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education .\",\n \"This commits the institution to ensuring all new construction projects meet the U.S. Green Building Council 's <unk> in Energy and Environmental Design ( <unk> ) Silver standards .\",\n \"In 2011 , The College of Engineering and Computer Science Building was <unk> Platinum certified .\",\n \"= = = Palm Beach County campuses = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Boca Raton = = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University 's main campus in Boca Raton was established on the remnants of a World War II American Army airbase in 1964 .\",\n \"<unk> 850 acres ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 km ² ) , the site is located between the cities of Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale .\",\n \"The campus was designated a burrowing owl sanctuary in 1971 by the <unk> Society .\",\n \"The owls find the campus appealing because there are few predators , due to the university 's proximity to the Boca Raton Airport , and because the campus was originally cleared of vegetation when operating as an airbase during World War II . \\\"\",\n \"The feisty bird , traditionally associated with wisdom and determination , serves as the university 's mascot . \\\"\",\n \"The Boca Raton campus is home to a wide variety of university programs and facilities .\",\n \"These facilities are <unk> and classrooms , housing for students , a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon shark tank for aquatic research , a movie theater , athletic and recreational facilities , and the student @-@ run record label Hoot / <unk> Recordings .\",\n \"In addition to academic and cultural programs , the campus also houses Florida Atlantic 's Division I athletics program .\",\n \"The main campus serves approximately 19 @,@ 077 students , or 70 % of the university 's student body , offering a number of academic programs , activities , and services .\",\n \"The Boca Raton campus also houses a number of other institutions , including the A. D. Henderson University School , FAU High School , one of two Florida Atlantic University Research Parks , and the <unk> Learning Society .\",\n \"= = = = Jupiter – John D. MacArthur Campus = = = = \\n \\n In addition to the Boca Raton campus in southern Palm Beach County , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in northern Palm Beach County , in Jupiter .\",\n \"The John D. MacArthur Campus , named after businessman and philanthropist John D. MacArthur , was established in 1999 to serve residents of central and northern Palm Beach and southern Martin counties .\",\n \"The MacArthur Campus occupies 45 acres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 18 km ² ) , upon which are eight classroom and office buildings , a library , a 500 @-@ seat auditorium , two residence halls , a dining hall , museum building , and utility plant .\",\n \"The MacArthur Campus also houses the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , <unk> Florida , and the Max Planck Florida Institute .\",\n \"The campus serves approximately 1 @,@ 262 students , or 4 % of the university 's student body .\",\n \"= = = Broward County campuses = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Dania Beach – SeaTech = = = = \\n \\n The Dania Beach Campus , also known as SeaTech , was founded in 1997 as a state @-@ funded Type II research center .\",\n \"The institute is part of Florida Atlantic 's Department of Ocean Engineering which was founded in 1965 as the first ocean engineering undergraduate program in the nation .\",\n \"The campus is located on 8 acres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 03 km ² ) of land between the Atlantic Ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway .\",\n \"SeaTech is home to university faculty and students engaged in sponsored ocean engineering research and development in the areas of acoustics , marine vehicles , <unk> and physical <unk> , marine materials and <unk> .\",\n \"The Dania Beach Campus serves approximately 70 students , roughly 1 % of the university 's total student body .\",\n \"= = = = Davie = = = = \\n \\n The Davie Campus of Florida Atlantic University was established in 1990 on 38 acres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 15 km ² ) of land in western Broward County .\",\n \"The campus serves approximately 3 @,@ <unk> students , or 13 % of the Florida Atlantic student body , making it the university 's second largest campus by enrollment .\",\n \"The campus features a multi @-@ story student union with offices for student government and student organizations , a multipurpose area and student lounge , a bookstore , and <unk> .\",\n \"The union also contains a student health center that provides medical services and health counseling .\",\n \"Davie is also the home of \\\" environmental research initiatives focused on Everglades restoration . \\\"\",\n \"FAU colleges offering courses at the FAU Davie campus include Design and Social Inquiry ; Arts and Letters ; Business ; Education ; Nursing ; and Science .\",\n \"The campus is located on Broward College 's Central Campus .\",\n \"Students may enter BC as freshmen and graduate from FAU with undergraduate degrees in over 14 disciplines .\",\n \"More than 315 @,@ 000 square feet of carefully designed classrooms , laboratories and faculty , staff and student offices are located on this campus along with a shared @-@ use , 112 @,@ 000 square @-@ foot FAU / BC library designed for the 21st century .\",\n \"Other support facilities include a shared <unk> Center , a student Wellness Center and a multi @-@ service Student Union .\",\n \"The campus also offers a rich and varied program of student activities provided by the Division of Student Affairs .\",\n \"Students have all of the services they require for career counseling , <unk> , testing and evaluation , <unk> , health services , student government and financial aid , among others .\",\n \"Like a small college within a large university , the Davie Campus is seen as a \\\" model \\\" branch campus for the state of Florida and the nation .\",\n \"= = = = Fort Lauderdale = = = = \\n \\n The university has two buildings in downtown Fort Lauderdale , both of which are considered part of one Fort Lauderdale campus .\",\n \"The Askew Tower ( AT ) and the Higher Education Complex ( <unk> ) on Las <unk> Boulevard .\",\n \"The campus offers courses in communication , graphic design , architecture , and urban and regional planning .\",\n \"The campus is home to approximately 900 students or 3 @.\",\n \"@ 2 % of the university 's student body .\",\n \"= = = St. Lucie County campuses = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Fort Pierce – Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution = = = = \\n \\n In addition to the Treasure Coast Campus , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution .\",\n \"Harbor Branch merged with the university in 2007 to become the HBOI at FAU .\",\n \"The Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million for the university to acquire the institution and its 600 acre ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 4 km ² ) campus .\",\n \"= = = Former <unk> = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Port St. Lucie – Treasure Coast Campus = = = = \\n \\n Treasure Coast Campus of Florida Atlantic University operated through a partnership with Indian River State College ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic purchased 50 acres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 2 km ² ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 .\",\n \"At the end of Spring 2012 class term , Florida Atlantic University ended offering classes at the Port St. Lucie campus .\",\n \"= = Athletics = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic 's 18 varsity sports teams , the Owls , compete in NCAA 's Division I.\",\n \"The Owls recently got in C @-@ USA for the 2013 – 14 season .\",\n \"The university 's athletics program began in 1979 , when Florida Atlantic first started sponsoring intercollegiate teams .\",\n \"Since then , the university has worked to expand the quality of its intercollegiate program by attracting coaches such as Howard Schnellenberger , Matt Doherty , Rex Walters and Mike Jarvis .\",\n \"In 2006 , the athletic department was ranked 79th in the nation by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"Along with USA Today and the United States Sports Academy , <unk> recognized the university for its Division I athletic programs and accomplishments . \\\"\",\n \"This ranking placed Florida Atlantic in the top 24 % of 326 NCAA Division I universities .\",\n \"The university 's colors are FAU Blue , FAU Red , and FAU Silver .\",\n \"In 2008 , the Florida Atlantic football team finished six wins and six losses in regular season play and was invited to the Motor City Bowl .\",\n \"The Owls defeated Central Michigan University 24 – 21 , increasing their bowl record to two wins and zero losses .\",\n \"During the previous season , the football team beat Troy University in the final game of regular season play to become Sun Belt Co @-@ Champions and receive an invitation to the New Orleans Bowl .\",\n \"In just the seventh year of the football program 's history , and the third year playing in Division I , Florida Atlantic set NCAA records by both becoming the youngest program ever to receive an invitation to , and win , a bowl game .\",\n \"As a result of the New Orleans Bowl the university has seen a surge in school spirit .\",\n \"In past seasons the Owls have garnered a number of accolades for their accomplishments .\",\n \"During the 2006 – 2007 season , the men 's basketball team was noted as \\\" one of the Sun Belt Conference 's top offensive teams , \\\" with a \\\" scary offense \\\" that earned it the reputation of the \\\" best shooting team in the conference . \\\"\",\n \"In 2010 , the men 's basketball team defeated its first @-@ ever Southeastern Conference opponent Mississippi State University 61 – 59 as well as Big East opponent the University of South Florida 50 – 42 en route to a 21 – 9 overall record and claimed the Sun Belt Conference title .\",\n \"The baseball team was also recognized by the NCAA as ranking in the Top 10 in five team categories .\",\n \"The team was also ranked third in the nation in home runs per game ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 66 ) and in <unk> percentage ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"In 2010 , the Owls baseball team was 37 – 24 ( 21 – 9 ) and claimed their first Sun Belt Conference regular @-@ season title .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University is home to a number of sports @-@ related traditions and school spirit organizations .\",\n \"Every fall before the first football game of the season , FAU 's Student Government Association sponsors the \\\" Annual Football Kick @-@ Off <unk> \\\" wherein the opposing team 's mascot is burned in effigy .\",\n \"Also in football , Florida Atlantic challenges its rival Florida International ( <unk> ) is the annual Shula Bowl .\",\n \"This intercollegiate football game is named after legendary coach Don Shula ; so named because at the time of its inception , both head coaches , Florida Atlantic 's Howard Schnellenberger and Florida International coach Don <unk> , had worked under Shula at some point during their careers .\",\n \"Even though both universities have since moved on to new head coaches , the Shula Bowl is still played .\",\n \"As a home game , the competition takes place at university 's own stadium ; as an away game , the bowl is played at <unk> Stadium in Miami .\",\n \"For basketball , Florida Atlantic celebrates a \\\" Midnight Madness \\\" <unk> rally that introduces fans to the team and coaches as well as inspires a number of basketball @-@ related contests such as 3 Point Shoot <unk> and Slam <unk> competitions .\",\n \"During the regular season , the \\\" Bury the <unk> in Red \\\" event calls for Florida Atlantic students to wear as much red as possible and fill the <unk> , the university 's multi @-@ purpose arena , during the annual basketball rivalry game between Florida Atlantic and Florida International University .\",\n \"The official spirit group supporting Florida Atlantic athletics is the \\\" <unk> . \\\"\",\n \"The group began in February 2002 to support the men 's basketball program during the team 's run for the Atlantic Sun Conference Championship .\",\n \"The group is funded by the Student <unk> Association , and can now be found at most sporting events cheering for Florida Atlantic .\",\n \"The <unk> are joined by the Owl Rangers , a fan group that paints their bodies in the Florida Atlantic school colors .\",\n \"The <unk> are a student club that attend <unk> events and assist in recruiting athletes .\",\n \"Since 2002 , Florida Atlantic students have been using Owl <unk> ( the \\\" OK \\\" hand sign ) to show school pride and wish the athletic teams luck during football point after attempts ( <unk> ) and basketball free throws .\",\n \"The Florida Atlantic University Athletics Department has chosen to use Owl <unk> as part of its \\\" <unk> the Hoot \\\" 2012 marketing campaign that encourages students to \\\" proudly raise the hand salute that depicts the eyes of the owl , FAU 's mascot . \\\"\",\n \"= = Student life = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Residential life = = = \\n \\n Residential housing at Florida Atlantic University is available on the Boca Raton and John D. MacArthur campuses . \\\"\",\n \"All full @-@ time freshmen are required to reside in university housing , \\\" however , \\\" exemptions from this policy are made for students who : are 21 or older by the first day of class , reside with parent ( s ) or legal guardian ( s ) within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of the Boca Raton campus , or are married . \\\"\",\n \"As of 2011 , 4 @,@ 555 students live on @-@ campus in Boca Raton .\",\n \"The Wilkes Honors College on the MacArthur Campus requires all students live on @-@ campus within its two residence halls , however , exceptions are made for students who are 26 years of age , married , or have dependent children .\",\n \"As of 2011 , there are 231 students residing on @-@ campus at the honors college .\",\n \"Boca Raton 's on @-@ campus housing facilities are : Algonquin Hall ( opened 1965 ) , Indian River Towers ( opened 2001 ) , Heritage Park Towers ( opened 2004 ) , Glades Park Towers ( opened 2007 ) , Parliament Hall ( opened 2013 ) , University Village Apartments ( <unk> ) , and Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) ( opened 2011 ) .\",\n \"Heritage Park and Glades Park Towers each offer <unk> beds with 96 single rooms .\",\n \"<unk> and IVA exclusively serve <unk> while the other residence halls exclusively serve freshmen students , with Algonquin Hall serving all students .\",\n \"The university also offers upper @-@ division undergraduate and graduate student housing in the Business and Professional Women 's Scholarship House for women with a strong academic background .\",\n \"One of the newest residences on the Boca Raton campus is the Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) , consisting of two buildings : IVA North and IVA South .\",\n \"It is a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed apartment @-@ style housing facility for <unk> , graduate , and medical students .\",\n \"It offers amenities that one would find in a high @-@ rise apartment complex : lounges , retail dining , fitness centers , a pool / <unk> , a volleyball court , common areas , and more .\",\n \"The facility opened in fall 2011 .\",\n \"FAU 's newest residence hall is Parliament Hall , a lakeside freshmen housing facility offering 614 beds , a fitness center , lounges , retail dining , and views of the nearby Atlantic Ocean from top floors .\",\n \"Within its existing residential life programs , Florida Atlantic offers a number of Learning Communities for freshmen and students with similar interests and concentrations .\",\n \"Participants meet people with similar interests , live on the same floor and take courses with others in their community , while receiving additional guidance related to those interests .\",\n \"The university 's Learning Community programs are divided into two categories , Freshman Learning Communities and Living Learning Communities .\",\n \"The freshman program offers 16 different concentrations , including business , nursing , and education .\",\n \"The Living program offers six concentrations for students residing in the Heritage Park Towers dormitory , including engineering , computer science , and a Women 's <unk> program .\",\n \"The university 's Department of Housing and Residential Life and the university 's <unk> and <unk> sponsor a program for freshmen and other students returning to Florida Atlantic in the fall semester .\",\n \"This program , called the \\\" Weeks of Welcome , \\\" spans 11 days and all campuses , and works to <unk> students with university life and to build a good on @-@ campus community .\",\n \"On each day , a number of different events are scheduled , including Hall Wars , which are athletic competitions between dormitories , <unk> , and a number of other events .\",\n \"The Weeks of Welcome is the second largest campus @-@ wide event held by Florida Atlantic .\",\n \"= = = Student housing = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Campus organizations and activities = = = \\n \\n For the 2010 – 2011 academic year , Florida Atlantic had approximately 300 registered student organizations .\",\n \"Among the groups are academic organizations , honor societies , spiritual / religious organizations , diversity @-@ appreciation organizations , service organizations , personal interest organizations , sports clubs , and student government agencies .\",\n \"These clubs and organizations run the <unk> from sailing to Ultimate <unk> , from varsity and club sports and a jazz group to a pottery guild , from political organizations to chess and video game clubs .\",\n \"These organizations are funded by student tuition , from which $ 10 @.\",\n \"@ 00 per credit hour goes toward an activities and service fee fund .\",\n \"This generates approximately $ 9 million that is then given to student government for allocation to student clubs and organizations .\",\n \"The student government also finances other student life programs , including career <unk> , the University Press , <unk> TV and Owl Radio , and Homecoming .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic 's homecoming , also known as the \\\" Owl <unk> , \\\" is celebrated annually in the fall semester .\",\n \"Events occur mainly on the Boca Raton Campus , but a number of other campuses host their own events as well .\",\n \"In the past , homecoming has had kickoff parties , <unk> dances , <unk> , comedy shows , alumni events and <unk> , a golf cart parade , and <unk> .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic students have an organized football <unk> area known as the Rat 's Mouth .\",\n \"The name references the Spanish translation of Boca Raton .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic completed an $ 18 @.\",\n \"@ 6 million Recreation and Wellness Center in spring 2010 .\",\n \"The facility houses an outdoor leisure and lap pool , a <unk> equipment and free weight room , two multipurpose rooms , three indoor courts and health club @-@ style locker rooms .\",\n \"In 2011 , the facility won the <unk> Outstanding Sports Facilities Award .\",\n \"Other recreation facilities include a $ 4 @.\",\n \"@ 2 million track and field complex , with synthetic turf ( opened January 2007 ) , a ropes challenge course and the 6 @.\",\n \"@ 5 acre Henderson Fields , utilized most often by the FAU <unk> Sports and Club Sports programs .\",\n \"= = = Greek life = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic is home to approximately 28 chapters of national <unk> and <unk> , encompassing approximately 1 @,@ 077 members or 5 % of the undergraduate population .\",\n \"The <unk> of Greek life at Florida Atlantic is \\\" Greek Week . \\\"\",\n \"This event is held annually during the spring semester and showcases a number of themed competitions between the university 's Greek organizations .\",\n \"There are currently no on @-@ campus Greek houses .\",\n \"However , a Greek Life Housing task force has been formed to explore various housing models , including the cost of construction , \\\" and make recommendations on how to improve the overall quality of the Greek housing .... \\\" \\n \\n = = <unk> = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni worldwide since its opening .\",\n \"Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David <unk> , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto <unk> , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida .\",\n \"Charles <unk> or \\\" Father Goose \\\" is a children 's poet and former nationally syndicated columnist .\",\n \"Judith Ortiz Cofer is an acclaimed Puerto <unk> author whose works span a range of literary genres including poetry , short stories , and essays .\",\n \"Other alumni are Chris <unk> , the lead singer of the band <unk> <unk> ; and Phil Zimmermann , the creator of Pretty Good <unk> .\",\n \"Entertainers Mary Carey , a pornographic actress and former candidate for Governor of California , prop comedian <unk> Top , and humorist Daniel Dickey also attended the university .\",\n \"<unk> and NASA astronaut Steven Swanson went to space aboard Space Shuttle <unk> during <unk> @-@ 117 in June 2007 , and Space Shuttle Discovery during <unk> @-@ 119 in March 2009 .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David <unk> , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto <unk> , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida ."],"string":"[\n \"Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David <unk> , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto <unk> , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Florida Atlantic University = \n \n Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution .","FAU belongs to the 12 @-@ campus State University System of Florida and serves South Florida , which has a population of more than five million people and spans more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of coastline .","Florida Atlantic University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a research university with high research activity .","The university offers more than 180 undergraduate and graduate degree programs within its 10 colleges in addition to a professional degree from the College of Medicine .","<unk> of study cover arts and humanities , the sciences , medicine , nursing , accounting , business , education , public administration , social work , architecture , engineering , and computer science .","Florida Atlantic opened in 1964 as the first public university in southeast Florida , offering only upper @-@ division and graduate level courses .","Initial enrollment was only <unk> students , increasing in 1984 when the university admitted its first lower @-@ division undergraduate students .","As of 2012 , enrollment has grown to over 30 @,@ 000 students representing 140 countries , 50 states , and the District of Columbia .","Since its inception , Florida Atlantic has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni .","In recent years , FAU has undertaken an effort to increase its academic and research standings while also evolving into a more traditional university .","The university has raised admissions standards , increased research funding , built new facilities , and established notable partnerships with major research institutions .","Changes include an on @-@ campus stadium , additional on @-@ campus housing , and the establishment of a College of Medicine in 2010 .","= = History = = \n \n \n = = = Establishment = = = \n \n On July 15 , 1961 , to meet the burgeoning educational demands of South Florida , the state legislature passed an act authorizing the establishment of a new university in the City of Boca Raton .","Florida Atlantic University was built on Boca Raton Army Airfield , a 1940s @-@ era army airbase .","During World War II , the airfield served as the Army Air Corps ' sole radar training facility .","The base was built on the existing Boca Raton Airport and on 5 @,@ 860 acres ( 23 @.","@ 7 km ² ) of adjacent land .","A majority of the land was acquired from Japanese @-@ American farmers from the failing Yamato Colony .","The land was seized through eminent domain , leaving many Japanese @-@ Americans little recourse in the early days of World War II .","The airbase was used for radar training , anti @-@ submarine patrols along the coast , and as a stop @-@ over point for planes being ferried to Africa and Europe via South America .","The airfield was composed of four runways , still visible on the Boca Campus today and mainly used for parking .","By early 1947 , the military decided to transfer future radar training operations to <unk> Air Force Base in Mississippi .","The departure of the air force in 1947 would leave Boca Raton Army Airfield essentially abandoned .","= = = <unk> and growth = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University opened on September 14 , 1964 , with an initial student body of <unk> students in five colleges .","The first degree awarded was an honorary doctorate given to President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 25 , 1964 , at the dedication and opening of the university .","At the time of its opening , there were 120 faculty out of a total of 350 employees .","On @-@ campus housing for students was first added in September 1965 , when Algonquin Hall opened .","Florida Atlantic 's history is one of continuing expansion as the university 's service population has grown .","The university originally served only upper @-@ division and graduate level students , because Florida intended the institution \" to complement the state 's community college system , accepting students who had earned their associate degrees from those institutions . \"","Florida Atlantic began its expansion beyond a one @-@ campus university in 1971 , when it opened its Commercial Boulevard campus in Fort Lauderdale .","Due to a rapidly expanding population in South Florida , in 1984 Florida Atlantic opened its doors to lower @-@ division undergraduate students .","The following year , the university added its third campus , in downtown Fort Lauderdale on Las <unk> Boulevard .","= = = Recent history = = = \n \n In 1989 , the Florida Legislature recognized demands for higher education in South Florida by designating Florida Atlantic as the lead state university serving Broward County .","To fill this role , the university would establish a campus in Dania Beach in 1997 and another campus in the City of Davie in western Broward County in 1990 .","Florida Atlantic later purchased 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 to establish a campus on the Treasure Coast .","This would be the institution 's fifth campus .","The university continued its expansion in 1999 when it opened its Jupiter Campus , named for the late John D. MacArthur .","This campus houses the university 's honors college .","Florida Atlantic University and the University of Miami 's Miller School of Medicine established a medical training program within the Charles E. Schmidt College of <unk> Science in 2004 .","Plans originally called for the construction of a new teaching hospital in coordination with Boca Raton Community Hospital on the main campus .","Following successive budgets deficits in 2007 , the hospital delayed its participation indefinitely .","However , Florida Atlantic later established its own College of Medicine in 2010 .","The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution ( HBOI ) also joined the university in 2007 , creating Florida Atlantic 's seventh campus .","To bring HBOI into the university family the Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million to Florida Atlantic to acquire the institution .","Florida Atlantic has changed dramatically since its opening in 1964 .","As of 2013 , there are more than 30 @,@ 000 students attending classes on seven campuses spread across 120 miles ( 193 km ) .","The university consists of ten colleges and employs more than 3 @,@ 200 faculty and staff .","The university 's endowment decreased from $ 182 million in June 2008 to $ 142 million in January 2009 due to a worsening economy .","However , with the national economic recovery the endowment has increased to $ 179 million by the end of 2012 .","Since its founding , the university has been led by seven presidents .","The university 's immediate past president is Dr. Mary Jane Saunders .","She was named president on March 3 , 2010 , then resigned on May 15 , 2013 .","Her appointment followed the resignation of Frank Brogan .","Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida , left the university in late 2009 to become Chancellor of the State University System of Florida .","Past university presidents also included Dr. Anthony J.","<unk> , Dr. Helen <unk> , Dr. Glenwood <unk> , and Dr. Kenneth <unk> Williams .","On January 17 , 2014 , the Board of Trustees announced the selection of Dr. John W. Kelly , formerly a <unk> of Clemson University , to be the seventh president of the university with a starting date of March 1 , 2014 .","= = Academics = = \n \n \n = = = <unk> = = = \n \n As of fall 2013 , the university 's student body consists of 24 @,@ <unk> undergraduates , 4 @,@ <unk> graduate and professional students , 64 medical students , and 1 @,@ 451 <unk> students .","As of 2013 , the undergraduate student body contains 47 % ethnic minorities and includes students from more than 180 countries , 49 states , and the District of Columbia .","For the undergraduate class of 2012 , the acceptance rate was 35 % for first @-@ time @-@ in @-@ college students .","The university has ten colleges which altogether offer over 180 different bachelor 's , master 's and doctoral degree programs : the Charles E. Schmidt College of Science , Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine , Christine E. Lynn College of Nursing , College for Design and Social Inquiry , College of Business , College of Education , College of Engineering and Computer Science , Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters , Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , and the <unk> College .","The university offers two honors options : the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College and a University Scholars Program .","The Wilkes Honors College is located on the John D. MacArthur campus in Jupiter , Florida .","It offers a liberal arts education in the platform of a public university , yet is comparable to a private liberal arts college .","The Boca Raton campus houses the University Scholars Program , which offers special honors <unk> , forums , courses , and advanced course substitution for freshmen .","In recent years , FAU has increased its admission requirements for prospective freshmen .","The fall 2013 freshmen profile for the mid @-@ 50 % includes 3 @.","@ 38 @-@ 3 @.","@ 98 high school <unk> , a 22 @-@ 26 <unk> composite score , and a <unk> @-@ 1740 SAT total score .","Following a surge in the university 's popularity , in early 2009 , the university created its first wait @-@ list for undergraduate enrollment .","After February 15 , 2009 , applicants for admission in the 2009 – 2010 academic year were required to have a 3 @.","@ 5 <unk> or an SAT score of 1600 to be considered for admission .","The average class size at FAU for undergraduates is 33 students , and for graduate classes , 12 students .","The student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio is 20 : 1 .","The top three undergraduate majors by enrollment are elementary education , accounting , and management , respectively .","The top three graduate majors by enrollment are business administration , educational leadership , and accounting , respectively .","The average age for first @-@ year students is 18 ; however , the average age for all undergraduates is 24 and the average age for graduate students is 33 .","The average 4 @-@ year graduation rate for first @-@ time , non @-@ transfer students is 14 % while the 6 @-@ year graduation rate is 39 % .","Florida Atlantic University has long ranked as the most racially , ethnically and culturally diverse institution in Florida 's State University System .","U.S. News & World Report has ranked FAU the 27th most diverse university in the nation .","Florida Atlantic University students come from all 50 states , every county in Florida , and more than 180 countries .","<unk> opportunities include <unk> , hands @-@ on research , study abroad experiences , and 310 clubs and campus organizations .","The <unk> Learning Society operates programs that serve the educational interests of more than 19 @,@ 000 senior citizens by providing classes focusing on subjects of specific interest , and audit options for regular university classes .","Under the university 's Commercial Music Program , Hoot / <unk> Recordings was created in 2002 , enabling students to work in all creative and business aspects of the music industry .","This program generated music that landed a Top 10 spot on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales Chart during its first week of release .","The university 's two @-@ story trading room simulator , located in the College of Business , provides hands @-@ on financial education using 25 dual @-@ monitor computers and can accommodate 50 people at one time .","A second lab provides full audio / visual <unk> and 25 additional <unk> .","Florida Atlantic allows local financial businesses to use the Trading Room for training .","= = = Research = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic is classified by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a research university with high research activity .","The university has established notable partnerships with major research institutions such as The <unk> Research Institute , the <unk> <unk> Institute for Molecular Studies , and the Max Planck Society .","The university is the home of two centers of excellence : The Center of Excellence in <unk> and Marine <unk> and The Center for Ocean Energy Technology .","These centers have been selected by Florida 's <unk> Technology Commission to receive grants to continue and increase their operations .","Florida Atlantic beat out some of Florida 's top research universities , including the University of Florida and Florida State University , for the initial money from the state .","Since receiving its startup funding , Florida Atlantic has secured additional funds from other sources , including federal and private research grants .","As a result , both centers have engaged in academic and industry partnerships , combining expertise in ocean engineering , marine <unk> , functional genomics , proteomics , and <unk> .","Researchers , scientists , and students at the centers are designing technologies to explore the sea , harvest renewable energy , discover new medicines , and develop new <unk> to combat agents of <unk> .","As a result of this research , in 2007 the university and Lockheed Martin announced an exclusive licensing agreement to develop and produce a rapidly <unk> and autonomous <unk> buoy system for military and scientific uses .","In 2010 , the United States Department of Energy designated FAU as one of three national centers for ocean energy research and development .","The Southeast National Marine <unk> Energy Center joins centers in the Pacific Northwest ( University of Washington and Oregon State University ) and in Hawaii ( University of Hawaii ) .","The Southeast National Marine <unk> Energy Center is undertaking research and development of technologies capable of generating renewable power from ocean currents and ocean thermal energy .","The university houses both an Imaging Technology Center and a NASA Imaging Technology Space Center .","Located in the College of Engineering and Computer Science , the centers <unk> in digital imaging research and development for use in both government and commercial applications in the areas of medical technology , surveillance , communications , education , inspection , scientific observation , manufacturing , visual recognition and identification , and motion picture and digital video .","The Florida Atlantic Imaging Technology Center is developing a curriculum for digital imaging and processing , thereby establishing Florida Atlantic as the only university in the nation to offer this technical concentration .","The NASA Imaging Technology Center is one of 12 NASA Research Partnership Centers throughout the nation which develop dual @-@ use research and development with the participation of NASA and other related industries in the US .","The center occupies two sets of laboratories and administrative offices , one on Florida Atlantic 's main campus in Boca Raton , the other at the Fort Lauderdale campus .","Florida Atlantic is affiliated to the Research Park at Florida Atlantic University , with properties in <unk> Beach and Boca Raton .","The Research Park provides outside research facilities for companies which enable them to interact with the university community and its facilities , resources , and expertise .","The Research Park operates the Technology Business <unk> ; The <unk> works to foster the start @-@ up and growth of technology @-@ based businesses , seeking to scale them and build relationships for them with the university .","The Boca Raton campus is also home to the Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences , which includes the Machine <unk> and <unk> <unk> Laboratory \n \n = = = Rankings = = = \n \n For 2013 , Florida Atlantic University was classified as a second @-@ tier university by the U.S. News & World Report 's rankings of \" Best Colleges . \"","U.S. News ranks universities into one of two tiers , with one being the highest , based on how they compare with other colleges in a peer assessment , retention rates , student selectivity , faculty resources , financial resources , graduation rates , and the amount of alumni giving .","The university was named one of the 146 \" Best Southeastern Colleges \" in the United States by the Princeton Review .","The Review also recognized FAU 's business program by naming the College of Business to their list of \" Best 296 Business Schools \" for 2009 .","For 2011 , Florida Atlantic was ranked <unk> in the nation by Washington Monthly .","The magazine based its rankings on the following three criteria : \" how well a university performs as an engine of social mobility ( ideally helping the poor to get rich rather than the very rich to get very , very rich ) , how well a university does in <unk> scientific and humanistic research , and how well a university promotes an ethic of service to country . \"","The university was also ranked 28th in the United States and fourth in Florida by The Hispanic <unk> in Higher Education magazine for <unk> 738 bachelor 's degrees to Hispanic students during the 2006 – 2007 academic year .","= = Campus = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University is a distributed university located on seven campuses spread across Palm Beach , Broward , and St. Lucie counties .","The region is home to more than three million people .","The university 's main campus is located in the City of Boca Raton in Palm Beach County .","The county is also home to the John D. MacArthur Campus located in the City of Jupiter .","In addition to its campuses in Palm Beach County , the university operates three campuses in the Broward County cities of Dania Beach , Davie , and Fort Lauderdale .","Florida Atlantic University also operates two campuses in the St. Lucie County cities of Port St. Lucie and Fort Pierce .","In addition to students who attend classes on the universities campuses , there are 1 @,@ 612 distance learning students who conduct their studies over the internet or through other means .","These students account for 6 % of the university 's student body .","Florida Atlantic is a signatory of the American College & University Presidents Climate <unk> Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education .","This commits the institution to ensuring all new construction projects meet the U.S. Green Building Council 's <unk> in Energy and Environmental Design ( <unk> ) Silver standards .","In 2011 , The College of Engineering and Computer Science Building was <unk> Platinum certified .","= = = Palm Beach County campuses = = = \n \n \n = = = = Boca Raton = = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University 's main campus in Boca Raton was established on the remnants of a World War II American Army airbase in 1964 .","<unk> 850 acres ( 3 @.","@ 5 km ² ) , the site is located between the cities of Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale .","The campus was designated a burrowing owl sanctuary in 1971 by the <unk> Society .","The owls find the campus appealing because there are few predators , due to the university 's proximity to the Boca Raton Airport , and because the campus was originally cleared of vegetation when operating as an airbase during World War II . \"","The feisty bird , traditionally associated with wisdom and determination , serves as the university 's mascot . \"","The Boca Raton campus is home to a wide variety of university programs and facilities .","These facilities are <unk> and classrooms , housing for students , a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon shark tank for aquatic research , a movie theater , athletic and recreational facilities , and the student @-@ run record label Hoot / <unk> Recordings .","In addition to academic and cultural programs , the campus also houses Florida Atlantic 's Division I athletics program .","The main campus serves approximately 19 @,@ 077 students , or 70 % of the university 's student body , offering a number of academic programs , activities , and services .","The Boca Raton campus also houses a number of other institutions , including the A. D. Henderson University School , FAU High School , one of two Florida Atlantic University Research Parks , and the <unk> Learning Society .","= = = = Jupiter – John D. MacArthur Campus = = = = \n \n In addition to the Boca Raton campus in southern Palm Beach County , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in northern Palm Beach County , in Jupiter .","The John D. MacArthur Campus , named after businessman and philanthropist John D. MacArthur , was established in 1999 to serve residents of central and northern Palm Beach and southern Martin counties .","The MacArthur Campus occupies 45 acres ( 0 @.","@ 18 km ² ) , upon which are eight classroom and office buildings , a library , a 500 @-@ seat auditorium , two residence halls , a dining hall , museum building , and utility plant .","The MacArthur Campus also houses the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , <unk> Florida , and the Max Planck Florida Institute .","The campus serves approximately 1 @,@ 262 students , or 4 % of the university 's student body .","= = = Broward County campuses = = = \n \n \n = = = = Dania Beach – SeaTech = = = = \n \n The Dania Beach Campus , also known as SeaTech , was founded in 1997 as a state @-@ funded Type II research center .","The institute is part of Florida Atlantic 's Department of Ocean Engineering which was founded in 1965 as the first ocean engineering undergraduate program in the nation .","The campus is located on 8 acres ( 0 @.","@ 03 km ² ) of land between the Atlantic Ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway .","SeaTech is home to university faculty and students engaged in sponsored ocean engineering research and development in the areas of acoustics , marine vehicles , <unk> and physical <unk> , marine materials and <unk> .","The Dania Beach Campus serves approximately 70 students , roughly 1 % of the university 's total student body .","= = = = Davie = = = = \n \n The Davie Campus of Florida Atlantic University was established in 1990 on 38 acres ( 0 @.","@ 15 km ² ) of land in western Broward County .","The campus serves approximately 3 @,@ <unk> students , or 13 % of the Florida Atlantic student body , making it the university 's second largest campus by enrollment .","The campus features a multi @-@ story student union with offices for student government and student organizations , a multipurpose area and student lounge , a bookstore , and <unk> .","The union also contains a student health center that provides medical services and health counseling .","Davie is also the home of \" environmental research initiatives focused on Everglades restoration . \"","FAU colleges offering courses at the FAU Davie campus include Design and Social Inquiry ; Arts and Letters ; Business ; Education ; Nursing ; and Science .","The campus is located on Broward College 's Central Campus .","Students may enter BC as freshmen and graduate from FAU with undergraduate degrees in over 14 disciplines .","More than 315 @,@ 000 square feet of carefully designed classrooms , laboratories and faculty , staff and student offices are located on this campus along with a shared @-@ use , 112 @,@ 000 square @-@ foot FAU / BC library designed for the 21st century .","Other support facilities include a shared <unk> Center , a student Wellness Center and a multi @-@ service Student Union .","The campus also offers a rich and varied program of student activities provided by the Division of Student Affairs .","Students have all of the services they require for career counseling , <unk> , testing and evaluation , <unk> , health services , student government and financial aid , among others .","Like a small college within a large university , the Davie Campus is seen as a \" model \" branch campus for the state of Florida and the nation .","= = = = Fort Lauderdale = = = = \n \n The university has two buildings in downtown Fort Lauderdale , both of which are considered part of one Fort Lauderdale campus .","The Askew Tower ( AT ) and the Higher Education Complex ( <unk> ) on Las <unk> Boulevard .","The campus offers courses in communication , graphic design , architecture , and urban and regional planning .","The campus is home to approximately 900 students or 3 @.","@ 2 % of the university 's student body .","= = = St. Lucie County campuses = = = \n \n \n = = = = Fort Pierce – Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution = = = = \n \n In addition to the Treasure Coast Campus , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution .","Harbor Branch merged with the university in 2007 to become the HBOI at FAU .","The Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million for the university to acquire the institution and its 600 acre ( 2 @.","@ 4 km ² ) campus .","= = = Former <unk> = = = \n \n \n = = = = Port St. Lucie – Treasure Coast Campus = = = = \n \n Treasure Coast Campus of Florida Atlantic University operated through a partnership with Indian River State College ( <unk> ) .","Florida Atlantic purchased 50 acres ( 0 @.","@ 2 km ² ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 .","At the end of Spring 2012 class term , Florida Atlantic University ended offering classes at the Port St. Lucie campus .","= = Athletics = = \n \n Florida Atlantic 's 18 varsity sports teams , the Owls , compete in NCAA 's Division I.","The Owls recently got in C @-@ USA for the 2013 – 14 season .","The university 's athletics program began in 1979 , when Florida Atlantic first started sponsoring intercollegiate teams .","Since then , the university has worked to expand the quality of its intercollegiate program by attracting coaches such as Howard Schnellenberger , Matt Doherty , Rex Walters and Mike Jarvis .","In 2006 , the athletic department was ranked 79th in the nation by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( <unk> ) .","Along with USA Today and the United States Sports Academy , <unk> recognized the university for its Division I athletic programs and accomplishments . \"","This ranking placed Florida Atlantic in the top 24 % of 326 NCAA Division I universities .","The university 's colors are FAU Blue , FAU Red , and FAU Silver .","In 2008 , the Florida Atlantic football team finished six wins and six losses in regular season play and was invited to the Motor City Bowl .","The Owls defeated Central Michigan University 24 – 21 , increasing their bowl record to two wins and zero losses .","During the previous season , the football team beat Troy University in the final game of regular season play to become Sun Belt Co @-@ Champions and receive an invitation to the New Orleans Bowl .","In just the seventh year of the football program 's history , and the third year playing in Division I , Florida Atlantic set NCAA records by both becoming the youngest program ever to receive an invitation to , and win , a bowl game .","As a result of the New Orleans Bowl the university has seen a surge in school spirit .","In past seasons the Owls have garnered a number of accolades for their accomplishments .","During the 2006 – 2007 season , the men 's basketball team was noted as \" one of the Sun Belt Conference 's top offensive teams , \" with a \" scary offense \" that earned it the reputation of the \" best shooting team in the conference . \"","In 2010 , the men 's basketball team defeated its first @-@ ever Southeastern Conference opponent Mississippi State University 61 – 59 as well as Big East opponent the University of South Florida 50 – 42 en route to a 21 – 9 overall record and claimed the Sun Belt Conference title .","The baseball team was also recognized by the NCAA as ranking in the Top 10 in five team categories .","The team was also ranked third in the nation in home runs per game ( 1 @.","@ 66 ) and in <unk> percentage ( <unk> ) .","In 2010 , the Owls baseball team was 37 – 24 ( 21 – 9 ) and claimed their first Sun Belt Conference regular @-@ season title .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University is home to a number of sports @-@ related traditions and school spirit organizations .","Every fall before the first football game of the season , FAU 's Student Government Association sponsors the \" Annual Football Kick @-@ Off <unk> \" wherein the opposing team 's mascot is burned in effigy .","Also in football , Florida Atlantic challenges its rival Florida International ( <unk> ) is the annual Shula Bowl .","This intercollegiate football game is named after legendary coach Don Shula ; so named because at the time of its inception , both head coaches , Florida Atlantic 's Howard Schnellenberger and Florida International coach Don <unk> , had worked under Shula at some point during their careers .","Even though both universities have since moved on to new head coaches , the Shula Bowl is still played .","As a home game , the competition takes place at university 's own stadium ; as an away game , the bowl is played at <unk> Stadium in Miami .","For basketball , Florida Atlantic celebrates a \" Midnight Madness \" <unk> rally that introduces fans to the team and coaches as well as inspires a number of basketball @-@ related contests such as 3 Point Shoot <unk> and Slam <unk> competitions .","During the regular season , the \" Bury the <unk> in Red \" event calls for Florida Atlantic students to wear as much red as possible and fill the <unk> , the university 's multi @-@ purpose arena , during the annual basketball rivalry game between Florida Atlantic and Florida International University .","The official spirit group supporting Florida Atlantic athletics is the \" <unk> . \"","The group began in February 2002 to support the men 's basketball program during the team 's run for the Atlantic Sun Conference Championship .","The group is funded by the Student <unk> Association , and can now be found at most sporting events cheering for Florida Atlantic .","The <unk> are joined by the Owl Rangers , a fan group that paints their bodies in the Florida Atlantic school colors .","The <unk> are a student club that attend <unk> events and assist in recruiting athletes .","Since 2002 , Florida Atlantic students have been using Owl <unk> ( the \" OK \" hand sign ) to show school pride and wish the athletic teams luck during football point after attempts ( <unk> ) and basketball free throws .","The Florida Atlantic University Athletics Department has chosen to use Owl <unk> as part of its \" <unk> the Hoot \" 2012 marketing campaign that encourages students to \" proudly raise the hand salute that depicts the eyes of the owl , FAU 's mascot . \"","= = Student life = = \n \n \n = = = Residential life = = = \n \n Residential housing at Florida Atlantic University is available on the Boca Raton and John D. MacArthur campuses . \"","All full @-@ time freshmen are required to reside in university housing , \" however , \" exemptions from this policy are made for students who : are 21 or older by the first day of class , reside with parent ( s ) or legal guardian ( s ) within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of the Boca Raton campus , or are married . \"","As of 2011 , 4 @,@ 555 students live on @-@ campus in Boca Raton .","The Wilkes Honors College on the MacArthur Campus requires all students live on @-@ campus within its two residence halls , however , exceptions are made for students who are 26 years of age , married , or have dependent children .","As of 2011 , there are 231 students residing on @-@ campus at the honors college .","Boca Raton 's on @-@ campus housing facilities are : Algonquin Hall ( opened 1965 ) , Indian River Towers ( opened 2001 ) , Heritage Park Towers ( opened 2004 ) , Glades Park Towers ( opened 2007 ) , Parliament Hall ( opened 2013 ) , University Village Apartments ( <unk> ) , and Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) ( opened 2011 ) .","Heritage Park and Glades Park Towers each offer <unk> beds with 96 single rooms .","<unk> and IVA exclusively serve <unk> while the other residence halls exclusively serve freshmen students , with Algonquin Hall serving all students .","The university also offers upper @-@ division undergraduate and graduate student housing in the Business and Professional Women 's Scholarship House for women with a strong academic background .","One of the newest residences on the Boca Raton campus is the Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) , consisting of two buildings : IVA North and IVA South .","It is a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed apartment @-@ style housing facility for <unk> , graduate , and medical students .","It offers amenities that one would find in a high @-@ rise apartment complex : lounges , retail dining , fitness centers , a pool / <unk> , a volleyball court , common areas , and more .","The facility opened in fall 2011 .","FAU 's newest residence hall is Parliament Hall , a lakeside freshmen housing facility offering 614 beds , a fitness center , lounges , retail dining , and views of the nearby Atlantic Ocean from top floors .","Within its existing residential life programs , Florida Atlantic offers a number of Learning Communities for freshmen and students with similar interests and concentrations .","Participants meet people with similar interests , live on the same floor and take courses with others in their community , while receiving additional guidance related to those interests .","The university 's Learning Community programs are divided into two categories , Freshman Learning Communities and Living Learning Communities .","The freshman program offers 16 different concentrations , including business , nursing , and education .","The Living program offers six concentrations for students residing in the Heritage Park Towers dormitory , including engineering , computer science , and a Women 's <unk> program .","The university 's Department of Housing and Residential Life and the university 's <unk> and <unk> sponsor a program for freshmen and other students returning to Florida Atlantic in the fall semester .","This program , called the \" Weeks of Welcome , \" spans 11 days and all campuses , and works to <unk> students with university life and to build a good on @-@ campus community .","On each day , a number of different events are scheduled , including Hall Wars , which are athletic competitions between dormitories , <unk> , and a number of other events .","The Weeks of Welcome is the second largest campus @-@ wide event held by Florida Atlantic .","= = = Student housing = = = \n \n \n = = = Campus organizations and activities = = = \n \n For the 2010 – 2011 academic year , Florida Atlantic had approximately 300 registered student organizations .","Among the groups are academic organizations , honor societies , spiritual / religious organizations , diversity @-@ appreciation organizations , service organizations , personal interest organizations , sports clubs , and student government agencies .","These clubs and organizations run the <unk> from sailing to Ultimate <unk> , from varsity and club sports and a jazz group to a pottery guild , from political organizations to chess and video game clubs .","These organizations are funded by student tuition , from which $ 10 @.","@ 00 per credit hour goes toward an activities and service fee fund .","This generates approximately $ 9 million that is then given to student government for allocation to student clubs and organizations .","The student government also finances other student life programs , including career <unk> , the University Press , <unk> TV and Owl Radio , and Homecoming .","Florida Atlantic 's homecoming , also known as the \" Owl <unk> , \" is celebrated annually in the fall semester .","Events occur mainly on the Boca Raton Campus , but a number of other campuses host their own events as well .","In the past , homecoming has had kickoff parties , <unk> dances , <unk> , comedy shows , alumni events and <unk> , a golf cart parade , and <unk> .","Florida Atlantic students have an organized football <unk> area known as the Rat 's Mouth .","The name references the Spanish translation of Boca Raton .","Florida Atlantic completed an $ 18 @.","@ 6 million Recreation and Wellness Center in spring 2010 .","The facility houses an outdoor leisure and lap pool , a <unk> equipment and free weight room , two multipurpose rooms , three indoor courts and health club @-@ style locker rooms .","In 2011 , the facility won the <unk> Outstanding Sports Facilities Award .","Other recreation facilities include a $ 4 @.","@ 2 million track and field complex , with synthetic turf ( opened January 2007 ) , a ropes challenge course and the 6 @.","@ 5 acre Henderson Fields , utilized most often by the FAU <unk> Sports and Club Sports programs .","= = = Greek life = = = \n \n Florida Atlantic is home to approximately 28 chapters of national <unk> and <unk> , encompassing approximately 1 @,@ 077 members or 5 % of the undergraduate population .","The <unk> of Greek life at Florida Atlantic is \" Greek Week . \"","This event is held annually during the spring semester and showcases a number of themed competitions between the university 's Greek organizations .","There are currently no on @-@ campus Greek houses .","However , a Greek Life Housing task force has been formed to explore various housing models , including the cost of construction , \" and make recommendations on how to improve the overall quality of the Greek housing .... \" \n \n = = <unk> = = \n \n Florida Atlantic University has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni worldwide since its opening .","Charles <unk> or \" Father Goose \" is a children 's poet and former nationally syndicated columnist .","Judith Ortiz Cofer is an acclaimed Puerto <unk> author whose works span a range of literary genres including poetry , short stories , and essays .","Other alumni are Chris <unk> , the lead singer of the band <unk> <unk> ; and Phil Zimmermann , the creator of Pretty Good <unk> .","Entertainers Mary Carey , a pornographic actress and former candidate for Governor of California , prop comedian <unk> Top , and humorist Daniel Dickey also attended the university .","<unk> and NASA astronaut Steven Swanson went to space aboard Space Shuttle <unk> during <unk> @-@ 117 in June 2007 , and Space Shuttle Discovery during <unk> @-@ 119 in March 2009 ."],"string":"[\n \" = Florida Atlantic University = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution .\",\n \"FAU belongs to the 12 @-@ campus State University System of Florida and serves South Florida , which has a population of more than five million people and spans more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of coastline .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a research university with high research activity .\",\n \"The university offers more than 180 undergraduate and graduate degree programs within its 10 colleges in addition to a professional degree from the College of Medicine .\",\n \"<unk> of study cover arts and humanities , the sciences , medicine , nursing , accounting , business , education , public administration , social work , architecture , engineering , and computer science .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic opened in 1964 as the first public university in southeast Florida , offering only upper @-@ division and graduate level courses .\",\n \"Initial enrollment was only <unk> students , increasing in 1984 when the university admitted its first lower @-@ division undergraduate students .\",\n \"As of 2012 , enrollment has grown to over 30 @,@ 000 students representing 140 countries , 50 states , and the District of Columbia .\",\n \"Since its inception , Florida Atlantic has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni .\",\n \"In recent years , FAU has undertaken an effort to increase its academic and research standings while also evolving into a more traditional university .\",\n \"The university has raised admissions standards , increased research funding , built new facilities , and established notable partnerships with major research institutions .\",\n \"Changes include an on @-@ campus stadium , additional on @-@ campus housing , and the establishment of a College of Medicine in 2010 .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Establishment = = = \\n \\n On July 15 , 1961 , to meet the burgeoning educational demands of South Florida , the state legislature passed an act authorizing the establishment of a new university in the City of Boca Raton .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University was built on Boca Raton Army Airfield , a 1940s @-@ era army airbase .\",\n \"During World War II , the airfield served as the Army Air Corps ' sole radar training facility .\",\n \"The base was built on the existing Boca Raton Airport and on 5 @,@ 860 acres ( 23 @.\",\n \"@ 7 km ² ) of adjacent land .\",\n \"A majority of the land was acquired from Japanese @-@ American farmers from the failing Yamato Colony .\",\n \"The land was seized through eminent domain , leaving many Japanese @-@ Americans little recourse in the early days of World War II .\",\n \"The airbase was used for radar training , anti @-@ submarine patrols along the coast , and as a stop @-@ over point for planes being ferried to Africa and Europe via South America .\",\n \"The airfield was composed of four runways , still visible on the Boca Campus today and mainly used for parking .\",\n \"By early 1947 , the military decided to transfer future radar training operations to <unk> Air Force Base in Mississippi .\",\n \"The departure of the air force in 1947 would leave Boca Raton Army Airfield essentially abandoned .\",\n \"= = = <unk> and growth = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University opened on September 14 , 1964 , with an initial student body of <unk> students in five colleges .\",\n \"The first degree awarded was an honorary doctorate given to President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 25 , 1964 , at the dedication and opening of the university .\",\n \"At the time of its opening , there were 120 faculty out of a total of 350 employees .\",\n \"On @-@ campus housing for students was first added in September 1965 , when Algonquin Hall opened .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic 's history is one of continuing expansion as the university 's service population has grown .\",\n \"The university originally served only upper @-@ division and graduate level students , because Florida intended the institution \\\" to complement the state 's community college system , accepting students who had earned their associate degrees from those institutions . \\\"\",\n \"Florida Atlantic began its expansion beyond a one @-@ campus university in 1971 , when it opened its Commercial Boulevard campus in Fort Lauderdale .\",\n \"Due to a rapidly expanding population in South Florida , in 1984 Florida Atlantic opened its doors to lower @-@ division undergraduate students .\",\n \"The following year , the university added its third campus , in downtown Fort Lauderdale on Las <unk> Boulevard .\",\n \"= = = Recent history = = = \\n \\n In 1989 , the Florida Legislature recognized demands for higher education in South Florida by designating Florida Atlantic as the lead state university serving Broward County .\",\n \"To fill this role , the university would establish a campus in Dania Beach in 1997 and another campus in the City of Davie in western Broward County in 1990 .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic later purchased 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 to establish a campus on the Treasure Coast .\",\n \"This would be the institution 's fifth campus .\",\n \"The university continued its expansion in 1999 when it opened its Jupiter Campus , named for the late John D. MacArthur .\",\n \"This campus houses the university 's honors college .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University and the University of Miami 's Miller School of Medicine established a medical training program within the Charles E. Schmidt College of <unk> Science in 2004 .\",\n \"Plans originally called for the construction of a new teaching hospital in coordination with Boca Raton Community Hospital on the main campus .\",\n \"Following successive budgets deficits in 2007 , the hospital delayed its participation indefinitely .\",\n \"However , Florida Atlantic later established its own College of Medicine in 2010 .\",\n \"The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution ( HBOI ) also joined the university in 2007 , creating Florida Atlantic 's seventh campus .\",\n \"To bring HBOI into the university family the Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million to Florida Atlantic to acquire the institution .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic has changed dramatically since its opening in 1964 .\",\n \"As of 2013 , there are more than 30 @,@ 000 students attending classes on seven campuses spread across 120 miles ( 193 km ) .\",\n \"The university consists of ten colleges and employs more than 3 @,@ 200 faculty and staff .\",\n \"The university 's endowment decreased from $ 182 million in June 2008 to $ 142 million in January 2009 due to a worsening economy .\",\n \"However , with the national economic recovery the endowment has increased to $ 179 million by the end of 2012 .\",\n \"Since its founding , the university has been led by seven presidents .\",\n \"The university 's immediate past president is Dr. Mary Jane Saunders .\",\n \"She was named president on March 3 , 2010 , then resigned on May 15 , 2013 .\",\n \"Her appointment followed the resignation of Frank Brogan .\",\n \"Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida , left the university in late 2009 to become Chancellor of the State University System of Florida .\",\n \"Past university presidents also included Dr. Anthony J.\",\n \"<unk> , Dr. Helen <unk> , Dr. Glenwood <unk> , and Dr. Kenneth <unk> Williams .\",\n \"On January 17 , 2014 , the Board of Trustees announced the selection of Dr. John W. Kelly , formerly a <unk> of Clemson University , to be the seventh president of the university with a starting date of March 1 , 2014 .\",\n \"= = Academics = = \\n \\n \\n = = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n As of fall 2013 , the university 's student body consists of 24 @,@ <unk> undergraduates , 4 @,@ <unk> graduate and professional students , 64 medical students , and 1 @,@ 451 <unk> students .\",\n \"As of 2013 , the undergraduate student body contains 47 % ethnic minorities and includes students from more than 180 countries , 49 states , and the District of Columbia .\",\n \"For the undergraduate class of 2012 , the acceptance rate was 35 % for first @-@ time @-@ in @-@ college students .\",\n \"The university has ten colleges which altogether offer over 180 different bachelor 's , master 's and doctoral degree programs : the Charles E. Schmidt College of Science , Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine , Christine E. Lynn College of Nursing , College for Design and Social Inquiry , College of Business , College of Education , College of Engineering and Computer Science , Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters , Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , and the <unk> College .\",\n \"The university offers two honors options : the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College and a University Scholars Program .\",\n \"The Wilkes Honors College is located on the John D. MacArthur campus in Jupiter , Florida .\",\n \"It offers a liberal arts education in the platform of a public university , yet is comparable to a private liberal arts college .\",\n \"The Boca Raton campus houses the University Scholars Program , which offers special honors <unk> , forums , courses , and advanced course substitution for freshmen .\",\n \"In recent years , FAU has increased its admission requirements for prospective freshmen .\",\n \"The fall 2013 freshmen profile for the mid @-@ 50 % includes 3 @.\",\n \"@ 38 @-@ 3 @.\",\n \"@ 98 high school <unk> , a 22 @-@ 26 <unk> composite score , and a <unk> @-@ 1740 SAT total score .\",\n \"Following a surge in the university 's popularity , in early 2009 , the university created its first wait @-@ list for undergraduate enrollment .\",\n \"After February 15 , 2009 , applicants for admission in the 2009 – 2010 academic year were required to have a 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 <unk> or an SAT score of 1600 to be considered for admission .\",\n \"The average class size at FAU for undergraduates is 33 students , and for graduate classes , 12 students .\",\n \"The student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio is 20 : 1 .\",\n \"The top three undergraduate majors by enrollment are elementary education , accounting , and management , respectively .\",\n \"The top three graduate majors by enrollment are business administration , educational leadership , and accounting , respectively .\",\n \"The average age for first @-@ year students is 18 ; however , the average age for all undergraduates is 24 and the average age for graduate students is 33 .\",\n \"The average 4 @-@ year graduation rate for first @-@ time , non @-@ transfer students is 14 % while the 6 @-@ year graduation rate is 39 % .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University has long ranked as the most racially , ethnically and culturally diverse institution in Florida 's State University System .\",\n \"U.S. News & World Report has ranked FAU the 27th most diverse university in the nation .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University students come from all 50 states , every county in Florida , and more than 180 countries .\",\n \"<unk> opportunities include <unk> , hands @-@ on research , study abroad experiences , and 310 clubs and campus organizations .\",\n \"The <unk> Learning Society operates programs that serve the educational interests of more than 19 @,@ 000 senior citizens by providing classes focusing on subjects of specific interest , and audit options for regular university classes .\",\n \"Under the university 's Commercial Music Program , Hoot / <unk> Recordings was created in 2002 , enabling students to work in all creative and business aspects of the music industry .\",\n \"This program generated music that landed a Top 10 spot on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales Chart during its first week of release .\",\n \"The university 's two @-@ story trading room simulator , located in the College of Business , provides hands @-@ on financial education using 25 dual @-@ monitor computers and can accommodate 50 people at one time .\",\n \"A second lab provides full audio / visual <unk> and 25 additional <unk> .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic allows local financial businesses to use the Trading Room for training .\",\n \"= = = Research = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic is classified by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a research university with high research activity .\",\n \"The university has established notable partnerships with major research institutions such as The <unk> Research Institute , the <unk> <unk> Institute for Molecular Studies , and the Max Planck Society .\",\n \"The university is the home of two centers of excellence : The Center of Excellence in <unk> and Marine <unk> and The Center for Ocean Energy Technology .\",\n \"These centers have been selected by Florida 's <unk> Technology Commission to receive grants to continue and increase their operations .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic beat out some of Florida 's top research universities , including the University of Florida and Florida State University , for the initial money from the state .\",\n \"Since receiving its startup funding , Florida Atlantic has secured additional funds from other sources , including federal and private research grants .\",\n \"As a result , both centers have engaged in academic and industry partnerships , combining expertise in ocean engineering , marine <unk> , functional genomics , proteomics , and <unk> .\",\n \"Researchers , scientists , and students at the centers are designing technologies to explore the sea , harvest renewable energy , discover new medicines , and develop new <unk> to combat agents of <unk> .\",\n \"As a result of this research , in 2007 the university and Lockheed Martin announced an exclusive licensing agreement to develop and produce a rapidly <unk> and autonomous <unk> buoy system for military and scientific uses .\",\n \"In 2010 , the United States Department of Energy designated FAU as one of three national centers for ocean energy research and development .\",\n \"The Southeast National Marine <unk> Energy Center joins centers in the Pacific Northwest ( University of Washington and Oregon State University ) and in Hawaii ( University of Hawaii ) .\",\n \"The Southeast National Marine <unk> Energy Center is undertaking research and development of technologies capable of generating renewable power from ocean currents and ocean thermal energy .\",\n \"The university houses both an Imaging Technology Center and a NASA Imaging Technology Space Center .\",\n \"Located in the College of Engineering and Computer Science , the centers <unk> in digital imaging research and development for use in both government and commercial applications in the areas of medical technology , surveillance , communications , education , inspection , scientific observation , manufacturing , visual recognition and identification , and motion picture and digital video .\",\n \"The Florida Atlantic Imaging Technology Center is developing a curriculum for digital imaging and processing , thereby establishing Florida Atlantic as the only university in the nation to offer this technical concentration .\",\n \"The NASA Imaging Technology Center is one of 12 NASA Research Partnership Centers throughout the nation which develop dual @-@ use research and development with the participation of NASA and other related industries in the US .\",\n \"The center occupies two sets of laboratories and administrative offices , one on Florida Atlantic 's main campus in Boca Raton , the other at the Fort Lauderdale campus .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic is affiliated to the Research Park at Florida Atlantic University , with properties in <unk> Beach and Boca Raton .\",\n \"The Research Park provides outside research facilities for companies which enable them to interact with the university community and its facilities , resources , and expertise .\",\n \"The Research Park operates the Technology Business <unk> ; The <unk> works to foster the start @-@ up and growth of technology @-@ based businesses , seeking to scale them and build relationships for them with the university .\",\n \"The Boca Raton campus is also home to the Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences , which includes the Machine <unk> and <unk> <unk> Laboratory \\n \\n = = = Rankings = = = \\n \\n For 2013 , Florida Atlantic University was classified as a second @-@ tier university by the U.S. News & World Report 's rankings of \\\" Best Colleges . \\\"\",\n \"U.S. News ranks universities into one of two tiers , with one being the highest , based on how they compare with other colleges in a peer assessment , retention rates , student selectivity , faculty resources , financial resources , graduation rates , and the amount of alumni giving .\",\n \"The university was named one of the 146 \\\" Best Southeastern Colleges \\\" in the United States by the Princeton Review .\",\n \"The Review also recognized FAU 's business program by naming the College of Business to their list of \\\" Best 296 Business Schools \\\" for 2009 .\",\n \"For 2011 , Florida Atlantic was ranked <unk> in the nation by Washington Monthly .\",\n \"The magazine based its rankings on the following three criteria : \\\" how well a university performs as an engine of social mobility ( ideally helping the poor to get rich rather than the very rich to get very , very rich ) , how well a university does in <unk> scientific and humanistic research , and how well a university promotes an ethic of service to country . \\\"\",\n \"The university was also ranked 28th in the United States and fourth in Florida by The Hispanic <unk> in Higher Education magazine for <unk> 738 bachelor 's degrees to Hispanic students during the 2006 – 2007 academic year .\",\n \"= = Campus = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University is a distributed university located on seven campuses spread across Palm Beach , Broward , and St. Lucie counties .\",\n \"The region is home to more than three million people .\",\n \"The university 's main campus is located in the City of Boca Raton in Palm Beach County .\",\n \"The county is also home to the John D. MacArthur Campus located in the City of Jupiter .\",\n \"In addition to its campuses in Palm Beach County , the university operates three campuses in the Broward County cities of Dania Beach , Davie , and Fort Lauderdale .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic University also operates two campuses in the St. Lucie County cities of Port St. Lucie and Fort Pierce .\",\n \"In addition to students who attend classes on the universities campuses , there are 1 @,@ 612 distance learning students who conduct their studies over the internet or through other means .\",\n \"These students account for 6 % of the university 's student body .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic is a signatory of the American College & University Presidents Climate <unk> Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education .\",\n \"This commits the institution to ensuring all new construction projects meet the U.S. Green Building Council 's <unk> in Energy and Environmental Design ( <unk> ) Silver standards .\",\n \"In 2011 , The College of Engineering and Computer Science Building was <unk> Platinum certified .\",\n \"= = = Palm Beach County campuses = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Boca Raton = = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University 's main campus in Boca Raton was established on the remnants of a World War II American Army airbase in 1964 .\",\n \"<unk> 850 acres ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 km ² ) , the site is located between the cities of Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale .\",\n \"The campus was designated a burrowing owl sanctuary in 1971 by the <unk> Society .\",\n \"The owls find the campus appealing because there are few predators , due to the university 's proximity to the Boca Raton Airport , and because the campus was originally cleared of vegetation when operating as an airbase during World War II . \\\"\",\n \"The feisty bird , traditionally associated with wisdom and determination , serves as the university 's mascot . \\\"\",\n \"The Boca Raton campus is home to a wide variety of university programs and facilities .\",\n \"These facilities are <unk> and classrooms , housing for students , a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon shark tank for aquatic research , a movie theater , athletic and recreational facilities , and the student @-@ run record label Hoot / <unk> Recordings .\",\n \"In addition to academic and cultural programs , the campus also houses Florida Atlantic 's Division I athletics program .\",\n \"The main campus serves approximately 19 @,@ 077 students , or 70 % of the university 's student body , offering a number of academic programs , activities , and services .\",\n \"The Boca Raton campus also houses a number of other institutions , including the A. D. Henderson University School , FAU High School , one of two Florida Atlantic University Research Parks , and the <unk> Learning Society .\",\n \"= = = = Jupiter – John D. MacArthur Campus = = = = \\n \\n In addition to the Boca Raton campus in southern Palm Beach County , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in northern Palm Beach County , in Jupiter .\",\n \"The John D. MacArthur Campus , named after businessman and philanthropist John D. MacArthur , was established in 1999 to serve residents of central and northern Palm Beach and southern Martin counties .\",\n \"The MacArthur Campus occupies 45 acres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 18 km ² ) , upon which are eight classroom and office buildings , a library , a 500 @-@ seat auditorium , two residence halls , a dining hall , museum building , and utility plant .\",\n \"The MacArthur Campus also houses the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , <unk> Florida , and the Max Planck Florida Institute .\",\n \"The campus serves approximately 1 @,@ 262 students , or 4 % of the university 's student body .\",\n \"= = = Broward County campuses = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Dania Beach – SeaTech = = = = \\n \\n The Dania Beach Campus , also known as SeaTech , was founded in 1997 as a state @-@ funded Type II research center .\",\n \"The institute is part of Florida Atlantic 's Department of Ocean Engineering which was founded in 1965 as the first ocean engineering undergraduate program in the nation .\",\n \"The campus is located on 8 acres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 03 km ² ) of land between the Atlantic Ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway .\",\n \"SeaTech is home to university faculty and students engaged in sponsored ocean engineering research and development in the areas of acoustics , marine vehicles , <unk> and physical <unk> , marine materials and <unk> .\",\n \"The Dania Beach Campus serves approximately 70 students , roughly 1 % of the university 's total student body .\",\n \"= = = = Davie = = = = \\n \\n The Davie Campus of Florida Atlantic University was established in 1990 on 38 acres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 15 km ² ) of land in western Broward County .\",\n \"The campus serves approximately 3 @,@ <unk> students , or 13 % of the Florida Atlantic student body , making it the university 's second largest campus by enrollment .\",\n \"The campus features a multi @-@ story student union with offices for student government and student organizations , a multipurpose area and student lounge , a bookstore , and <unk> .\",\n \"The union also contains a student health center that provides medical services and health counseling .\",\n \"Davie is also the home of \\\" environmental research initiatives focused on Everglades restoration . \\\"\",\n \"FAU colleges offering courses at the FAU Davie campus include Design and Social Inquiry ; Arts and Letters ; Business ; Education ; Nursing ; and Science .\",\n \"The campus is located on Broward College 's Central Campus .\",\n \"Students may enter BC as freshmen and graduate from FAU with undergraduate degrees in over 14 disciplines .\",\n \"More than 315 @,@ 000 square feet of carefully designed classrooms , laboratories and faculty , staff and student offices are located on this campus along with a shared @-@ use , 112 @,@ 000 square @-@ foot FAU / BC library designed for the 21st century .\",\n \"Other support facilities include a shared <unk> Center , a student Wellness Center and a multi @-@ service Student Union .\",\n \"The campus also offers a rich and varied program of student activities provided by the Division of Student Affairs .\",\n \"Students have all of the services they require for career counseling , <unk> , testing and evaluation , <unk> , health services , student government and financial aid , among others .\",\n \"Like a small college within a large university , the Davie Campus is seen as a \\\" model \\\" branch campus for the state of Florida and the nation .\",\n \"= = = = Fort Lauderdale = = = = \\n \\n The university has two buildings in downtown Fort Lauderdale , both of which are considered part of one Fort Lauderdale campus .\",\n \"The Askew Tower ( AT ) and the Higher Education Complex ( <unk> ) on Las <unk> Boulevard .\",\n \"The campus offers courses in communication , graphic design , architecture , and urban and regional planning .\",\n \"The campus is home to approximately 900 students or 3 @.\",\n \"@ 2 % of the university 's student body .\",\n \"= = = St. Lucie County campuses = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Fort Pierce – Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution = = = = \\n \\n In addition to the Treasure Coast Campus , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution .\",\n \"Harbor Branch merged with the university in 2007 to become the HBOI at FAU .\",\n \"The Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million for the university to acquire the institution and its 600 acre ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 4 km ² ) campus .\",\n \"= = = Former <unk> = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Port St. Lucie – Treasure Coast Campus = = = = \\n \\n Treasure Coast Campus of Florida Atlantic University operated through a partnership with Indian River State College ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic purchased 50 acres ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 2 km ² ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 .\",\n \"At the end of Spring 2012 class term , Florida Atlantic University ended offering classes at the Port St. Lucie campus .\",\n \"= = Athletics = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic 's 18 varsity sports teams , the Owls , compete in NCAA 's Division I.\",\n \"The Owls recently got in C @-@ USA for the 2013 – 14 season .\",\n \"The university 's athletics program began in 1979 , when Florida Atlantic first started sponsoring intercollegiate teams .\",\n \"Since then , the university has worked to expand the quality of its intercollegiate program by attracting coaches such as Howard Schnellenberger , Matt Doherty , Rex Walters and Mike Jarvis .\",\n \"In 2006 , the athletic department was ranked 79th in the nation by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"Along with USA Today and the United States Sports Academy , <unk> recognized the university for its Division I athletic programs and accomplishments . \\\"\",\n \"This ranking placed Florida Atlantic in the top 24 % of 326 NCAA Division I universities .\",\n \"The university 's colors are FAU Blue , FAU Red , and FAU Silver .\",\n \"In 2008 , the Florida Atlantic football team finished six wins and six losses in regular season play and was invited to the Motor City Bowl .\",\n \"The Owls defeated Central Michigan University 24 – 21 , increasing their bowl record to two wins and zero losses .\",\n \"During the previous season , the football team beat Troy University in the final game of regular season play to become Sun Belt Co @-@ Champions and receive an invitation to the New Orleans Bowl .\",\n \"In just the seventh year of the football program 's history , and the third year playing in Division I , Florida Atlantic set NCAA records by both becoming the youngest program ever to receive an invitation to , and win , a bowl game .\",\n \"As a result of the New Orleans Bowl the university has seen a surge in school spirit .\",\n \"In past seasons the Owls have garnered a number of accolades for their accomplishments .\",\n \"During the 2006 – 2007 season , the men 's basketball team was noted as \\\" one of the Sun Belt Conference 's top offensive teams , \\\" with a \\\" scary offense \\\" that earned it the reputation of the \\\" best shooting team in the conference . \\\"\",\n \"In 2010 , the men 's basketball team defeated its first @-@ ever Southeastern Conference opponent Mississippi State University 61 – 59 as well as Big East opponent the University of South Florida 50 – 42 en route to a 21 – 9 overall record and claimed the Sun Belt Conference title .\",\n \"The baseball team was also recognized by the NCAA as ranking in the Top 10 in five team categories .\",\n \"The team was also ranked third in the nation in home runs per game ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 66 ) and in <unk> percentage ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"In 2010 , the Owls baseball team was 37 – 24 ( 21 – 9 ) and claimed their first Sun Belt Conference regular @-@ season title .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University is home to a number of sports @-@ related traditions and school spirit organizations .\",\n \"Every fall before the first football game of the season , FAU 's Student Government Association sponsors the \\\" Annual Football Kick @-@ Off <unk> \\\" wherein the opposing team 's mascot is burned in effigy .\",\n \"Also in football , Florida Atlantic challenges its rival Florida International ( <unk> ) is the annual Shula Bowl .\",\n \"This intercollegiate football game is named after legendary coach Don Shula ; so named because at the time of its inception , both head coaches , Florida Atlantic 's Howard Schnellenberger and Florida International coach Don <unk> , had worked under Shula at some point during their careers .\",\n \"Even though both universities have since moved on to new head coaches , the Shula Bowl is still played .\",\n \"As a home game , the competition takes place at university 's own stadium ; as an away game , the bowl is played at <unk> Stadium in Miami .\",\n \"For basketball , Florida Atlantic celebrates a \\\" Midnight Madness \\\" <unk> rally that introduces fans to the team and coaches as well as inspires a number of basketball @-@ related contests such as 3 Point Shoot <unk> and Slam <unk> competitions .\",\n \"During the regular season , the \\\" Bury the <unk> in Red \\\" event calls for Florida Atlantic students to wear as much red as possible and fill the <unk> , the university 's multi @-@ purpose arena , during the annual basketball rivalry game between Florida Atlantic and Florida International University .\",\n \"The official spirit group supporting Florida Atlantic athletics is the \\\" <unk> . \\\"\",\n \"The group began in February 2002 to support the men 's basketball program during the team 's run for the Atlantic Sun Conference Championship .\",\n \"The group is funded by the Student <unk> Association , and can now be found at most sporting events cheering for Florida Atlantic .\",\n \"The <unk> are joined by the Owl Rangers , a fan group that paints their bodies in the Florida Atlantic school colors .\",\n \"The <unk> are a student club that attend <unk> events and assist in recruiting athletes .\",\n \"Since 2002 , Florida Atlantic students have been using Owl <unk> ( the \\\" OK \\\" hand sign ) to show school pride and wish the athletic teams luck during football point after attempts ( <unk> ) and basketball free throws .\",\n \"The Florida Atlantic University Athletics Department has chosen to use Owl <unk> as part of its \\\" <unk> the Hoot \\\" 2012 marketing campaign that encourages students to \\\" proudly raise the hand salute that depicts the eyes of the owl , FAU 's mascot . \\\"\",\n \"= = Student life = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Residential life = = = \\n \\n Residential housing at Florida Atlantic University is available on the Boca Raton and John D. MacArthur campuses . \\\"\",\n \"All full @-@ time freshmen are required to reside in university housing , \\\" however , \\\" exemptions from this policy are made for students who : are 21 or older by the first day of class , reside with parent ( s ) or legal guardian ( s ) within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of the Boca Raton campus , or are married . \\\"\",\n \"As of 2011 , 4 @,@ 555 students live on @-@ campus in Boca Raton .\",\n \"The Wilkes Honors College on the MacArthur Campus requires all students live on @-@ campus within its two residence halls , however , exceptions are made for students who are 26 years of age , married , or have dependent children .\",\n \"As of 2011 , there are 231 students residing on @-@ campus at the honors college .\",\n \"Boca Raton 's on @-@ campus housing facilities are : Algonquin Hall ( opened 1965 ) , Indian River Towers ( opened 2001 ) , Heritage Park Towers ( opened 2004 ) , Glades Park Towers ( opened 2007 ) , Parliament Hall ( opened 2013 ) , University Village Apartments ( <unk> ) , and Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) ( opened 2011 ) .\",\n \"Heritage Park and Glades Park Towers each offer <unk> beds with 96 single rooms .\",\n \"<unk> and IVA exclusively serve <unk> while the other residence halls exclusively serve freshmen students , with Algonquin Hall serving all students .\",\n \"The university also offers upper @-@ division undergraduate and graduate student housing in the Business and Professional Women 's Scholarship House for women with a strong academic background .\",\n \"One of the newest residences on the Boca Raton campus is the Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) , consisting of two buildings : IVA North and IVA South .\",\n \"It is a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed apartment @-@ style housing facility for <unk> , graduate , and medical students .\",\n \"It offers amenities that one would find in a high @-@ rise apartment complex : lounges , retail dining , fitness centers , a pool / <unk> , a volleyball court , common areas , and more .\",\n \"The facility opened in fall 2011 .\",\n \"FAU 's newest residence hall is Parliament Hall , a lakeside freshmen housing facility offering 614 beds , a fitness center , lounges , retail dining , and views of the nearby Atlantic Ocean from top floors .\",\n \"Within its existing residential life programs , Florida Atlantic offers a number of Learning Communities for freshmen and students with similar interests and concentrations .\",\n \"Participants meet people with similar interests , live on the same floor and take courses with others in their community , while receiving additional guidance related to those interests .\",\n \"The university 's Learning Community programs are divided into two categories , Freshman Learning Communities and Living Learning Communities .\",\n \"The freshman program offers 16 different concentrations , including business , nursing , and education .\",\n \"The Living program offers six concentrations for students residing in the Heritage Park Towers dormitory , including engineering , computer science , and a Women 's <unk> program .\",\n \"The university 's Department of Housing and Residential Life and the university 's <unk> and <unk> sponsor a program for freshmen and other students returning to Florida Atlantic in the fall semester .\",\n \"This program , called the \\\" Weeks of Welcome , \\\" spans 11 days and all campuses , and works to <unk> students with university life and to build a good on @-@ campus community .\",\n \"On each day , a number of different events are scheduled , including Hall Wars , which are athletic competitions between dormitories , <unk> , and a number of other events .\",\n \"The Weeks of Welcome is the second largest campus @-@ wide event held by Florida Atlantic .\",\n \"= = = Student housing = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Campus organizations and activities = = = \\n \\n For the 2010 – 2011 academic year , Florida Atlantic had approximately 300 registered student organizations .\",\n \"Among the groups are academic organizations , honor societies , spiritual / religious organizations , diversity @-@ appreciation organizations , service organizations , personal interest organizations , sports clubs , and student government agencies .\",\n \"These clubs and organizations run the <unk> from sailing to Ultimate <unk> , from varsity and club sports and a jazz group to a pottery guild , from political organizations to chess and video game clubs .\",\n \"These organizations are funded by student tuition , from which $ 10 @.\",\n \"@ 00 per credit hour goes toward an activities and service fee fund .\",\n \"This generates approximately $ 9 million that is then given to student government for allocation to student clubs and organizations .\",\n \"The student government also finances other student life programs , including career <unk> , the University Press , <unk> TV and Owl Radio , and Homecoming .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic 's homecoming , also known as the \\\" Owl <unk> , \\\" is celebrated annually in the fall semester .\",\n \"Events occur mainly on the Boca Raton Campus , but a number of other campuses host their own events as well .\",\n \"In the past , homecoming has had kickoff parties , <unk> dances , <unk> , comedy shows , alumni events and <unk> , a golf cart parade , and <unk> .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic students have an organized football <unk> area known as the Rat 's Mouth .\",\n \"The name references the Spanish translation of Boca Raton .\",\n \"Florida Atlantic completed an $ 18 @.\",\n \"@ 6 million Recreation and Wellness Center in spring 2010 .\",\n \"The facility houses an outdoor leisure and lap pool , a <unk> equipment and free weight room , two multipurpose rooms , three indoor courts and health club @-@ style locker rooms .\",\n \"In 2011 , the facility won the <unk> Outstanding Sports Facilities Award .\",\n \"Other recreation facilities include a $ 4 @.\",\n \"@ 2 million track and field complex , with synthetic turf ( opened January 2007 ) , a ropes challenge course and the 6 @.\",\n \"@ 5 acre Henderson Fields , utilized most often by the FAU <unk> Sports and Club Sports programs .\",\n \"= = = Greek life = = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic is home to approximately 28 chapters of national <unk> and <unk> , encompassing approximately 1 @,@ 077 members or 5 % of the undergraduate population .\",\n \"The <unk> of Greek life at Florida Atlantic is \\\" Greek Week . \\\"\",\n \"This event is held annually during the spring semester and showcases a number of themed competitions between the university 's Greek organizations .\",\n \"There are currently no on @-@ campus Greek houses .\",\n \"However , a Greek Life Housing task force has been formed to explore various housing models , including the cost of construction , \\\" and make recommendations on how to improve the overall quality of the Greek housing .... \\\" \\n \\n = = <unk> = = \\n \\n Florida Atlantic University has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni worldwide since its opening .\",\n \"Charles <unk> or \\\" Father Goose \\\" is a children 's poet and former nationally syndicated columnist .\",\n \"Judith Ortiz Cofer is an acclaimed Puerto <unk> author whose works span a range of literary genres including poetry , short stories , and essays .\",\n \"Other alumni are Chris <unk> , the lead singer of the band <unk> <unk> ; and Phil Zimmermann , the creator of Pretty Good <unk> .\",\n \"Entertainers Mary Carey , a pornographic actress and former candidate for Governor of California , prop comedian <unk> Top , and humorist Daniel Dickey also attended the university .\",\n \"<unk> and NASA astronaut Steven Swanson went to space aboard Space Shuttle <unk> during <unk> @-@ 117 in June 2007 , and Space Shuttle Discovery during <unk> @-@ 119 in March 2009 .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":92,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Missouri River = \n \n The Missouri River is the longest river in North America .","Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri .","The river takes drainage from a sparsely populated , semi @-@ arid watershed of more than half a million square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) , which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces .","When combined with the lower Mississippi River , it forms the world 's fourth longest river system .","For over 12 @,@ 000 years , people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation .","More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed , most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous buffalo herds that once roamed through the Great Plains .","The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century , and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase .","The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river 's entire length , they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend .","The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century .","The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the <unk> as trappers explored the region and blazed trails .","Pioneers headed west en <unk> beginning in the 1830s , first by covered wagon , then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river .","Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers , leading to some of the most longstanding and violent wars against indigenous peoples in American history .","During the 20th century , the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation , flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power .","Fifteen dams <unk> the main stem of the river , with hundreds more on tributaries .","<unk> have been cut and the river <unk> to improve navigation , reducing its length by almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) from pre @-@ development times .","Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region , heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality .","= = Course = = \n \n From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming , three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River .","The longest begins near Brower 's Spring , 9 @,@ 100 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level , on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains .","<unk> west then north , it runs first in Hell <unk> Creek , then west into the Red Rock ; swings northeast to become the <unk> , it finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson .","The <unk> River originates at Madison Lake in Wyoming 's Yellowstone National Park and joins with the <unk> to form the Madison , while the Gallatin River rises out of Gallatin Lake , also in the national park .","These two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana .","The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri <unk> State Park near Three Forks , Montana , and is joined by the Gallatin a mile ( 1 @.","@ 6 km ) downstream .","The Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake , a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains .","<unk> from the mountains near Cascade , the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls , where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri , a series of five substantial waterfalls .","It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks , receiving the <unk> River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the <unk> River .","Farther on , the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam , and immediately downstream , the Milk River joins from the north .","<unk> eastwards through the plains of eastern Montana , the Missouri receives the <unk> River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River , its greatest tributary by volume , joins from the southwest .","At the confluence , the Yellowstone is actually the larger river .","The Missouri then meanders east past <unk> and into Lake <unk> , the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam .","Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck , the capital of North Dakota , where the Heart River joins from the west .","It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the <unk> River confluence .","While it continues south , eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota , the Grand , Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west .","The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains , receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest .","It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska , then after being joined by the James River from the north , forms the Iowa – Nebraska boundary .","At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north .","The Missouri flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary , the Platte River , from the west .","<unk> , it begins to define the Nebraska – Missouri border , then flows between Missouri and Kansas .","The Missouri swings east at Kansas City , where the Kansas River enters from the west , and so on into north @-@ central Missouri .","To the east of the Kansas City , Missouri receives , on the left side , the Grand River .","It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and <unk> Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City .","The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois .","= = Watershed = = \n \n With a drainage basin spanning 529 @,@ 350 square miles ( 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 km2 ) , the Missouri River 's catchment encompasses nearly one @-@ sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America .","<unk> to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec , the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains , stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed .","Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence , the Missouri is twice as long and drains an area three times as large .","The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis , and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts .","In 1990 , the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people .","This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska , parts of the U.S. states of Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wyoming , and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan .","The watershed 's largest city is Denver , Colorado , with a population of more than six hundred thousand .","Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005 , making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin .","Other major population centers – mostly located in the southeastern portion of the watershed – include Omaha , Nebraska , situated north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers ; Kansas City , Missouri – Kansas City , Kansas , located at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River ; and the St. Louis metropolitan area , situated south of the Missouri River just below the latter 's mouth , on the Mississippi .","In contrast , the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated .","However , many northwestern cities , such as <unk> , Montana , are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin .","With more than 170 @,@ 000 square miles ( 440 @,@ 000 km2 ) under the <unk> , the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one @-@ fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States , providing more than a third of the country 's wheat , flax , barley and oats .","However , only 11 @,@ 000 square miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km2 ) of farmland in the basin is irrigated .","A further 281 @,@ 000 square miles ( 730 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock , mainly cattle .","Forested areas of the watershed , mostly second @-@ growth , total about 43 @,@ 700 square miles ( 113 @,@ 000 km2 ) .","Urban areas , on the other hand , comprise less than 13 @,@ 000 square miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .","Most built @-@ up areas are located along the main stem and a few major tributaries , including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers .","<unk> in the watershed vary widely , ranging from just over 400 feet ( 120 m ) at the Missouri 's mouth to the 14 @,@ 293 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 357 m ) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado .","The river itself drops a total of 8 @,@ <unk> feet ( 2 @,@ <unk> m ) from Brower 's Spring , the farthest source .","Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief , the land rises about 10 feet per mile ( 1 @.","@ 9 m / km ) from east to west .","The elevation is less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) at the eastern border of the watershed , but is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies .","The Missouri 's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns , Overall , the watershed is defined by a Continental climate with warm , wet summers and harsh , cold winters .","Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches ( 200 to 250 mm ) of precipitation each year .","However , the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) .","The vast majority of precipitation occurs in winter , although the upper basin is known for short @-@ lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City , South Dakota .","Winter temperatures in Montana , Wyoming and Colorado may drop as low as − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) , while summer highs in Kansas and Missouri have reached 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) at times .","As one of the continent 's most significant river systems , the Missouri 's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada .","The Continental Divide , running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains , forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed .","The Clark Fork and Snake River , both part of the Columbia River basin , drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana , Idaho and western Wyoming .","The Columbia , Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming 's Wind River Range .","South of there , the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River , a tributary of the Colorado , then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado .","Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean .","However , a large <unk> drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming .","This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed , even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide .","To the north , the much lower <unk> Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River , a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River , as well as the <unk> , <unk> , and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North .","All of these streams are part of Canada 's Nelson River drainage basin , which empties into Hudson Bay .","There are also several large <unk> basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan .","The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers , tributaries of the upper Mississippi , drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin .","Finally , on the south , the <unk> Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri , Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River , also tributaries of the Mississippi River .","= = = Major tributaries = = = \n \n Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River , with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth .","Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east , following the incline of the Great Plains ; however , some eastern tributaries such as the James , Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south .","The Missouri 's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming , the Platte in Wyoming , Colorado , and Nebraska , and the Kansas – Republican / <unk> Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri .","Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) , and has an average discharge greater than 5 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 140 m3 / s ) .","The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge , even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area .","In fact , the Yellowstone 's flow is about 13 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 390 m3 / s ) – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte .","On the other end of the scale is the tiny <unk> River in Montana , which at 201 feet ( 61 m ) long is one the world 's shortest rivers .","The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri , along with their respective catchment areas and flows .","Length is measured to the <unk> source , regardless of naming convention .","The main stem of the Kansas River , for example , is 148 miles ( 238 km ) long .","However , including the longest headwaters tributaries , the 453 @-@ mile ( 729 km ) Republican River and the 156 @-@ mile ( 251 km ) Arikaree River , brings the total length to <unk> miles ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) .","Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River , whose longest tributary , the North Platte River , is more than twice as long as its mainstream .","The Missouri 's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem .","<unk> to the farthest source at Brower 's Spring , the Jefferson River is 298 miles ( 480 km ) long .","Thus measured to its highest headwaters , the Missouri River stretches for 2 @,@ 639 miles ( 4 @,@ 247 km ) .","When combined with the lower Mississippi , the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth @-@ longest river system in the world , at 3 @,@ <unk> miles ( 6 @,@ <unk> km ) .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n By discharge , the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States , after the Mississippi , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , and St. Clair .","The latter two , however , are sometimes considered part of a <unk> between Lake Huron and Lake Erie .","Among rivers of North America as a whole , the Missouri is thirteenth largest , after the Mississippi , Mackenzie , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , St. Clair , Fraser , Slave , and <unk> .","As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi @-@ arid region , its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length .","Before the construction of dams , the river flooded twice each year – once in the \" April Rise \" or \" Spring Fresh \" , with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed , and in the \" June Rise \" , caused by snowmelt and summer <unk> in the Rocky Mountains .","The latter was far more destructive , with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years .","The Missouri 's discharge is affected by over 17 @,@ 000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre feet ( 174 km3 ) .","By providing flood control , the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows .","<unk> from reservoirs significantly reduces the river 's runoff , causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre feet ( 3 @.","@ 7 km3 ) from mainstem reservoirs alone .","The United States Geological Survey operates fifty @-@ one stream gauges along the Missouri River .","The river 's average discharge at Bismarck , 1 @,@ 314 @.","@ 5 miles ( 2 @,@ 115 @.","@ 5 km ) from the mouth , is 21 @,@ 920 cu ft / s ( <unk> m3 / s ) .","This is from a drainage area of 186 @,@ 400 sq mi ( 483 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 35 % of the total river basin .","At Kansas City , 366 @.","@ 1 miles ( <unk> @.","@ 2 km ) from the mouth , the river 's average flow is 55 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 570 m3 / s ) .","The river here drains about <unk> @,@ 100 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 254 @,@ 000 km2 ) , representing about 91 % of the entire basin .","The <unk> gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann , Missouri – 97 @.","@ 9 miles ( 157 @.","@ 6 km ) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was 87 @,@ 520 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 478 m3 / s ) from 1897 to 2010 .","About 522 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 98 @.","@ 7 % of the watershed , lies above Hermann .","The highest annual mean was 181 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 150 m3 / s ) in 1993 , and the lowest was 41 @,@ 690 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 181 m3 / s ) in 2006 .","<unk> of the flow vary even further .","The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 21 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) on July 31 , 1993 , during a historic flood .","The lowest , a mere <unk> cu ft / s ( 17 @.","@ 0 m3 / s ) – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23 , 1963 .","= = Upper and Lower Missouri River = = \n \n The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam the last hydroelectric dam of 15 on the river and it 's just upstream from Sioux City , Iowa .","The lower Missouri River is the 840 river miles until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis .","The Lower Missouri River has no <unk> or Lock and dams but it has a <unk> of Wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200 foot wide , 12 foot deep channel .","These wing dams have been put in place and maintained by the U.S. Army corps of engineers , and there currently are no plans to construct any Lock and dams to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River .","See also : - List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River , List of locks and dams of the Ohio River \n \n = = Geology = = \n \n The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide <unk> , a mountain @-@ building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago ( the end of the <unk> through the early Cenozoic ) .","This <unk> <unk> Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior <unk> , a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico , and deposited the sediments that now <unk> much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River .","This Laramide <unk> caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains , the predecessor of the modern @-@ day Mississippi watershed .","The Laramide <unk> is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology , as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries .","The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains , flowing over or cutting into the <unk> Group and older mid @-@ Cenozoic <unk> rocks .","The lowest major Cenozoic unit , the White River Formation , was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of <unk> , sandstone , limestone , and conglomerate .","Channel <unk> and finer @-@ <unk> <unk> deposits of the <unk> Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago .","The Miocene @-@ age <unk> and the slightly younger <unk> @-@ age <unk> Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group , and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief ; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt , and also constitute a major <unk> .","Immediately before the <unk> Ice Age , the Missouri River was likely split into three segments : an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay , and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope .","As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age , a pre @-@ <unk> ( or possibly the <unk> ) <unk> diverted the Missouri River <unk> towards its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope .","In western Montana , the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear <unk> Mountains .","<unk> are found in some spots along the river in western Montana .","<unk> of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries , causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as <unk> Lakes Great Falls , <unk> and others .","As the lakes rose , the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides , creating now @-@ abandoned channels and <unk> including the <unk> <unk> , 100 miles ( 160 km ) long .","When the glaciers retreated , the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the <unk> , and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel .","The Missouri 's nickname , the \" Big <unk> \" , was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river .","In its pre @-@ development state , the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons ( 159 to 290 Mt ) per year .","The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons ( 18 to 23 Mt ) in the present day .","Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the <unk> belt ; every time the river changed course , it would <unk> tons of soil and rocks from its banks .","However , <unk> and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course .","<unk> along the Missouri trap roughly 36 @.","@ 4 million short tons ( 33 @.","@ 0 Mt ) of sediment each year .","Despite this , the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Mississippi River Delta , formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi , constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri .","= = First peoples = = \n \n Archaeological evidence , especially in Missouri , suggests that man first made his presence in the watershed of the Missouri River between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene .","During the end of the last glacial period , a great migration of humans began , traveling via the Bering land bridge from Eurasia into and throughout the Americas .","As they traveled slowly over centuries , the Missouri River formed one of the main migration paths .","Most settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley , but many , including the <unk> builders , stayed along the Missouri , becoming the ancestors of the later indigenous peoples of the Great Plains .","The Native Americans that lived along the Missouri had access to ample food , water , and shelter .","Many migratory animals inhabited the plains at the time , providing them meat , clothing , and other everyday items ; there were also great riparian areas in the river 's floodplain that provided them with natural herbs and staple foods .","No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre @-@ European period exist because they did not use writing .","According to the writings of explorers , some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the <unk> , <unk> , Omaha , <unk> , <unk> , Lakota , Sioux , <unk> , Hidatsa , Mandan , <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> .","<unk> used the Missouri , at least to a limited extent , as a path of trade and transport .","In addition , the river and its tributaries formed tribal boundaries .","<unk> of the indigenous mostly centered on a semi @-@ nomadic culture ; many tribes would have different summer and winter camps .","However , the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south .","A large cluster of walled Mandan , Hidatsa and <unk> villages situated on <unk> and islands of the river was home to thousands , and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders .","Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes , possibly from feral European @-@ introduced populations , natives ' way of life changed dramatically .","The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances , and thus facilitated hunting , communications and trade .","Once , tens of millions of American bison ( commonly called buffalo ) , one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley , roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin .","Most Native American groups in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source , and their hides and bones served to create other household items .","In time , the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples ' periodic controlled <unk> of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth .","The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term great bison belt , an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide .","However , after the arrival of Europeans in North America , both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population .","Hunting eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred .","Foreign diseases such as smallpox raged across the land , <unk> Native American populations .","Left without their primary source of sustenance , many of the remaining indigenous people were amalgamated into <unk> areas and reservations .","= = Early European explorers = = \n \n In May <unk> , the French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers , aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean .","In late June , Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European <unk> of the Missouri River , which according to their journals was in full flood . \"","I never saw anything more terrific , \" Jolliet wrote , \" a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the <unk> [ Missouri ] with such <unk> that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger .","The <unk> was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself . \"","They recorded <unk> or <unk> as the local name for the Missouri .","However , the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth , nor did they linger in the area .","In addition , they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed ; the expedition turned back about 440 miles ( 710 km ) short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi .","In 1682 , France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River , which included the lower portion of the Missouri .","However , the Missouri itself remained formally <unk> until Étienne de <unk> , Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River .","It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there ; he described the blond @-@ haired <unk> in his journals , so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present @-@ day North Dakota .","Later that year , Bourgmont published The Route To Be Taken To <unk> The Missouri River , the first known document to use the name \" Missouri River \" ; many of the names he gave to tributaries , mostly for the native tribes that lived along them , are still in use today .","The expedition 's discoveries eventually found their way to <unk> Guillaume <unk> , who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri .","In <unk> , Jean @-@ Baptiste Le <unk> , Sieur de <unk> requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his \" outstanding service to France \" .","Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706 , when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty @-@ one deaths .","However , his reputation was enhanced in 1720 when the Pawnee – who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont – massacred the Spanish <unk> expedition near present @-@ day Columbus , Nebraska on the Missouri River and temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana .","Bourgmont established Fort Orleans , the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River , near present @-@ day Brunswick , Missouri , in 1723 .","The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist <unk> support against the Spanish , who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri .","In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France .","There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America .","Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726 .","The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754 .","By 1763 , France was defeated by the much greater strength of the British army and was forced to cede its Canadian possessions to the English and Louisiana to the Spanish in the Treaty of Paris , amounting to most of its colonial holdings in North America .","Initially , the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license .","However , this ended after news of the British Hudson 's Bay Company incursions in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D <unk> in the early <unk> .","In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of <unk> and <unk> of the Missouri , popularly referred to as the \" Missouri Company \" , and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri .","In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean Baptiste <unk> and Antoine Simon <unk> de la <unk> did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota .","<unk> the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans .","The two set out along the Missouri , and established Fort Charles about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of present @-@ day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795 .","At the Mandan villages in North Dakota , they expelled several British traders , and while talking to the populace they <unk> the location of the Yellowstone River , which was called Roche <unk> ( \" Yellow Rock \" ) by the French .","Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific , they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River .","In 1795 , the young United States and Spain signed <unk> 's Treaty , which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans .","Three years later , Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San <unk> .","This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory .","In 1801 , Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States .","Fearing that the <unk> could occur again , President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $ 10 million .","Instead , faced with a debt crisis , Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana , including the Missouri River , for $ 15 million – amounting to less than 3 <unk> per acre .","The deal was signed in 1803 , doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory .","In 1803 , Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean .","By then , it had been discovered that the Columbia River system , which drains into the Pacific , had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River , and it was widely believed that a connection or short <unk> existed between the two .","However , Spain <unk> at the takeover , citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French .","Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri , although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it .","Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty @-@ three people in three boats .","Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia , they found no trace of the Northwest Passage .","The maps made by Lewis and Clark , especially those of the Pacific Northwest region , provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants .","They also negotiated relations with multiple Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate , ecology and geology of the region .","Many present @-@ day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition .","= = American frontier = = \n \n \n = = = Fur trade = = = \n \n As early as the 18th century , fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter , the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade .","They came from many different places – some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay , some from the Pacific Northwest ( see also : Maritime fur trade ) , and some from the <unk> United States .","Most did not stay in the area for long , as they failed to find significant resources .","The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two @-@ year expedition .","Their journals described lands rich with thousands of buffalo , beaver , and river otter ; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast .","In 1807 , explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country .","Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers , trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes , and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary , the Bighorn , in southern Montana .","Although the business started small , it quickly grew into a thriving trade .","Lisa 's men started construction of Fort Raymond , which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn , in the fall of 1807 .","The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for <unk> with the Native Americans for furs .","This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade , which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises , namely Hudson 's Bay .","Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota ; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska .","In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre <unk> , among others .","In 1828 , the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers .","Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin .","Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes .","<unk> of the Hudson 's Bay Company , St. Louis Missouri Fur Company , American Fur Company , Rocky Mountain Fur Company , North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia , Colorado , Arkansas , and Saskatchewan river systems .","During this period , the trappers , also called mountain men , blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West .","Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships , providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start .","As the 1830s drew to a close , the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item .","By this time , also , the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting .","Furthermore , frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies .","In some regions , the industry continued well into the 1840s , but in others such as the Platte River valley , declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise .","The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850 , with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada .","Despite the demise of the once @-@ prosperous trade , however , its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers , farmers , ranchers , adventurers , <unk> , financially bereft , and entrepreneurs took their place .","= = = Settlers and pioneers = = = \n \n The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century , particularly downstream from Kansas City , where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri .","The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river , including the California , Mormon , Oregon , and Santa Fe trails .","The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph , Missouri .","Similarly , most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs , Iowa and Omaha .","The <unk> Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869 , and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis .","True to the then @-@ ideal of <unk> Destiny , over 500 @,@ 000 people set out from the river town of Independence , Missouri to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s .","These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year @-@ long journey – economic crisis , and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush , for example .","For most , the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha , Nebraska , where they would set out along the Platte River , which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastwards through the Great Plains .","An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the <unk> canoes they used , let alone the large <unk> and <unk> that would later <unk> the Missouri in increasing numbers .","One explorer remarked that the Platte was \" too thick to drink , too thin to <unk> \" .","Nevertheless , the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west .","<unk> wagons , popularly referred to as prairie <unk> , provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s .","During the 1860s , gold strikes in Montana , Colorado , Wyoming and northern Utah attracted another wave of <unk> to the region .","Although some freight was hauled overland , most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers , as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah , Idaho and Wyoming .","It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana , over 80 percent were transported by boat , a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction .","A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams , Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River , to near Denver .","The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route , as it passed through land held by often @-@ hostile Native Americans .","<unk> paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near <unk> , Utah during the gold rush period , which led to the large @-@ scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin .","As settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains , they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes .","This resulted in frequent raids , massacres and armed conflicts , leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes , which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous .","As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans , they were soon broken , leading to huge wars .","Over 1 @,@ 000 battles , big and small , were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations .","Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas , Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud 's War , in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army .","The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory .","In 1868 , the Treaty of Fort <unk> was signed , which \" guaranteed \" the use of the Black Hills , <unk> River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention .","The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri ; pro @-@ slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark <unk> during Bleeding Kansas , leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri .","Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of <unk> , which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river , <unk> the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy .","However , the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long .","The Great Sioux War of 1876 – 77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming .","These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort <unk> .","When the settlers <unk> onto the lands , they were attacked by Native Americans .","U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners , and drive out the natives from the new settlements .","During this bloody period , both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles , resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives .","The war eventually ended in an American victory , and the Black Hills were opened to settlement .","Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana .","= = Dam @-@ building era = = \n \n In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri , transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs .","River development was stimulated by a variety of factors , first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin , and also by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River .","Small , privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s , but the large flood @-@ control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s .","Between 1890 and 1940 , five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri , a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana .","Black Eagle Dam , built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls , was the first dam of the Missouri .","<unk> in 1926 with a more modern structure , the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls , diverting part of the Missouri 's flow into the Black Eagle power plant .","The largest of the five dams , Ryan Dam , was built in 1913 .","The dam lies directly above the 87 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) Great Falls , the largest waterfall of the Missouri .","In the same period , several private establishments – most notably the Montana Power Company – began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation .","A small run @-@ of @-@ the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam to be built on the Missouri .","This rock @-@ filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside .","The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907 , but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies , causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig .","At Great Falls , a section of the Black Eagle Dam was <unk> to save nearby factories from inundation .","Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure , and stands to this day .","<unk> Dam , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) downstream of Helena , was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River .","When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company , its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains , a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as \" the most remarkable <unk> that we have yet seen … the tow [ er ] ing and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us . \"","In 1949 , the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ( <unk> ) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area .","By 1954 , the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam , whose powerhouse still stands underwater about 1 @.","@ 5 miles ( 2 @.","@ 4 km ) upstream of the present @-@ day dam . \n \"","[ The Missouri 's temperament was ] uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman 's mind . \"","– Sioux City Register , March 28 , 1868 \n The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century , most notably in 1844 , 1881 , and 1926 – 1927 .","In 1940 , as part of the Great Depression @-@ era New Deal , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana .","Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50 @,@ 000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River .","However , Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed , and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later .","This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City , greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II .","Flooding damages on the Mississippi – Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944 , opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale .","The 1944 act authorized the Pick – Sloan Missouri Basin Program ( Pick – Sloan Plan ) , which was a composite of two widely varying proposals .","The Pick plan , with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power , called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri .","The Sloan plan , which stressed the development of local irrigation , included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries .","In the early stages of Pick – Sloan development , tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at <unk> , North Dakota and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries .","This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin , and eventually the <unk> proposed a solution : to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at <unk> – today 's Garrison Dam , thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams .","Because of this decision , the Yellowstone is now the longest free @-@ flowing river in the contiguous United States .","In the 1950s , construction commenced on the five mainstem dams – Garrison , Oahe , Big Bend , Fort Randall and Gavins Point – proposed under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan .","Along with Fort Peck , which was integrated as a unit of the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the 1940s , these dams now form what is known as the Missouri River Mainstem System .","The six dams of the Mainstem System , chiefly Fort Peck , Garrison and Oahe , are among the largest dams in the world by volume ; their sprawling reservoirs also rank within the biggest of the nation .","Holding up to 74 @.","@ 1 million acre feet ( 91 @.","@ 4 km3 ) in total , the six reservoirs can store more than three years ' worth of the river 's flow as measured below Gavins Point , the <unk> dam .","This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America .","In addition to storing irrigation water , the system also includes an annual flood @-@ control reservation of 16 @.","@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.","@ 1 km3 ) .","Mainstem power plants generate about 9 @.","@ 3 billion <unk> annually – equal to a constant output of almost 1 @,@ 100 megawatts .","Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries , namely the Bighorn , Platte , Kansas , and Osage Rivers , the system provides irrigation water to nearly 7 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 19 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .","The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River , ordered downstream .","Many of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams on the Missouri ( marked in yellow ) form very small <unk> which may or may not have been given names ; those unnamed are left blank .","All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City ; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel .","= = Navigation = = \n \n \" [ Missouri River shipping ] never achieved its expectations .","Even under the very best of circumstances , it was never a huge industry . \"","~ Richard <unk> , former Missouri River Basin Association executive director \n Boat travel on the Missouri started with the wood @-@ framed canoes and bull boats of the Native Americans , which were used for thousands of years before the introduction of larger craft to the river upon colonization of the Great Plains .","The first steamboat on the Missouri was the Independence , which started running between St. Louis and <unk> , Missouri around 1819 .","By the 1830s , large mail and freight @-@ carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis , and many traveled even farther upstream .","A handful , such as the Western Engineer and the Yellowstone , were able to make it up the river as far as eastern Montana .","During the early 19th century , at the height of the fur trade , steamboats and <unk> began traveling nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana 's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth , carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas that the trappers frequented .","This resulted in the development of the Missouri River <unk> , which specialized in carrying furs .","Since these boats could only travel <unk> , they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis .","Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers , emigrants and miners ; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha .","There , most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and <unk> Platte River , which was described by pioneers as \" a mile wide and an inch deep \" and \" the most magnificent and useless of rivers \" .","<unk> navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full @-@ time on the Missouri , with many more smaller vessels .","Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri .","Side @-@ <unk> steamboats were preferred over the larger <unk> used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability .","The industry 's success , however , did not guarantee safety .","In the early decades before the river 's flow was controlled by man , its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment , which prevented a clear view of the bottom , wrecked some 300 vessels .","Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River , the average ship 's lifespan was short , only about four years .","The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific <unk> marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri .","<unk> by trains , the number of boats slowly dwindled , until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s .","Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge , however , saw a revival in the early twentieth century .","= = = Passage to Sioux City = = = \n \n Since the beginning of the 20th century , the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes , and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially <unk> channels .","In 1912 , the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of six feet ( 1 @.","@ 8 m ) from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth , a distance of 368 miles ( 592 km ) .","This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river 's flow into a straight , narrow channel and prevent sedimentation .","In 1925 , the USACE began a project to widen the river 's navigation channel to 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; two years later , they began dredging a deep @-@ water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City .","These modifications have reduced the river 's length from some 2 @,@ 540 miles ( 4 @,@ 090 km ) in the late 19th century to 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) in the present day .","Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the mid @-@ twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation .","The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year @-@ round , and are capable of halting most of the river 's annual <unk> .","However , high and low water cycles of the Missouri – notably the protracted early @-@ 21st @-@ century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 – are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control .","In 1945 , the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project , which would permanently increase the river 's navigation channel to a width of 300 feet ( 91 m ) and a depth of nine feet ( 2 @.","@ 7 m ) .","During work that continues to this day , the 735 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock <unk> to direct the river 's flow and <unk> out sediments , sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels , and dredging the riverbed .","However , the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth .","In 2006 , several U.S. Coast Guard boats ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely <unk> .","The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth .","In 1929 , the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the total amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons ( 13 @.","@ 6 million metric tons ) , providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel .","However , shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected – shipments of commodities including produce , manufactured items , lumber , and oil averaged only <unk> @,@ 000 tons ( <unk> @,@ 000 t ) per year from 1994 to 2006 .","By tonnage of transported material , Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic , while Kansas has 12 percent , Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent .","Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower 500 miles ( 800 km ) of the river ; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels .","= = = Traffic decline = = = \n \n <unk> of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present .","In the 1960s , the USACE predicted an increase to 12 million short tons ( 11 Mt ) per year by 2000 , but instead the opposite has happened .","The amount of goods plunged from 3 @.","@ 3 million short tons ( 3 @.","@ 0 Mt ) in 1977 to just 1 @.","@ 3 million short tons ( 1 @.","@ 2 Mt ) in 2000 .","One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products , especially wheat .","Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential .","In 2006 , barges on the Missouri hauled only 200 @,@ 000 short tons ( 180 @,@ 000 t ) of products which is equal to the amount of daily freight traffic on the Mississippi .","Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport – mainly railroads – are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri .","The failure of the USACE to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry .","Currently , efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River , because of the efficiency and <unk> of river transport to haul agricultural products , and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes .","<unk> such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are being considered .","Drought conditions lifted in 2010 , in which about <unk> @,@ 000 short tons ( <unk> @,@ 000 t ) were <unk> on the Missouri , representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000 .","However , flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic – \" wash [ ing ] away hopes for a bounce @-@ back year . \"","There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River , but there are plenty of wing dams that <unk> out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate .","In contrast , the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61 @.","@ 3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011 , and its locks are closed in the winter .","= = Ecology = = \n \n \n = = = Natural history = = = \n \n Historically , the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species .","Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold , subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate , moist climate of Missouri .","Today , the river 's riparian zone consists primarily of <unk> , willows and <unk> , with several other types of trees such as maple and ash .","Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance , as land adjacent to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods .","Because of its large sediment concentrations , the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates .","However , the basin does support about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish , some of which are endangered such as the <unk> <unk> .","The Missouri 's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals , such as <unk> , river otters , <unk> , <unk> , and raccoons .","The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater <unk> : the Upper Missouri , Lower Missouri and Central Prairie .","The Upper Missouri , roughly encompassing the area within Montana , Wyoming , southern Alberta and Saskatchewan , and North Dakota , comprises mainly <unk> shrub @-@ steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age <unk> .","There are no known endemic species within the region .","Except for the headwaters in the Rockies , there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed .","The Middle Missouri ecoregion , extending through Colorado , southwestern Minnesota , northern Kansas , Nebraska , and parts of Wyoming and Iowa , has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands .","Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri , which is also home to about twice as many animal species .","Finally , the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri , encompassing all or parts of Missouri , Kansas , Oklahoma and Arkansas .","Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations , this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three .","Thirteen species of <unk> are endemic to the lower Missouri .","= = = Human impacts = = = \n \n Since the beginning of river commerce and industrial development in the 1800s , the Missouri has been severely polluted and its water quality degraded by human activity .","Most of the river 's floodplain habitat is long gone , replaced by irrigated agricultural land .","Development of the floodplain has led to increasing amounts of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation .","<unk> have been constructed along more than a third of the river in order to keep <unk> within the channel , but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas .","<unk> runoff , which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients , is a major problem along the Missouri River , especially in Iowa and Missouri .","This form of pollution also heavily affects the upper Mississippi , Illinois and Ohio Rivers .","Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi .","<unk> of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower , deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna .","Numerous dams and bank stabilization projects have been constructed to facilitate the conversion of 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land .","Channel control has significantly reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish , birds and amphibians .","By the early 21st century , declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S.","Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for <unk> endangered bird and fish species .","The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century .","Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE , it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees , <unk> , and wing dams that <unk> the river 's flow , thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks .","By 2001 , there were 87 @,@ 000 acres ( 350 km2 ) of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration .","Restoration projects have re @-@ mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures , prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico .","A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River , evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment .","The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River , including the creation of a \" sediment budget \" – an accounting of sediment transport , erosion , and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River – would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species .","= = Tourism and recreation = = \n \n With over 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) of open water , the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin .","<unk> has increased from 10 million visitor @-@ hours in the mid @-@ 1960s to over 60 million visitor @-@ hours in 1990 .","Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965 , which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps , campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs .","Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $ 85 – 100 million to the regional economy each year .","The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail , some 3 @,@ 700 miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) long , follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source , <unk> the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition .","<unk> from Wood River , Illinois , in the east , to Astoria , Oregon , in the west , it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers .","The trail , which spans through eleven U.S. states , is maintained by various federal and state government agencies ; it passes through some 100 historic sites , notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian <unk> National Historic Site .","Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or <unk> use .","The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point <unk> that total 98 miles ( 158 km ) .","These reaches exhibit islands , meanders , <unk> , underwater rocks , <unk> , <unk> , and other once @-@ common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling .","About forty @-@ five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river .","<unk> from Great Falls , Montana , about 149 miles ( 240 km ) of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks .","This part of the river , designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976 , flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument , a 375 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 520 km2 ) preserve comprising steep cliffs , deep <unk> , arid plains , badlands , archaeological sites , and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself .","The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life ; recreational activities include boating , rafting , hiking and wildlife observation .","In north @-@ central Montana , some 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) along over 125 miles ( 201 km ) of the Missouri River , centering on Fort Peck Lake , comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge .","The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development , except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam .","Although there are few designated trails , the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping .","Many U.S. national parks , such as Glacier National Park , Rocky Mountain National Park , Yellowstone National Park and <unk> National Park are in the watershed .","Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use – notably the Niobrara National Scenic River , which is a 76 @-@ mile ( 122 km ) protected stretch of the Niobrara River , one of the Missouri 's longest tributaries .","The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks , which include Three Forks of the Missouri , Fort Benton , Montana , Big Hidatsa Village Site , Fort Atkinson , Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District ."],"string":"[\n \" = Missouri River = \\n \\n The Missouri River is the longest river in North America .\",\n \"Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri .\",\n \"The river takes drainage from a sparsely populated , semi @-@ arid watershed of more than half a million square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) , which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces .\",\n \"When combined with the lower Mississippi River , it forms the world 's fourth longest river system .\",\n \"For over 12 @,@ 000 years , people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation .\",\n \"More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed , most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous buffalo herds that once roamed through the Great Plains .\",\n \"The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century , and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase .\",\n \"The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river 's entire length , they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend .\",\n \"The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century .\",\n \"The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the <unk> as trappers explored the region and blazed trails .\",\n \"Pioneers headed west en <unk> beginning in the 1830s , first by covered wagon , then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river .\",\n \"Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers , leading to some of the most longstanding and violent wars against indigenous peoples in American history .\",\n \"During the 20th century , the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation , flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power .\",\n \"Fifteen dams <unk> the main stem of the river , with hundreds more on tributaries .\",\n \"<unk> have been cut and the river <unk> to improve navigation , reducing its length by almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) from pre @-@ development times .\",\n \"Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region , heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality .\",\n \"= = Course = = \\n \\n From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming , three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River .\",\n \"The longest begins near Brower 's Spring , 9 @,@ 100 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level , on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains .\",\n \"<unk> west then north , it runs first in Hell <unk> Creek , then west into the Red Rock ; swings northeast to become the <unk> , it finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson .\",\n \"The <unk> River originates at Madison Lake in Wyoming 's Yellowstone National Park and joins with the <unk> to form the Madison , while the Gallatin River rises out of Gallatin Lake , also in the national park .\",\n \"These two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana .\",\n \"The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri <unk> State Park near Three Forks , Montana , and is joined by the Gallatin a mile ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 6 km ) downstream .\",\n \"The Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake , a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains .\",\n \"<unk> from the mountains near Cascade , the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls , where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri , a series of five substantial waterfalls .\",\n \"It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks , receiving the <unk> River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the <unk> River .\",\n \"Farther on , the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam , and immediately downstream , the Milk River joins from the north .\",\n \"<unk> eastwards through the plains of eastern Montana , the Missouri receives the <unk> River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River , its greatest tributary by volume , joins from the southwest .\",\n \"At the confluence , the Yellowstone is actually the larger river .\",\n \"The Missouri then meanders east past <unk> and into Lake <unk> , the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam .\",\n \"Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck , the capital of North Dakota , where the Heart River joins from the west .\",\n \"It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the <unk> River confluence .\",\n \"While it continues south , eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota , the Grand , Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west .\",\n \"The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains , receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest .\",\n \"It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska , then after being joined by the James River from the north , forms the Iowa – Nebraska boundary .\",\n \"At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north .\",\n \"The Missouri flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary , the Platte River , from the west .\",\n \"<unk> , it begins to define the Nebraska – Missouri border , then flows between Missouri and Kansas .\",\n \"The Missouri swings east at Kansas City , where the Kansas River enters from the west , and so on into north @-@ central Missouri .\",\n \"To the east of the Kansas City , Missouri receives , on the left side , the Grand River .\",\n \"It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and <unk> Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City .\",\n \"The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois .\",\n \"= = Watershed = = \\n \\n With a drainage basin spanning 529 @,@ 350 square miles ( 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 km2 ) , the Missouri River 's catchment encompasses nearly one @-@ sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America .\",\n \"<unk> to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec , the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains , stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed .\",\n \"Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence , the Missouri is twice as long and drains an area three times as large .\",\n \"The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis , and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts .\",\n \"In 1990 , the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people .\",\n \"This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska , parts of the U.S. states of Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wyoming , and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan .\",\n \"The watershed 's largest city is Denver , Colorado , with a population of more than six hundred thousand .\",\n \"Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005 , making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin .\",\n \"Other major population centers – mostly located in the southeastern portion of the watershed – include Omaha , Nebraska , situated north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers ; Kansas City , Missouri – Kansas City , Kansas , located at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River ; and the St. Louis metropolitan area , situated south of the Missouri River just below the latter 's mouth , on the Mississippi .\",\n \"In contrast , the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated .\",\n \"However , many northwestern cities , such as <unk> , Montana , are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin .\",\n \"With more than 170 @,@ 000 square miles ( 440 @,@ 000 km2 ) under the <unk> , the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one @-@ fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States , providing more than a third of the country 's wheat , flax , barley and oats .\",\n \"However , only 11 @,@ 000 square miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km2 ) of farmland in the basin is irrigated .\",\n \"A further 281 @,@ 000 square miles ( 730 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock , mainly cattle .\",\n \"Forested areas of the watershed , mostly second @-@ growth , total about 43 @,@ 700 square miles ( 113 @,@ 000 km2 ) .\",\n \"Urban areas , on the other hand , comprise less than 13 @,@ 000 square miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .\",\n \"Most built @-@ up areas are located along the main stem and a few major tributaries , including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers .\",\n \"<unk> in the watershed vary widely , ranging from just over 400 feet ( 120 m ) at the Missouri 's mouth to the 14 @,@ 293 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 357 m ) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado .\",\n \"The river itself drops a total of 8 @,@ <unk> feet ( 2 @,@ <unk> m ) from Brower 's Spring , the farthest source .\",\n \"Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief , the land rises about 10 feet per mile ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 9 m / km ) from east to west .\",\n \"The elevation is less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) at the eastern border of the watershed , but is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies .\",\n \"The Missouri 's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns , Overall , the watershed is defined by a Continental climate with warm , wet summers and harsh , cold winters .\",\n \"Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches ( 200 to 250 mm ) of precipitation each year .\",\n \"However , the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) .\",\n \"The vast majority of precipitation occurs in winter , although the upper basin is known for short @-@ lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City , South Dakota .\",\n \"Winter temperatures in Montana , Wyoming and Colorado may drop as low as − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) , while summer highs in Kansas and Missouri have reached 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) at times .\",\n \"As one of the continent 's most significant river systems , the Missouri 's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada .\",\n \"The Continental Divide , running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains , forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed .\",\n \"The Clark Fork and Snake River , both part of the Columbia River basin , drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana , Idaho and western Wyoming .\",\n \"The Columbia , Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming 's Wind River Range .\",\n \"South of there , the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River , a tributary of the Colorado , then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado .\",\n \"Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean .\",\n \"However , a large <unk> drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming .\",\n \"This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed , even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide .\",\n \"To the north , the much lower <unk> Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River , a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River , as well as the <unk> , <unk> , and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North .\",\n \"All of these streams are part of Canada 's Nelson River drainage basin , which empties into Hudson Bay .\",\n \"There are also several large <unk> basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan .\",\n \"The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers , tributaries of the upper Mississippi , drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin .\",\n \"Finally , on the south , the <unk> Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri , Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River , also tributaries of the Mississippi River .\",\n \"= = = Major tributaries = = = \\n \\n Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River , with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth .\",\n \"Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east , following the incline of the Great Plains ; however , some eastern tributaries such as the James , Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south .\",\n \"The Missouri 's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming , the Platte in Wyoming , Colorado , and Nebraska , and the Kansas – Republican / <unk> Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri .\",\n \"Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) , and has an average discharge greater than 5 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 140 m3 / s ) .\",\n \"The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge , even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area .\",\n \"In fact , the Yellowstone 's flow is about 13 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 390 m3 / s ) – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte .\",\n \"On the other end of the scale is the tiny <unk> River in Montana , which at 201 feet ( 61 m ) long is one the world 's shortest rivers .\",\n \"The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri , along with their respective catchment areas and flows .\",\n \"Length is measured to the <unk> source , regardless of naming convention .\",\n \"The main stem of the Kansas River , for example , is 148 miles ( 238 km ) long .\",\n \"However , including the longest headwaters tributaries , the 453 @-@ mile ( 729 km ) Republican River and the 156 @-@ mile ( 251 km ) Arikaree River , brings the total length to <unk> miles ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) .\",\n \"Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River , whose longest tributary , the North Platte River , is more than twice as long as its mainstream .\",\n \"The Missouri 's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem .\",\n \"<unk> to the farthest source at Brower 's Spring , the Jefferson River is 298 miles ( 480 km ) long .\",\n \"Thus measured to its highest headwaters , the Missouri River stretches for 2 @,@ 639 miles ( 4 @,@ 247 km ) .\",\n \"When combined with the lower Mississippi , the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth @-@ longest river system in the world , at 3 @,@ <unk> miles ( 6 @,@ <unk> km ) .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n By discharge , the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States , after the Mississippi , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , and St. Clair .\",\n \"The latter two , however , are sometimes considered part of a <unk> between Lake Huron and Lake Erie .\",\n \"Among rivers of North America as a whole , the Missouri is thirteenth largest , after the Mississippi , Mackenzie , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , St. Clair , Fraser , Slave , and <unk> .\",\n \"As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi @-@ arid region , its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length .\",\n \"Before the construction of dams , the river flooded twice each year – once in the \\\" April Rise \\\" or \\\" Spring Fresh \\\" , with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed , and in the \\\" June Rise \\\" , caused by snowmelt and summer <unk> in the Rocky Mountains .\",\n \"The latter was far more destructive , with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years .\",\n \"The Missouri 's discharge is affected by over 17 @,@ 000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre feet ( 174 km3 ) .\",\n \"By providing flood control , the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows .\",\n \"<unk> from reservoirs significantly reduces the river 's runoff , causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre feet ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 7 km3 ) from mainstem reservoirs alone .\",\n \"The United States Geological Survey operates fifty @-@ one stream gauges along the Missouri River .\",\n \"The river 's average discharge at Bismarck , 1 @,@ 314 @.\",\n \"@ 5 miles ( 2 @,@ 115 @.\",\n \"@ 5 km ) from the mouth , is 21 @,@ 920 cu ft / s ( <unk> m3 / s ) .\",\n \"This is from a drainage area of 186 @,@ 400 sq mi ( 483 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 35 % of the total river basin .\",\n \"At Kansas City , 366 @.\",\n \"@ 1 miles ( <unk> @.\",\n \"@ 2 km ) from the mouth , the river 's average flow is 55 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 570 m3 / s ) .\",\n \"The river here drains about <unk> @,@ 100 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 254 @,@ 000 km2 ) , representing about 91 % of the entire basin .\",\n \"The <unk> gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann , Missouri – 97 @.\",\n \"@ 9 miles ( 157 @.\",\n \"@ 6 km ) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was 87 @,@ 520 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 478 m3 / s ) from 1897 to 2010 .\",\n \"About 522 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 98 @.\",\n \"@ 7 % of the watershed , lies above Hermann .\",\n \"The highest annual mean was 181 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 150 m3 / s ) in 1993 , and the lowest was 41 @,@ 690 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 181 m3 / s ) in 2006 .\",\n \"<unk> of the flow vary even further .\",\n \"The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 21 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) on July 31 , 1993 , during a historic flood .\",\n \"The lowest , a mere <unk> cu ft / s ( 17 @.\",\n \"@ 0 m3 / s ) – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23 , 1963 .\",\n \"= = Upper and Lower Missouri River = = \\n \\n The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam the last hydroelectric dam of 15 on the river and it 's just upstream from Sioux City , Iowa .\",\n \"The lower Missouri River is the 840 river miles until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis .\",\n \"The Lower Missouri River has no <unk> or Lock and dams but it has a <unk> of Wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200 foot wide , 12 foot deep channel .\",\n \"These wing dams have been put in place and maintained by the U.S. Army corps of engineers , and there currently are no plans to construct any Lock and dams to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River .\",\n \"See also : - List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River , List of locks and dams of the Ohio River \\n \\n = = Geology = = \\n \\n The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide <unk> , a mountain @-@ building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago ( the end of the <unk> through the early Cenozoic ) .\",\n \"This <unk> <unk> Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior <unk> , a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico , and deposited the sediments that now <unk> much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River .\",\n \"This Laramide <unk> caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains , the predecessor of the modern @-@ day Mississippi watershed .\",\n \"The Laramide <unk> is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology , as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries .\",\n \"The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains , flowing over or cutting into the <unk> Group and older mid @-@ Cenozoic <unk> rocks .\",\n \"The lowest major Cenozoic unit , the White River Formation , was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of <unk> , sandstone , limestone , and conglomerate .\",\n \"Channel <unk> and finer @-@ <unk> <unk> deposits of the <unk> Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago .\",\n \"The Miocene @-@ age <unk> and the slightly younger <unk> @-@ age <unk> Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group , and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief ; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt , and also constitute a major <unk> .\",\n \"Immediately before the <unk> Ice Age , the Missouri River was likely split into three segments : an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay , and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope .\",\n \"As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age , a pre @-@ <unk> ( or possibly the <unk> ) <unk> diverted the Missouri River <unk> towards its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope .\",\n \"In western Montana , the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear <unk> Mountains .\",\n \"<unk> are found in some spots along the river in western Montana .\",\n \"<unk> of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries , causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as <unk> Lakes Great Falls , <unk> and others .\",\n \"As the lakes rose , the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides , creating now @-@ abandoned channels and <unk> including the <unk> <unk> , 100 miles ( 160 km ) long .\",\n \"When the glaciers retreated , the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the <unk> , and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel .\",\n \"The Missouri 's nickname , the \\\" Big <unk> \\\" , was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river .\",\n \"In its pre @-@ development state , the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons ( 159 to 290 Mt ) per year .\",\n \"The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons ( 18 to 23 Mt ) in the present day .\",\n \"Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the <unk> belt ; every time the river changed course , it would <unk> tons of soil and rocks from its banks .\",\n \"However , <unk> and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course .\",\n \"<unk> along the Missouri trap roughly 36 @.\",\n \"@ 4 million short tons ( 33 @.\",\n \"@ 0 Mt ) of sediment each year .\",\n \"Despite this , the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Mississippi River Delta , formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi , constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri .\",\n \"= = First peoples = = \\n \\n Archaeological evidence , especially in Missouri , suggests that man first made his presence in the watershed of the Missouri River between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene .\",\n \"During the end of the last glacial period , a great migration of humans began , traveling via the Bering land bridge from Eurasia into and throughout the Americas .\",\n \"As they traveled slowly over centuries , the Missouri River formed one of the main migration paths .\",\n \"Most settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley , but many , including the <unk> builders , stayed along the Missouri , becoming the ancestors of the later indigenous peoples of the Great Plains .\",\n \"The Native Americans that lived along the Missouri had access to ample food , water , and shelter .\",\n \"Many migratory animals inhabited the plains at the time , providing them meat , clothing , and other everyday items ; there were also great riparian areas in the river 's floodplain that provided them with natural herbs and staple foods .\",\n \"No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre @-@ European period exist because they did not use writing .\",\n \"According to the writings of explorers , some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the <unk> , <unk> , Omaha , <unk> , <unk> , Lakota , Sioux , <unk> , Hidatsa , Mandan , <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> used the Missouri , at least to a limited extent , as a path of trade and transport .\",\n \"In addition , the river and its tributaries formed tribal boundaries .\",\n \"<unk> of the indigenous mostly centered on a semi @-@ nomadic culture ; many tribes would have different summer and winter camps .\",\n \"However , the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south .\",\n \"A large cluster of walled Mandan , Hidatsa and <unk> villages situated on <unk> and islands of the river was home to thousands , and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders .\",\n \"Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes , possibly from feral European @-@ introduced populations , natives ' way of life changed dramatically .\",\n \"The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances , and thus facilitated hunting , communications and trade .\",\n \"Once , tens of millions of American bison ( commonly called buffalo ) , one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley , roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin .\",\n \"Most Native American groups in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source , and their hides and bones served to create other household items .\",\n \"In time , the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples ' periodic controlled <unk> of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth .\",\n \"The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term great bison belt , an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide .\",\n \"However , after the arrival of Europeans in North America , both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population .\",\n \"Hunting eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred .\",\n \"Foreign diseases such as smallpox raged across the land , <unk> Native American populations .\",\n \"Left without their primary source of sustenance , many of the remaining indigenous people were amalgamated into <unk> areas and reservations .\",\n \"= = Early European explorers = = \\n \\n In May <unk> , the French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers , aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean .\",\n \"In late June , Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European <unk> of the Missouri River , which according to their journals was in full flood . \\\"\",\n \"I never saw anything more terrific , \\\" Jolliet wrote , \\\" a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the <unk> [ Missouri ] with such <unk> that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger .\",\n \"The <unk> was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself . \\\"\",\n \"They recorded <unk> or <unk> as the local name for the Missouri .\",\n \"However , the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth , nor did they linger in the area .\",\n \"In addition , they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed ; the expedition turned back about 440 miles ( 710 km ) short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi .\",\n \"In 1682 , France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River , which included the lower portion of the Missouri .\",\n \"However , the Missouri itself remained formally <unk> until Étienne de <unk> , Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River .\",\n \"It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there ; he described the blond @-@ haired <unk> in his journals , so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present @-@ day North Dakota .\",\n \"Later that year , Bourgmont published The Route To Be Taken To <unk> The Missouri River , the first known document to use the name \\\" Missouri River \\\" ; many of the names he gave to tributaries , mostly for the native tribes that lived along them , are still in use today .\",\n \"The expedition 's discoveries eventually found their way to <unk> Guillaume <unk> , who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri .\",\n \"In <unk> , Jean @-@ Baptiste Le <unk> , Sieur de <unk> requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his \\\" outstanding service to France \\\" .\",\n \"Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706 , when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty @-@ one deaths .\",\n \"However , his reputation was enhanced in 1720 when the Pawnee – who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont – massacred the Spanish <unk> expedition near present @-@ day Columbus , Nebraska on the Missouri River and temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana .\",\n \"Bourgmont established Fort Orleans , the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River , near present @-@ day Brunswick , Missouri , in 1723 .\",\n \"The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist <unk> support against the Spanish , who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri .\",\n \"In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France .\",\n \"There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America .\",\n \"Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726 .\",\n \"The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754 .\",\n \"By 1763 , France was defeated by the much greater strength of the British army and was forced to cede its Canadian possessions to the English and Louisiana to the Spanish in the Treaty of Paris , amounting to most of its colonial holdings in North America .\",\n \"Initially , the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license .\",\n \"However , this ended after news of the British Hudson 's Bay Company incursions in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D <unk> in the early <unk> .\",\n \"In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of <unk> and <unk> of the Missouri , popularly referred to as the \\\" Missouri Company \\\" , and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri .\",\n \"In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean Baptiste <unk> and Antoine Simon <unk> de la <unk> did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota .\",\n \"<unk> the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans .\",\n \"The two set out along the Missouri , and established Fort Charles about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of present @-@ day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795 .\",\n \"At the Mandan villages in North Dakota , they expelled several British traders , and while talking to the populace they <unk> the location of the Yellowstone River , which was called Roche <unk> ( \\\" Yellow Rock \\\" ) by the French .\",\n \"Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific , they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River .\",\n \"In 1795 , the young United States and Spain signed <unk> 's Treaty , which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans .\",\n \"Three years later , Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San <unk> .\",\n \"This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory .\",\n \"In 1801 , Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States .\",\n \"Fearing that the <unk> could occur again , President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $ 10 million .\",\n \"Instead , faced with a debt crisis , Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana , including the Missouri River , for $ 15 million – amounting to less than 3 <unk> per acre .\",\n \"The deal was signed in 1803 , doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory .\",\n \"In 1803 , Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean .\",\n \"By then , it had been discovered that the Columbia River system , which drains into the Pacific , had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River , and it was widely believed that a connection or short <unk> existed between the two .\",\n \"However , Spain <unk> at the takeover , citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French .\",\n \"Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri , although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it .\",\n \"Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty @-@ three people in three boats .\",\n \"Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia , they found no trace of the Northwest Passage .\",\n \"The maps made by Lewis and Clark , especially those of the Pacific Northwest region , provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants .\",\n \"They also negotiated relations with multiple Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate , ecology and geology of the region .\",\n \"Many present @-@ day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition .\",\n \"= = American frontier = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Fur trade = = = \\n \\n As early as the 18th century , fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter , the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade .\",\n \"They came from many different places – some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay , some from the Pacific Northwest ( see also : Maritime fur trade ) , and some from the <unk> United States .\",\n \"Most did not stay in the area for long , as they failed to find significant resources .\",\n \"The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two @-@ year expedition .\",\n \"Their journals described lands rich with thousands of buffalo , beaver , and river otter ; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast .\",\n \"In 1807 , explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country .\",\n \"Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers , trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes , and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary , the Bighorn , in southern Montana .\",\n \"Although the business started small , it quickly grew into a thriving trade .\",\n \"Lisa 's men started construction of Fort Raymond , which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn , in the fall of 1807 .\",\n \"The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for <unk> with the Native Americans for furs .\",\n \"This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade , which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises , namely Hudson 's Bay .\",\n \"Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota ; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska .\",\n \"In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre <unk> , among others .\",\n \"In 1828 , the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers .\",\n \"Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin .\",\n \"Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes .\",\n \"<unk> of the Hudson 's Bay Company , St. Louis Missouri Fur Company , American Fur Company , Rocky Mountain Fur Company , North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia , Colorado , Arkansas , and Saskatchewan river systems .\",\n \"During this period , the trappers , also called mountain men , blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West .\",\n \"Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships , providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start .\",\n \"As the 1830s drew to a close , the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item .\",\n \"By this time , also , the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting .\",\n \"Furthermore , frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies .\",\n \"In some regions , the industry continued well into the 1840s , but in others such as the Platte River valley , declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise .\",\n \"The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850 , with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada .\",\n \"Despite the demise of the once @-@ prosperous trade , however , its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers , farmers , ranchers , adventurers , <unk> , financially bereft , and entrepreneurs took their place .\",\n \"= = = Settlers and pioneers = = = \\n \\n The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century , particularly downstream from Kansas City , where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri .\",\n \"The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river , including the California , Mormon , Oregon , and Santa Fe trails .\",\n \"The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph , Missouri .\",\n \"Similarly , most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs , Iowa and Omaha .\",\n \"The <unk> Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869 , and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis .\",\n \"True to the then @-@ ideal of <unk> Destiny , over 500 @,@ 000 people set out from the river town of Independence , Missouri to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s .\",\n \"These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year @-@ long journey – economic crisis , and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush , for example .\",\n \"For most , the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha , Nebraska , where they would set out along the Platte River , which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastwards through the Great Plains .\",\n \"An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the <unk> canoes they used , let alone the large <unk> and <unk> that would later <unk> the Missouri in increasing numbers .\",\n \"One explorer remarked that the Platte was \\\" too thick to drink , too thin to <unk> \\\" .\",\n \"Nevertheless , the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west .\",\n \"<unk> wagons , popularly referred to as prairie <unk> , provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s .\",\n \"During the 1860s , gold strikes in Montana , Colorado , Wyoming and northern Utah attracted another wave of <unk> to the region .\",\n \"Although some freight was hauled overland , most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers , as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah , Idaho and Wyoming .\",\n \"It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana , over 80 percent were transported by boat , a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction .\",\n \"A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams , Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River , to near Denver .\",\n \"The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route , as it passed through land held by often @-@ hostile Native Americans .\",\n \"<unk> paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near <unk> , Utah during the gold rush period , which led to the large @-@ scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin .\",\n \"As settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains , they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes .\",\n \"This resulted in frequent raids , massacres and armed conflicts , leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes , which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous .\",\n \"As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans , they were soon broken , leading to huge wars .\",\n \"Over 1 @,@ 000 battles , big and small , were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations .\",\n \"Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas , Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud 's War , in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army .\",\n \"The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory .\",\n \"In 1868 , the Treaty of Fort <unk> was signed , which \\\" guaranteed \\\" the use of the Black Hills , <unk> River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention .\",\n \"The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri ; pro @-@ slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark <unk> during Bleeding Kansas , leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri .\",\n \"Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of <unk> , which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river , <unk> the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy .\",\n \"However , the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long .\",\n \"The Great Sioux War of 1876 – 77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming .\",\n \"These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort <unk> .\",\n \"When the settlers <unk> onto the lands , they were attacked by Native Americans .\",\n \"U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners , and drive out the natives from the new settlements .\",\n \"During this bloody period , both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles , resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives .\",\n \"The war eventually ended in an American victory , and the Black Hills were opened to settlement .\",\n \"Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana .\",\n \"= = Dam @-@ building era = = \\n \\n In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri , transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs .\",\n \"River development was stimulated by a variety of factors , first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin , and also by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River .\",\n \"Small , privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s , but the large flood @-@ control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s .\",\n \"Between 1890 and 1940 , five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri , a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana .\",\n \"Black Eagle Dam , built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls , was the first dam of the Missouri .\",\n \"<unk> in 1926 with a more modern structure , the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls , diverting part of the Missouri 's flow into the Black Eagle power plant .\",\n \"The largest of the five dams , Ryan Dam , was built in 1913 .\",\n \"The dam lies directly above the 87 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) Great Falls , the largest waterfall of the Missouri .\",\n \"In the same period , several private establishments – most notably the Montana Power Company – began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation .\",\n \"A small run @-@ of @-@ the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam to be built on the Missouri .\",\n \"This rock @-@ filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside .\",\n \"The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907 , but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies , causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig .\",\n \"At Great Falls , a section of the Black Eagle Dam was <unk> to save nearby factories from inundation .\",\n \"Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure , and stands to this day .\",\n \"<unk> Dam , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) downstream of Helena , was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River .\",\n \"When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company , its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains , a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as \\\" the most remarkable <unk> that we have yet seen … the tow [ er ] ing and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us . \\\"\",\n \"In 1949 , the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ( <unk> ) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area .\",\n \"By 1954 , the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam , whose powerhouse still stands underwater about 1 @.\",\n \"@ 5 miles ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 4 km ) upstream of the present @-@ day dam . \\n \\\"\",\n \"[ The Missouri 's temperament was ] uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman 's mind . \\\"\",\n \"– Sioux City Register , March 28 , 1868 \\n The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century , most notably in 1844 , 1881 , and 1926 – 1927 .\",\n \"In 1940 , as part of the Great Depression @-@ era New Deal , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana .\",\n \"Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50 @,@ 000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River .\",\n \"However , Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed , and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later .\",\n \"This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City , greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II .\",\n \"Flooding damages on the Mississippi – Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944 , opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale .\",\n \"The 1944 act authorized the Pick – Sloan Missouri Basin Program ( Pick – Sloan Plan ) , which was a composite of two widely varying proposals .\",\n \"The Pick plan , with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power , called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri .\",\n \"The Sloan plan , which stressed the development of local irrigation , included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries .\",\n \"In the early stages of Pick – Sloan development , tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at <unk> , North Dakota and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries .\",\n \"This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin , and eventually the <unk> proposed a solution : to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at <unk> – today 's Garrison Dam , thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams .\",\n \"Because of this decision , the Yellowstone is now the longest free @-@ flowing river in the contiguous United States .\",\n \"In the 1950s , construction commenced on the five mainstem dams – Garrison , Oahe , Big Bend , Fort Randall and Gavins Point – proposed under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan .\",\n \"Along with Fort Peck , which was integrated as a unit of the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the 1940s , these dams now form what is known as the Missouri River Mainstem System .\",\n \"The six dams of the Mainstem System , chiefly Fort Peck , Garrison and Oahe , are among the largest dams in the world by volume ; their sprawling reservoirs also rank within the biggest of the nation .\",\n \"Holding up to 74 @.\",\n \"@ 1 million acre feet ( 91 @.\",\n \"@ 4 km3 ) in total , the six reservoirs can store more than three years ' worth of the river 's flow as measured below Gavins Point , the <unk> dam .\",\n \"This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America .\",\n \"In addition to storing irrigation water , the system also includes an annual flood @-@ control reservation of 16 @.\",\n \"@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.\",\n \"@ 1 km3 ) .\",\n \"Mainstem power plants generate about 9 @.\",\n \"@ 3 billion <unk> annually – equal to a constant output of almost 1 @,@ 100 megawatts .\",\n \"Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries , namely the Bighorn , Platte , Kansas , and Osage Rivers , the system provides irrigation water to nearly 7 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 19 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .\",\n \"The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River , ordered downstream .\",\n \"Many of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams on the Missouri ( marked in yellow ) form very small <unk> which may or may not have been given names ; those unnamed are left blank .\",\n \"All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City ; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel .\",\n \"= = Navigation = = \\n \\n \\\" [ Missouri River shipping ] never achieved its expectations .\",\n \"Even under the very best of circumstances , it was never a huge industry . \\\"\",\n \"~ Richard <unk> , former Missouri River Basin Association executive director \\n Boat travel on the Missouri started with the wood @-@ framed canoes and bull boats of the Native Americans , which were used for thousands of years before the introduction of larger craft to the river upon colonization of the Great Plains .\",\n \"The first steamboat on the Missouri was the Independence , which started running between St. Louis and <unk> , Missouri around 1819 .\",\n \"By the 1830s , large mail and freight @-@ carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis , and many traveled even farther upstream .\",\n \"A handful , such as the Western Engineer and the Yellowstone , were able to make it up the river as far as eastern Montana .\",\n \"During the early 19th century , at the height of the fur trade , steamboats and <unk> began traveling nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana 's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth , carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas that the trappers frequented .\",\n \"This resulted in the development of the Missouri River <unk> , which specialized in carrying furs .\",\n \"Since these boats could only travel <unk> , they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis .\",\n \"Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers , emigrants and miners ; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha .\",\n \"There , most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and <unk> Platte River , which was described by pioneers as \\\" a mile wide and an inch deep \\\" and \\\" the most magnificent and useless of rivers \\\" .\",\n \"<unk> navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full @-@ time on the Missouri , with many more smaller vessels .\",\n \"Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri .\",\n \"Side @-@ <unk> steamboats were preferred over the larger <unk> used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability .\",\n \"The industry 's success , however , did not guarantee safety .\",\n \"In the early decades before the river 's flow was controlled by man , its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment , which prevented a clear view of the bottom , wrecked some 300 vessels .\",\n \"Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River , the average ship 's lifespan was short , only about four years .\",\n \"The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific <unk> marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri .\",\n \"<unk> by trains , the number of boats slowly dwindled , until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s .\",\n \"Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge , however , saw a revival in the early twentieth century .\",\n \"= = = Passage to Sioux City = = = \\n \\n Since the beginning of the 20th century , the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes , and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially <unk> channels .\",\n \"In 1912 , the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of six feet ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 8 m ) from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth , a distance of 368 miles ( 592 km ) .\",\n \"This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river 's flow into a straight , narrow channel and prevent sedimentation .\",\n \"In 1925 , the USACE began a project to widen the river 's navigation channel to 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; two years later , they began dredging a deep @-@ water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City .\",\n \"These modifications have reduced the river 's length from some 2 @,@ 540 miles ( 4 @,@ 090 km ) in the late 19th century to 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) in the present day .\",\n \"Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the mid @-@ twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation .\",\n \"The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year @-@ round , and are capable of halting most of the river 's annual <unk> .\",\n \"However , high and low water cycles of the Missouri – notably the protracted early @-@ 21st @-@ century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 – are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control .\",\n \"In 1945 , the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project , which would permanently increase the river 's navigation channel to a width of 300 feet ( 91 m ) and a depth of nine feet ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 7 m ) .\",\n \"During work that continues to this day , the 735 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock <unk> to direct the river 's flow and <unk> out sediments , sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels , and dredging the riverbed .\",\n \"However , the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth .\",\n \"In 2006 , several U.S. Coast Guard boats ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely <unk> .\",\n \"The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth .\",\n \"In 1929 , the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the total amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons ( 13 @.\",\n \"@ 6 million metric tons ) , providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel .\",\n \"However , shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected – shipments of commodities including produce , manufactured items , lumber , and oil averaged only <unk> @,@ 000 tons ( <unk> @,@ 000 t ) per year from 1994 to 2006 .\",\n \"By tonnage of transported material , Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic , while Kansas has 12 percent , Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent .\",\n \"Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower 500 miles ( 800 km ) of the river ; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels .\",\n \"= = = Traffic decline = = = \\n \\n <unk> of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present .\",\n \"In the 1960s , the USACE predicted an increase to 12 million short tons ( 11 Mt ) per year by 2000 , but instead the opposite has happened .\",\n \"The amount of goods plunged from 3 @.\",\n \"@ 3 million short tons ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 0 Mt ) in 1977 to just 1 @.\",\n \"@ 3 million short tons ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 2 Mt ) in 2000 .\",\n \"One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products , especially wheat .\",\n \"Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential .\",\n \"In 2006 , barges on the Missouri hauled only 200 @,@ 000 short tons ( 180 @,@ 000 t ) of products which is equal to the amount of daily freight traffic on the Mississippi .\",\n \"Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport – mainly railroads – are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri .\",\n \"The failure of the USACE to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry .\",\n \"Currently , efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River , because of the efficiency and <unk> of river transport to haul agricultural products , and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes .\",\n \"<unk> such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are being considered .\",\n \"Drought conditions lifted in 2010 , in which about <unk> @,@ 000 short tons ( <unk> @,@ 000 t ) were <unk> on the Missouri , representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000 .\",\n \"However , flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic – \\\" wash [ ing ] away hopes for a bounce @-@ back year . \\\"\",\n \"There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River , but there are plenty of wing dams that <unk> out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate .\",\n \"In contrast , the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61 @.\",\n \"@ 3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011 , and its locks are closed in the winter .\",\n \"= = Ecology = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Natural history = = = \\n \\n Historically , the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species .\",\n \"Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold , subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate , moist climate of Missouri .\",\n \"Today , the river 's riparian zone consists primarily of <unk> , willows and <unk> , with several other types of trees such as maple and ash .\",\n \"Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance , as land adjacent to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods .\",\n \"Because of its large sediment concentrations , the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates .\",\n \"However , the basin does support about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish , some of which are endangered such as the <unk> <unk> .\",\n \"The Missouri 's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals , such as <unk> , river otters , <unk> , <unk> , and raccoons .\",\n \"The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater <unk> : the Upper Missouri , Lower Missouri and Central Prairie .\",\n \"The Upper Missouri , roughly encompassing the area within Montana , Wyoming , southern Alberta and Saskatchewan , and North Dakota , comprises mainly <unk> shrub @-@ steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age <unk> .\",\n \"There are no known endemic species within the region .\",\n \"Except for the headwaters in the Rockies , there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed .\",\n \"The Middle Missouri ecoregion , extending through Colorado , southwestern Minnesota , northern Kansas , Nebraska , and parts of Wyoming and Iowa , has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands .\",\n \"Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri , which is also home to about twice as many animal species .\",\n \"Finally , the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri , encompassing all or parts of Missouri , Kansas , Oklahoma and Arkansas .\",\n \"Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations , this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three .\",\n \"Thirteen species of <unk> are endemic to the lower Missouri .\",\n \"= = = Human impacts = = = \\n \\n Since the beginning of river commerce and industrial development in the 1800s , the Missouri has been severely polluted and its water quality degraded by human activity .\",\n \"Most of the river 's floodplain habitat is long gone , replaced by irrigated agricultural land .\",\n \"Development of the floodplain has led to increasing amounts of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation .\",\n \"<unk> have been constructed along more than a third of the river in order to keep <unk> within the channel , but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas .\",\n \"<unk> runoff , which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients , is a major problem along the Missouri River , especially in Iowa and Missouri .\",\n \"This form of pollution also heavily affects the upper Mississippi , Illinois and Ohio Rivers .\",\n \"Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi .\",\n \"<unk> of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower , deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna .\",\n \"Numerous dams and bank stabilization projects have been constructed to facilitate the conversion of 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land .\",\n \"Channel control has significantly reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish , birds and amphibians .\",\n \"By the early 21st century , declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S.\",\n \"Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for <unk> endangered bird and fish species .\",\n \"The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century .\",\n \"Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE , it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees , <unk> , and wing dams that <unk> the river 's flow , thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks .\",\n \"By 2001 , there were 87 @,@ 000 acres ( 350 km2 ) of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration .\",\n \"Restoration projects have re @-@ mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures , prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico .\",\n \"A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River , evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment .\",\n \"The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River , including the creation of a \\\" sediment budget \\\" – an accounting of sediment transport , erosion , and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River – would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species .\",\n \"= = Tourism and recreation = = \\n \\n With over 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) of open water , the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin .\",\n \"<unk> has increased from 10 million visitor @-@ hours in the mid @-@ 1960s to over 60 million visitor @-@ hours in 1990 .\",\n \"Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965 , which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps , campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs .\",\n \"Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $ 85 – 100 million to the regional economy each year .\",\n \"The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail , some 3 @,@ 700 miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) long , follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source , <unk> the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition .\",\n \"<unk> from Wood River , Illinois , in the east , to Astoria , Oregon , in the west , it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers .\",\n \"The trail , which spans through eleven U.S. states , is maintained by various federal and state government agencies ; it passes through some 100 historic sites , notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian <unk> National Historic Site .\",\n \"Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or <unk> use .\",\n \"The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point <unk> that total 98 miles ( 158 km ) .\",\n \"These reaches exhibit islands , meanders , <unk> , underwater rocks , <unk> , <unk> , and other once @-@ common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling .\",\n \"About forty @-@ five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river .\",\n \"<unk> from Great Falls , Montana , about 149 miles ( 240 km ) of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks .\",\n \"This part of the river , designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976 , flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument , a 375 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 520 km2 ) preserve comprising steep cliffs , deep <unk> , arid plains , badlands , archaeological sites , and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself .\",\n \"The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life ; recreational activities include boating , rafting , hiking and wildlife observation .\",\n \"In north @-@ central Montana , some 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) along over 125 miles ( 201 km ) of the Missouri River , centering on Fort Peck Lake , comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge .\",\n \"The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development , except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam .\",\n \"Although there are few designated trails , the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping .\",\n \"Many U.S. national parks , such as Glacier National Park , Rocky Mountain National Park , Yellowstone National Park and <unk> National Park are in the watershed .\",\n \"Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use – notably the Niobrara National Scenic River , which is a 76 @-@ mile ( 122 km ) protected stretch of the Niobrara River , one of the Missouri 's longest tributaries .\",\n \"The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks , which include Three Forks of the Missouri , Fort Benton , Montana , Big Hidatsa Village Site , Fort Atkinson , Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the <unk> belt ; every time the river changed course , it would <unk> tons of soil and rocks from its banks .","In 1945 , the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project , which would permanently increase the river 's navigation channel to a width of 300 feet ( 91 m ) and a depth of nine feet ( 2 @.","Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance , as land adjacent to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods .","Numerous dams and bank stabilization projects have been constructed to facilitate the conversion of 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land .","Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE , it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees , <unk> , and wing dams that <unk> the river 's flow , thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks .","Restoration projects have re @-@ mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures , prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico ."],"string":"[\n \"Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the <unk> belt ; every time the river changed course , it would <unk> tons of soil and rocks from its banks .\",\n \"In 1945 , the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project , which would permanently increase the river 's navigation channel to a width of 300 feet ( 91 m ) and a depth of nine feet ( 2 @.\",\n \"Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance , as land adjacent to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods .\",\n \"Numerous dams and bank stabilization projects have been constructed to facilitate the conversion of 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land .\",\n \"Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE , it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees , <unk> , and wing dams that <unk> the river 's flow , thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks .\",\n \"Restoration projects have re @-@ mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures , prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Missouri River = \n \n The Missouri River is the longest river in North America .","Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri .","The river takes drainage from a sparsely populated , semi @-@ arid watershed of more than half a million square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) , which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces .","When combined with the lower Mississippi River , it forms the world 's fourth longest river system .","For over 12 @,@ 000 years , people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation .","More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed , most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous buffalo herds that once roamed through the Great Plains .","The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century , and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase .","The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river 's entire length , they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend .","The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century .","The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the <unk> as trappers explored the region and blazed trails .","Pioneers headed west en <unk> beginning in the 1830s , first by covered wagon , then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river .","Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers , leading to some of the most longstanding and violent wars against indigenous peoples in American history .","During the 20th century , the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation , flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power .","Fifteen dams <unk> the main stem of the river , with hundreds more on tributaries .","<unk> have been cut and the river <unk> to improve navigation , reducing its length by almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) from pre @-@ development times .","Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region , heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality .","= = Course = = \n \n From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming , three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River .","The longest begins near Brower 's Spring , 9 @,@ 100 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level , on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains .","<unk> west then north , it runs first in Hell <unk> Creek , then west into the Red Rock ; swings northeast to become the <unk> , it finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson .","The <unk> River originates at Madison Lake in Wyoming 's Yellowstone National Park and joins with the <unk> to form the Madison , while the Gallatin River rises out of Gallatin Lake , also in the national park .","These two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana .","The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri <unk> State Park near Three Forks , Montana , and is joined by the Gallatin a mile ( 1 @.","@ 6 km ) downstream .","The Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake , a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains .","<unk> from the mountains near Cascade , the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls , where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri , a series of five substantial waterfalls .","It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks , receiving the <unk> River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the <unk> River .","Farther on , the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam , and immediately downstream , the Milk River joins from the north .","<unk> eastwards through the plains of eastern Montana , the Missouri receives the <unk> River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River , its greatest tributary by volume , joins from the southwest .","At the confluence , the Yellowstone is actually the larger river .","The Missouri then meanders east past <unk> and into Lake <unk> , the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam .","Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck , the capital of North Dakota , where the Heart River joins from the west .","It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the <unk> River confluence .","While it continues south , eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota , the Grand , Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west .","The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains , receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest .","It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska , then after being joined by the James River from the north , forms the Iowa – Nebraska boundary .","At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north .","The Missouri flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary , the Platte River , from the west .","<unk> , it begins to define the Nebraska – Missouri border , then flows between Missouri and Kansas .","The Missouri swings east at Kansas City , where the Kansas River enters from the west , and so on into north @-@ central Missouri .","To the east of the Kansas City , Missouri receives , on the left side , the Grand River .","It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and <unk> Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City .","The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois .","= = Watershed = = \n \n With a drainage basin spanning 529 @,@ 350 square miles ( 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 km2 ) , the Missouri River 's catchment encompasses nearly one @-@ sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America .","<unk> to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec , the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains , stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed .","Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence , the Missouri is twice as long and drains an area three times as large .","The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis , and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts .","In 1990 , the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people .","This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska , parts of the U.S. states of Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wyoming , and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan .","The watershed 's largest city is Denver , Colorado , with a population of more than six hundred thousand .","Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005 , making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin .","Other major population centers – mostly located in the southeastern portion of the watershed – include Omaha , Nebraska , situated north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers ; Kansas City , Missouri – Kansas City , Kansas , located at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River ; and the St. Louis metropolitan area , situated south of the Missouri River just below the latter 's mouth , on the Mississippi .","In contrast , the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated .","However , many northwestern cities , such as <unk> , Montana , are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin .","With more than 170 @,@ 000 square miles ( 440 @,@ 000 km2 ) under the <unk> , the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one @-@ fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States , providing more than a third of the country 's wheat , flax , barley and oats .","However , only 11 @,@ 000 square miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km2 ) of farmland in the basin is irrigated .","A further 281 @,@ 000 square miles ( 730 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock , mainly cattle .","Forested areas of the watershed , mostly second @-@ growth , total about 43 @,@ 700 square miles ( 113 @,@ 000 km2 ) .","Urban areas , on the other hand , comprise less than 13 @,@ 000 square miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .","Most built @-@ up areas are located along the main stem and a few major tributaries , including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers .","<unk> in the watershed vary widely , ranging from just over 400 feet ( 120 m ) at the Missouri 's mouth to the 14 @,@ 293 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 357 m ) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado .","The river itself drops a total of 8 @,@ <unk> feet ( 2 @,@ <unk> m ) from Brower 's Spring , the farthest source .","Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief , the land rises about 10 feet per mile ( 1 @.","@ 9 m / km ) from east to west .","The elevation is less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) at the eastern border of the watershed , but is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies .","The Missouri 's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns , Overall , the watershed is defined by a Continental climate with warm , wet summers and harsh , cold winters .","Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches ( 200 to 250 mm ) of precipitation each year .","However , the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) .","The vast majority of precipitation occurs in winter , although the upper basin is known for short @-@ lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City , South Dakota .","Winter temperatures in Montana , Wyoming and Colorado may drop as low as − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) , while summer highs in Kansas and Missouri have reached 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) at times .","As one of the continent 's most significant river systems , the Missouri 's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada .","The Continental Divide , running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains , forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed .","The Clark Fork and Snake River , both part of the Columbia River basin , drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana , Idaho and western Wyoming .","The Columbia , Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming 's Wind River Range .","South of there , the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River , a tributary of the Colorado , then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado .","Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean .","However , a large <unk> drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming .","This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed , even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide .","To the north , the much lower <unk> Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River , a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River , as well as the <unk> , <unk> , and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North .","All of these streams are part of Canada 's Nelson River drainage basin , which empties into Hudson Bay .","There are also several large <unk> basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan .","The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers , tributaries of the upper Mississippi , drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin .","Finally , on the south , the <unk> Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri , Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River , also tributaries of the Mississippi River .","= = = Major tributaries = = = \n \n Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River , with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth .","Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east , following the incline of the Great Plains ; however , some eastern tributaries such as the James , Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south .","The Missouri 's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming , the Platte in Wyoming , Colorado , and Nebraska , and the Kansas – Republican / <unk> Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri .","Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) , and has an average discharge greater than 5 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 140 m3 / s ) .","The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge , even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area .","In fact , the Yellowstone 's flow is about 13 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 390 m3 / s ) – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte .","On the other end of the scale is the tiny <unk> River in Montana , which at 201 feet ( 61 m ) long is one the world 's shortest rivers .","The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri , along with their respective catchment areas and flows .","Length is measured to the <unk> source , regardless of naming convention .","The main stem of the Kansas River , for example , is 148 miles ( 238 km ) long .","However , including the longest headwaters tributaries , the 453 @-@ mile ( 729 km ) Republican River and the 156 @-@ mile ( 251 km ) Arikaree River , brings the total length to <unk> miles ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) .","Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River , whose longest tributary , the North Platte River , is more than twice as long as its mainstream .","The Missouri 's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem .","<unk> to the farthest source at Brower 's Spring , the Jefferson River is 298 miles ( 480 km ) long .","Thus measured to its highest headwaters , the Missouri River stretches for 2 @,@ 639 miles ( 4 @,@ 247 km ) .","When combined with the lower Mississippi , the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth @-@ longest river system in the world , at 3 @,@ <unk> miles ( 6 @,@ <unk> km ) .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n By discharge , the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States , after the Mississippi , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , and St. Clair .","The latter two , however , are sometimes considered part of a <unk> between Lake Huron and Lake Erie .","Among rivers of North America as a whole , the Missouri is thirteenth largest , after the Mississippi , Mackenzie , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , St. Clair , Fraser , Slave , and <unk> .","As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi @-@ arid region , its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length .","Before the construction of dams , the river flooded twice each year – once in the \" April Rise \" or \" Spring Fresh \" , with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed , and in the \" June Rise \" , caused by snowmelt and summer <unk> in the Rocky Mountains .","The latter was far more destructive , with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years .","The Missouri 's discharge is affected by over 17 @,@ 000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre feet ( 174 km3 ) .","By providing flood control , the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows .","<unk> from reservoirs significantly reduces the river 's runoff , causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre feet ( 3 @.","@ 7 km3 ) from mainstem reservoirs alone .","The United States Geological Survey operates fifty @-@ one stream gauges along the Missouri River .","The river 's average discharge at Bismarck , 1 @,@ 314 @.","@ 5 miles ( 2 @,@ 115 @.","@ 5 km ) from the mouth , is 21 @,@ 920 cu ft / s ( <unk> m3 / s ) .","This is from a drainage area of 186 @,@ 400 sq mi ( 483 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 35 % of the total river basin .","At Kansas City , 366 @.","@ 1 miles ( <unk> @.","@ 2 km ) from the mouth , the river 's average flow is 55 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 570 m3 / s ) .","The river here drains about <unk> @,@ 100 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 254 @,@ 000 km2 ) , representing about 91 % of the entire basin .","The <unk> gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann , Missouri – 97 @.","@ 9 miles ( 157 @.","@ 6 km ) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was 87 @,@ 520 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 478 m3 / s ) from 1897 to 2010 .","About 522 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 98 @.","@ 7 % of the watershed , lies above Hermann .","The highest annual mean was 181 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 150 m3 / s ) in 1993 , and the lowest was 41 @,@ 690 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 181 m3 / s ) in 2006 .","<unk> of the flow vary even further .","The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 21 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) on July 31 , 1993 , during a historic flood .","The lowest , a mere <unk> cu ft / s ( 17 @.","@ 0 m3 / s ) – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23 , 1963 .","= = Upper and Lower Missouri River = = \n \n The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam the last hydroelectric dam of 15 on the river and it 's just upstream from Sioux City , Iowa .","The lower Missouri River is the 840 river miles until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis .","The Lower Missouri River has no <unk> or Lock and dams but it has a <unk> of Wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200 foot wide , 12 foot deep channel .","These wing dams have been put in place and maintained by the U.S. Army corps of engineers , and there currently are no plans to construct any Lock and dams to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River .","See also : - List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River , List of locks and dams of the Ohio River \n \n = = Geology = = \n \n The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide <unk> , a mountain @-@ building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago ( the end of the <unk> through the early Cenozoic ) .","This <unk> <unk> Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior <unk> , a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico , and deposited the sediments that now <unk> much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River .","This Laramide <unk> caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains , the predecessor of the modern @-@ day Mississippi watershed .","The Laramide <unk> is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology , as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries .","The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains , flowing over or cutting into the <unk> Group and older mid @-@ Cenozoic <unk> rocks .","The lowest major Cenozoic unit , the White River Formation , was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of <unk> , sandstone , limestone , and conglomerate .","Channel <unk> and finer @-@ <unk> <unk> deposits of the <unk> Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago .","The Miocene @-@ age <unk> and the slightly younger <unk> @-@ age <unk> Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group , and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief ; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt , and also constitute a major <unk> .","Immediately before the <unk> Ice Age , the Missouri River was likely split into three segments : an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay , and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope .","As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age , a pre @-@ <unk> ( or possibly the <unk> ) <unk> diverted the Missouri River <unk> towards its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope .","In western Montana , the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear <unk> Mountains .","<unk> are found in some spots along the river in western Montana .","<unk> of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries , causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as <unk> Lakes Great Falls , <unk> and others .","As the lakes rose , the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides , creating now @-@ abandoned channels and <unk> including the <unk> <unk> , 100 miles ( 160 km ) long .","When the glaciers retreated , the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the <unk> , and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel .","The Missouri 's nickname , the \" Big <unk> \" , was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river .","In its pre @-@ development state , the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons ( 159 to 290 Mt ) per year .","The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons ( 18 to 23 Mt ) in the present day .","However , <unk> and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course .","<unk> along the Missouri trap roughly 36 @.","@ 4 million short tons ( 33 @.","@ 0 Mt ) of sediment each year .","Despite this , the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Mississippi River Delta , formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi , constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri .","= = First peoples = = \n \n Archaeological evidence , especially in Missouri , suggests that man first made his presence in the watershed of the Missouri River between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene .","During the end of the last glacial period , a great migration of humans began , traveling via the Bering land bridge from Eurasia into and throughout the Americas .","As they traveled slowly over centuries , the Missouri River formed one of the main migration paths .","Most settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley , but many , including the <unk> builders , stayed along the Missouri , becoming the ancestors of the later indigenous peoples of the Great Plains .","The Native Americans that lived along the Missouri had access to ample food , water , and shelter .","Many migratory animals inhabited the plains at the time , providing them meat , clothing , and other everyday items ; there were also great riparian areas in the river 's floodplain that provided them with natural herbs and staple foods .","No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre @-@ European period exist because they did not use writing .","According to the writings of explorers , some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the <unk> , <unk> , Omaha , <unk> , <unk> , Lakota , Sioux , <unk> , Hidatsa , Mandan , <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> .","<unk> used the Missouri , at least to a limited extent , as a path of trade and transport .","In addition , the river and its tributaries formed tribal boundaries .","<unk> of the indigenous mostly centered on a semi @-@ nomadic culture ; many tribes would have different summer and winter camps .","However , the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south .","A large cluster of walled Mandan , Hidatsa and <unk> villages situated on <unk> and islands of the river was home to thousands , and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders .","Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes , possibly from feral European @-@ introduced populations , natives ' way of life changed dramatically .","The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances , and thus facilitated hunting , communications and trade .","Once , tens of millions of American bison ( commonly called buffalo ) , one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley , roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin .","Most Native American groups in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source , and their hides and bones served to create other household items .","In time , the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples ' periodic controlled <unk> of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth .","The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term great bison belt , an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide .","However , after the arrival of Europeans in North America , both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population .","Hunting eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred .","Foreign diseases such as smallpox raged across the land , <unk> Native American populations .","Left without their primary source of sustenance , many of the remaining indigenous people were amalgamated into <unk> areas and reservations .","= = Early European explorers = = \n \n In May <unk> , the French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers , aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean .","In late June , Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European <unk> of the Missouri River , which according to their journals was in full flood . \"","I never saw anything more terrific , \" Jolliet wrote , \" a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the <unk> [ Missouri ] with such <unk> that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger .","The <unk> was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself . \"","They recorded <unk> or <unk> as the local name for the Missouri .","However , the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth , nor did they linger in the area .","In addition , they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed ; the expedition turned back about 440 miles ( 710 km ) short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi .","In 1682 , France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River , which included the lower portion of the Missouri .","However , the Missouri itself remained formally <unk> until Étienne de <unk> , Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River .","It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there ; he described the blond @-@ haired <unk> in his journals , so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present @-@ day North Dakota .","Later that year , Bourgmont published The Route To Be Taken To <unk> The Missouri River , the first known document to use the name \" Missouri River \" ; many of the names he gave to tributaries , mostly for the native tribes that lived along them , are still in use today .","The expedition 's discoveries eventually found their way to <unk> Guillaume <unk> , who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri .","In <unk> , Jean @-@ Baptiste Le <unk> , Sieur de <unk> requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his \" outstanding service to France \" .","Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706 , when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty @-@ one deaths .","However , his reputation was enhanced in 1720 when the Pawnee – who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont – massacred the Spanish <unk> expedition near present @-@ day Columbus , Nebraska on the Missouri River and temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana .","Bourgmont established Fort Orleans , the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River , near present @-@ day Brunswick , Missouri , in 1723 .","The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist <unk> support against the Spanish , who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri .","In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France .","There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America .","Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726 .","The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754 .","By 1763 , France was defeated by the much greater strength of the British army and was forced to cede its Canadian possessions to the English and Louisiana to the Spanish in the Treaty of Paris , amounting to most of its colonial holdings in North America .","Initially , the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license .","However , this ended after news of the British Hudson 's Bay Company incursions in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D <unk> in the early <unk> .","In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of <unk> and <unk> of the Missouri , popularly referred to as the \" Missouri Company \" , and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri .","In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean Baptiste <unk> and Antoine Simon <unk> de la <unk> did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota .","<unk> the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans .","The two set out along the Missouri , and established Fort Charles about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of present @-@ day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795 .","At the Mandan villages in North Dakota , they expelled several British traders , and while talking to the populace they <unk> the location of the Yellowstone River , which was called Roche <unk> ( \" Yellow Rock \" ) by the French .","Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific , they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River .","In 1795 , the young United States and Spain signed <unk> 's Treaty , which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans .","Three years later , Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San <unk> .","This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory .","In 1801 , Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States .","Fearing that the <unk> could occur again , President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $ 10 million .","Instead , faced with a debt crisis , Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana , including the Missouri River , for $ 15 million – amounting to less than 3 <unk> per acre .","The deal was signed in 1803 , doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory .","In 1803 , Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean .","By then , it had been discovered that the Columbia River system , which drains into the Pacific , had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River , and it was widely believed that a connection or short <unk> existed between the two .","However , Spain <unk> at the takeover , citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French .","Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri , although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it .","Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty @-@ three people in three boats .","Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia , they found no trace of the Northwest Passage .","The maps made by Lewis and Clark , especially those of the Pacific Northwest region , provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants .","They also negotiated relations with multiple Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate , ecology and geology of the region .","Many present @-@ day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition .","= = American frontier = = \n \n \n = = = Fur trade = = = \n \n As early as the 18th century , fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter , the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade .","They came from many different places – some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay , some from the Pacific Northwest ( see also : Maritime fur trade ) , and some from the <unk> United States .","Most did not stay in the area for long , as they failed to find significant resources .","The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two @-@ year expedition .","Their journals described lands rich with thousands of buffalo , beaver , and river otter ; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast .","In 1807 , explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country .","Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers , trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes , and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary , the Bighorn , in southern Montana .","Although the business started small , it quickly grew into a thriving trade .","Lisa 's men started construction of Fort Raymond , which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn , in the fall of 1807 .","The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for <unk> with the Native Americans for furs .","This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade , which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises , namely Hudson 's Bay .","Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota ; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska .","In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre <unk> , among others .","In 1828 , the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers .","Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin .","Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes .","<unk> of the Hudson 's Bay Company , St. Louis Missouri Fur Company , American Fur Company , Rocky Mountain Fur Company , North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia , Colorado , Arkansas , and Saskatchewan river systems .","During this period , the trappers , also called mountain men , blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West .","Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships , providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start .","As the 1830s drew to a close , the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item .","By this time , also , the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting .","Furthermore , frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies .","In some regions , the industry continued well into the 1840s , but in others such as the Platte River valley , declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise .","The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850 , with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada .","Despite the demise of the once @-@ prosperous trade , however , its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers , farmers , ranchers , adventurers , <unk> , financially bereft , and entrepreneurs took their place .","= = = Settlers and pioneers = = = \n \n The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century , particularly downstream from Kansas City , where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri .","The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river , including the California , Mormon , Oregon , and Santa Fe trails .","The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph , Missouri .","Similarly , most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs , Iowa and Omaha .","The <unk> Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869 , and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis .","True to the then @-@ ideal of <unk> Destiny , over 500 @,@ 000 people set out from the river town of Independence , Missouri to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s .","These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year @-@ long journey – economic crisis , and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush , for example .","For most , the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha , Nebraska , where they would set out along the Platte River , which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastwards through the Great Plains .","An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the <unk> canoes they used , let alone the large <unk> and <unk> that would later <unk> the Missouri in increasing numbers .","One explorer remarked that the Platte was \" too thick to drink , too thin to <unk> \" .","Nevertheless , the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west .","<unk> wagons , popularly referred to as prairie <unk> , provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s .","During the 1860s , gold strikes in Montana , Colorado , Wyoming and northern Utah attracted another wave of <unk> to the region .","Although some freight was hauled overland , most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers , as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah , Idaho and Wyoming .","It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana , over 80 percent were transported by boat , a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction .","A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams , Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River , to near Denver .","The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route , as it passed through land held by often @-@ hostile Native Americans .","<unk> paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near <unk> , Utah during the gold rush period , which led to the large @-@ scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin .","As settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains , they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes .","This resulted in frequent raids , massacres and armed conflicts , leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes , which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous .","As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans , they were soon broken , leading to huge wars .","Over 1 @,@ 000 battles , big and small , were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations .","Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas , Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud 's War , in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army .","The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory .","In 1868 , the Treaty of Fort <unk> was signed , which \" guaranteed \" the use of the Black Hills , <unk> River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention .","The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri ; pro @-@ slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark <unk> during Bleeding Kansas , leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri .","Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of <unk> , which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river , <unk> the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy .","However , the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long .","The Great Sioux War of 1876 – 77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming .","These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort <unk> .","When the settlers <unk> onto the lands , they were attacked by Native Americans .","U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners , and drive out the natives from the new settlements .","During this bloody period , both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles , resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives .","The war eventually ended in an American victory , and the Black Hills were opened to settlement .","Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana .","= = Dam @-@ building era = = \n \n In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri , transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs .","River development was stimulated by a variety of factors , first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin , and also by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River .","Small , privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s , but the large flood @-@ control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s .","Between 1890 and 1940 , five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri , a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana .","Black Eagle Dam , built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls , was the first dam of the Missouri .","<unk> in 1926 with a more modern structure , the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls , diverting part of the Missouri 's flow into the Black Eagle power plant .","The largest of the five dams , Ryan Dam , was built in 1913 .","The dam lies directly above the 87 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) Great Falls , the largest waterfall of the Missouri .","In the same period , several private establishments – most notably the Montana Power Company – began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation .","A small run @-@ of @-@ the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam to be built on the Missouri .","This rock @-@ filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside .","The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907 , but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies , causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig .","At Great Falls , a section of the Black Eagle Dam was <unk> to save nearby factories from inundation .","Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure , and stands to this day .","<unk> Dam , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) downstream of Helena , was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River .","When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company , its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains , a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as \" the most remarkable <unk> that we have yet seen … the tow [ er ] ing and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us . \"","In 1949 , the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ( <unk> ) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area .","By 1954 , the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam , whose powerhouse still stands underwater about 1 @.","@ 5 miles ( 2 @.","@ 4 km ) upstream of the present @-@ day dam . \n \"","[ The Missouri 's temperament was ] uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman 's mind . \"","– Sioux City Register , March 28 , 1868 \n The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century , most notably in 1844 , 1881 , and 1926 – 1927 .","In 1940 , as part of the Great Depression @-@ era New Deal , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana .","Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50 @,@ 000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River .","However , Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed , and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later .","This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City , greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II .","Flooding damages on the Mississippi – Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944 , opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale .","The 1944 act authorized the Pick – Sloan Missouri Basin Program ( Pick – Sloan Plan ) , which was a composite of two widely varying proposals .","The Pick plan , with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power , called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri .","The Sloan plan , which stressed the development of local irrigation , included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries .","In the early stages of Pick – Sloan development , tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at <unk> , North Dakota and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries .","This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin , and eventually the <unk> proposed a solution : to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at <unk> – today 's Garrison Dam , thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams .","Because of this decision , the Yellowstone is now the longest free @-@ flowing river in the contiguous United States .","In the 1950s , construction commenced on the five mainstem dams – Garrison , Oahe , Big Bend , Fort Randall and Gavins Point – proposed under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan .","Along with Fort Peck , which was integrated as a unit of the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the 1940s , these dams now form what is known as the Missouri River Mainstem System .","The six dams of the Mainstem System , chiefly Fort Peck , Garrison and Oahe , are among the largest dams in the world by volume ; their sprawling reservoirs also rank within the biggest of the nation .","Holding up to 74 @.","@ 1 million acre feet ( 91 @.","@ 4 km3 ) in total , the six reservoirs can store more than three years ' worth of the river 's flow as measured below Gavins Point , the <unk> dam .","This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America .","In addition to storing irrigation water , the system also includes an annual flood @-@ control reservation of 16 @.","@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.","@ 1 km3 ) .","Mainstem power plants generate about 9 @.","@ 3 billion <unk> annually – equal to a constant output of almost 1 @,@ 100 megawatts .","Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries , namely the Bighorn , Platte , Kansas , and Osage Rivers , the system provides irrigation water to nearly 7 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 19 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .","The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River , ordered downstream .","Many of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams on the Missouri ( marked in yellow ) form very small <unk> which may or may not have been given names ; those unnamed are left blank .","All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City ; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel .","= = Navigation = = \n \n \" [ Missouri River shipping ] never achieved its expectations .","Even under the very best of circumstances , it was never a huge industry . \"","~ Richard <unk> , former Missouri River Basin Association executive director \n Boat travel on the Missouri started with the wood @-@ framed canoes and bull boats of the Native Americans , which were used for thousands of years before the introduction of larger craft to the river upon colonization of the Great Plains .","The first steamboat on the Missouri was the Independence , which started running between St. Louis and <unk> , Missouri around 1819 .","By the 1830s , large mail and freight @-@ carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis , and many traveled even farther upstream .","A handful , such as the Western Engineer and the Yellowstone , were able to make it up the river as far as eastern Montana .","During the early 19th century , at the height of the fur trade , steamboats and <unk> began traveling nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana 's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth , carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas that the trappers frequented .","This resulted in the development of the Missouri River <unk> , which specialized in carrying furs .","Since these boats could only travel <unk> , they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis .","Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers , emigrants and miners ; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha .","There , most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and <unk> Platte River , which was described by pioneers as \" a mile wide and an inch deep \" and \" the most magnificent and useless of rivers \" .","<unk> navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full @-@ time on the Missouri , with many more smaller vessels .","Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri .","Side @-@ <unk> steamboats were preferred over the larger <unk> used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability .","The industry 's success , however , did not guarantee safety .","In the early decades before the river 's flow was controlled by man , its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment , which prevented a clear view of the bottom , wrecked some 300 vessels .","Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River , the average ship 's lifespan was short , only about four years .","The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific <unk> marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri .","<unk> by trains , the number of boats slowly dwindled , until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s .","Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge , however , saw a revival in the early twentieth century .","= = = Passage to Sioux City = = = \n \n Since the beginning of the 20th century , the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes , and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially <unk> channels .","In 1912 , the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of six feet ( 1 @.","@ 8 m ) from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth , a distance of 368 miles ( 592 km ) .","This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river 's flow into a straight , narrow channel and prevent sedimentation .","In 1925 , the USACE began a project to widen the river 's navigation channel to 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; two years later , they began dredging a deep @-@ water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City .","These modifications have reduced the river 's length from some 2 @,@ 540 miles ( 4 @,@ 090 km ) in the late 19th century to 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) in the present day .","Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the mid @-@ twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation .","The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year @-@ round , and are capable of halting most of the river 's annual <unk> .","However , high and low water cycles of the Missouri – notably the protracted early @-@ 21st @-@ century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 – are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control .","@ 7 m ) .","During work that continues to this day , the 735 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock <unk> to direct the river 's flow and <unk> out sediments , sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels , and dredging the riverbed .","However , the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth .","In 2006 , several U.S. Coast Guard boats ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely <unk> .","The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth .","In 1929 , the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the total amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons ( 13 @.","@ 6 million metric tons ) , providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel .","However , shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected – shipments of commodities including produce , manufactured items , lumber , and oil averaged only <unk> @,@ 000 tons ( <unk> @,@ 000 t ) per year from 1994 to 2006 .","By tonnage of transported material , Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic , while Kansas has 12 percent , Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent .","Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower 500 miles ( 800 km ) of the river ; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels .","= = = Traffic decline = = = \n \n <unk> of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present .","In the 1960s , the USACE predicted an increase to 12 million short tons ( 11 Mt ) per year by 2000 , but instead the opposite has happened .","The amount of goods plunged from 3 @.","@ 3 million short tons ( 3 @.","@ 0 Mt ) in 1977 to just 1 @.","@ 3 million short tons ( 1 @.","@ 2 Mt ) in 2000 .","One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products , especially wheat .","Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential .","In 2006 , barges on the Missouri hauled only 200 @,@ 000 short tons ( 180 @,@ 000 t ) of products which is equal to the amount of daily freight traffic on the Mississippi .","Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport – mainly railroads – are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri .","The failure of the USACE to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry .","Currently , efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River , because of the efficiency and <unk> of river transport to haul agricultural products , and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes .","<unk> such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are being considered .","Drought conditions lifted in 2010 , in which about <unk> @,@ 000 short tons ( <unk> @,@ 000 t ) were <unk> on the Missouri , representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000 .","However , flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic – \" wash [ ing ] away hopes for a bounce @-@ back year . \"","There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River , but there are plenty of wing dams that <unk> out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate .","In contrast , the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61 @.","@ 3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011 , and its locks are closed in the winter .","= = Ecology = = \n \n \n = = = Natural history = = = \n \n Historically , the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species .","Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold , subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate , moist climate of Missouri .","Today , the river 's riparian zone consists primarily of <unk> , willows and <unk> , with several other types of trees such as maple and ash .","Because of its large sediment concentrations , the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates .","However , the basin does support about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish , some of which are endangered such as the <unk> <unk> .","The Missouri 's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals , such as <unk> , river otters , <unk> , <unk> , and raccoons .","The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater <unk> : the Upper Missouri , Lower Missouri and Central Prairie .","The Upper Missouri , roughly encompassing the area within Montana , Wyoming , southern Alberta and Saskatchewan , and North Dakota , comprises mainly <unk> shrub @-@ steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age <unk> .","There are no known endemic species within the region .","Except for the headwaters in the Rockies , there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed .","The Middle Missouri ecoregion , extending through Colorado , southwestern Minnesota , northern Kansas , Nebraska , and parts of Wyoming and Iowa , has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands .","Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri , which is also home to about twice as many animal species .","Finally , the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri , encompassing all or parts of Missouri , Kansas , Oklahoma and Arkansas .","Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations , this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three .","Thirteen species of <unk> are endemic to the lower Missouri .","= = = Human impacts = = = \n \n Since the beginning of river commerce and industrial development in the 1800s , the Missouri has been severely polluted and its water quality degraded by human activity .","Most of the river 's floodplain habitat is long gone , replaced by irrigated agricultural land .","Development of the floodplain has led to increasing amounts of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation .","<unk> have been constructed along more than a third of the river in order to keep <unk> within the channel , but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas .","<unk> runoff , which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients , is a major problem along the Missouri River , especially in Iowa and Missouri .","This form of pollution also heavily affects the upper Mississippi , Illinois and Ohio Rivers .","Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi .","<unk> of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower , deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna .","Channel control has significantly reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish , birds and amphibians .","By the early 21st century , declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S.","Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for <unk> endangered bird and fish species .","The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century .","By 2001 , there were 87 @,@ 000 acres ( 350 km2 ) of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration .","A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River , evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment .","The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River , including the creation of a \" sediment budget \" – an accounting of sediment transport , erosion , and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River – would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species .","= = Tourism and recreation = = \n \n With over 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) of open water , the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin .","<unk> has increased from 10 million visitor @-@ hours in the mid @-@ 1960s to over 60 million visitor @-@ hours in 1990 .","Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965 , which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps , campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs .","Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $ 85 – 100 million to the regional economy each year .","The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail , some 3 @,@ 700 miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) long , follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source , <unk> the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition .","<unk> from Wood River , Illinois , in the east , to Astoria , Oregon , in the west , it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers .","The trail , which spans through eleven U.S. states , is maintained by various federal and state government agencies ; it passes through some 100 historic sites , notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian <unk> National Historic Site .","Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or <unk> use .","The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point <unk> that total 98 miles ( 158 km ) .","These reaches exhibit islands , meanders , <unk> , underwater rocks , <unk> , <unk> , and other once @-@ common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling .","About forty @-@ five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river .","<unk> from Great Falls , Montana , about 149 miles ( 240 km ) of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks .","This part of the river , designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976 , flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument , a 375 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 520 km2 ) preserve comprising steep cliffs , deep <unk> , arid plains , badlands , archaeological sites , and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself .","The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life ; recreational activities include boating , rafting , hiking and wildlife observation .","In north @-@ central Montana , some 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) along over 125 miles ( 201 km ) of the Missouri River , centering on Fort Peck Lake , comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge .","The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development , except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam .","Although there are few designated trails , the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping .","Many U.S. national parks , such as Glacier National Park , Rocky Mountain National Park , Yellowstone National Park and <unk> National Park are in the watershed .","Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use – notably the Niobrara National Scenic River , which is a 76 @-@ mile ( 122 km ) protected stretch of the Niobrara River , one of the Missouri 's longest tributaries .","The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks , which include Three Forks of the Missouri , Fort Benton , Montana , Big Hidatsa Village Site , Fort Atkinson , Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District ."],"string":"[\n \" = Missouri River = \\n \\n The Missouri River is the longest river in North America .\",\n \"Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri .\",\n \"The river takes drainage from a sparsely populated , semi @-@ arid watershed of more than half a million square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) , which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces .\",\n \"When combined with the lower Mississippi River , it forms the world 's fourth longest river system .\",\n \"For over 12 @,@ 000 years , people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation .\",\n \"More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed , most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous buffalo herds that once roamed through the Great Plains .\",\n \"The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century , and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase .\",\n \"The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river 's entire length , they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend .\",\n \"The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century .\",\n \"The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the <unk> as trappers explored the region and blazed trails .\",\n \"Pioneers headed west en <unk> beginning in the 1830s , first by covered wagon , then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river .\",\n \"Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers , leading to some of the most longstanding and violent wars against indigenous peoples in American history .\",\n \"During the 20th century , the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation , flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power .\",\n \"Fifteen dams <unk> the main stem of the river , with hundreds more on tributaries .\",\n \"<unk> have been cut and the river <unk> to improve navigation , reducing its length by almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) from pre @-@ development times .\",\n \"Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region , heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality .\",\n \"= = Course = = \\n \\n From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming , three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River .\",\n \"The longest begins near Brower 's Spring , 9 @,@ 100 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level , on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains .\",\n \"<unk> west then north , it runs first in Hell <unk> Creek , then west into the Red Rock ; swings northeast to become the <unk> , it finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson .\",\n \"The <unk> River originates at Madison Lake in Wyoming 's Yellowstone National Park and joins with the <unk> to form the Madison , while the Gallatin River rises out of Gallatin Lake , also in the national park .\",\n \"These two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana .\",\n \"The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri <unk> State Park near Three Forks , Montana , and is joined by the Gallatin a mile ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 6 km ) downstream .\",\n \"The Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake , a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains .\",\n \"<unk> from the mountains near Cascade , the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls , where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri , a series of five substantial waterfalls .\",\n \"It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks , receiving the <unk> River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the <unk> River .\",\n \"Farther on , the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam , and immediately downstream , the Milk River joins from the north .\",\n \"<unk> eastwards through the plains of eastern Montana , the Missouri receives the <unk> River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River , its greatest tributary by volume , joins from the southwest .\",\n \"At the confluence , the Yellowstone is actually the larger river .\",\n \"The Missouri then meanders east past <unk> and into Lake <unk> , the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam .\",\n \"Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck , the capital of North Dakota , where the Heart River joins from the west .\",\n \"It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the <unk> River confluence .\",\n \"While it continues south , eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota , the Grand , Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west .\",\n \"The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains , receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest .\",\n \"It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska , then after being joined by the James River from the north , forms the Iowa – Nebraska boundary .\",\n \"At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north .\",\n \"The Missouri flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary , the Platte River , from the west .\",\n \"<unk> , it begins to define the Nebraska – Missouri border , then flows between Missouri and Kansas .\",\n \"The Missouri swings east at Kansas City , where the Kansas River enters from the west , and so on into north @-@ central Missouri .\",\n \"To the east of the Kansas City , Missouri receives , on the left side , the Grand River .\",\n \"It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and <unk> Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City .\",\n \"The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois .\",\n \"= = Watershed = = \\n \\n With a drainage basin spanning 529 @,@ 350 square miles ( 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 km2 ) , the Missouri River 's catchment encompasses nearly one @-@ sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America .\",\n \"<unk> to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec , the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains , stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed .\",\n \"Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence , the Missouri is twice as long and drains an area three times as large .\",\n \"The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis , and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts .\",\n \"In 1990 , the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people .\",\n \"This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska , parts of the U.S. states of Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wyoming , and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan .\",\n \"The watershed 's largest city is Denver , Colorado , with a population of more than six hundred thousand .\",\n \"Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005 , making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin .\",\n \"Other major population centers – mostly located in the southeastern portion of the watershed – include Omaha , Nebraska , situated north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers ; Kansas City , Missouri – Kansas City , Kansas , located at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River ; and the St. Louis metropolitan area , situated south of the Missouri River just below the latter 's mouth , on the Mississippi .\",\n \"In contrast , the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated .\",\n \"However , many northwestern cities , such as <unk> , Montana , are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin .\",\n \"With more than 170 @,@ 000 square miles ( 440 @,@ 000 km2 ) under the <unk> , the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one @-@ fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States , providing more than a third of the country 's wheat , flax , barley and oats .\",\n \"However , only 11 @,@ 000 square miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km2 ) of farmland in the basin is irrigated .\",\n \"A further 281 @,@ 000 square miles ( 730 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock , mainly cattle .\",\n \"Forested areas of the watershed , mostly second @-@ growth , total about 43 @,@ 700 square miles ( 113 @,@ 000 km2 ) .\",\n \"Urban areas , on the other hand , comprise less than 13 @,@ 000 square miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .\",\n \"Most built @-@ up areas are located along the main stem and a few major tributaries , including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers .\",\n \"<unk> in the watershed vary widely , ranging from just over 400 feet ( 120 m ) at the Missouri 's mouth to the 14 @,@ 293 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 357 m ) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado .\",\n \"The river itself drops a total of 8 @,@ <unk> feet ( 2 @,@ <unk> m ) from Brower 's Spring , the farthest source .\",\n \"Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief , the land rises about 10 feet per mile ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 9 m / km ) from east to west .\",\n \"The elevation is less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) at the eastern border of the watershed , but is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies .\",\n \"The Missouri 's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns , Overall , the watershed is defined by a Continental climate with warm , wet summers and harsh , cold winters .\",\n \"Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches ( 200 to 250 mm ) of precipitation each year .\",\n \"However , the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) .\",\n \"The vast majority of precipitation occurs in winter , although the upper basin is known for short @-@ lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City , South Dakota .\",\n \"Winter temperatures in Montana , Wyoming and Colorado may drop as low as − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) , while summer highs in Kansas and Missouri have reached 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) at times .\",\n \"As one of the continent 's most significant river systems , the Missouri 's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada .\",\n \"The Continental Divide , running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains , forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed .\",\n \"The Clark Fork and Snake River , both part of the Columbia River basin , drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana , Idaho and western Wyoming .\",\n \"The Columbia , Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming 's Wind River Range .\",\n \"South of there , the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River , a tributary of the Colorado , then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado .\",\n \"Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean .\",\n \"However , a large <unk> drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming .\",\n \"This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed , even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide .\",\n \"To the north , the much lower <unk> Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River , a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River , as well as the <unk> , <unk> , and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North .\",\n \"All of these streams are part of Canada 's Nelson River drainage basin , which empties into Hudson Bay .\",\n \"There are also several large <unk> basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan .\",\n \"The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers , tributaries of the upper Mississippi , drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin .\",\n \"Finally , on the south , the <unk> Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri , Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River , also tributaries of the Mississippi River .\",\n \"= = = Major tributaries = = = \\n \\n Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River , with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth .\",\n \"Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east , following the incline of the Great Plains ; however , some eastern tributaries such as the James , Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south .\",\n \"The Missouri 's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming , the Platte in Wyoming , Colorado , and Nebraska , and the Kansas – Republican / <unk> Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri .\",\n \"Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) , and has an average discharge greater than 5 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 140 m3 / s ) .\",\n \"The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge , even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area .\",\n \"In fact , the Yellowstone 's flow is about 13 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 390 m3 / s ) – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte .\",\n \"On the other end of the scale is the tiny <unk> River in Montana , which at 201 feet ( 61 m ) long is one the world 's shortest rivers .\",\n \"The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri , along with their respective catchment areas and flows .\",\n \"Length is measured to the <unk> source , regardless of naming convention .\",\n \"The main stem of the Kansas River , for example , is 148 miles ( 238 km ) long .\",\n \"However , including the longest headwaters tributaries , the 453 @-@ mile ( 729 km ) Republican River and the 156 @-@ mile ( 251 km ) Arikaree River , brings the total length to <unk> miles ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) .\",\n \"Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River , whose longest tributary , the North Platte River , is more than twice as long as its mainstream .\",\n \"The Missouri 's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem .\",\n \"<unk> to the farthest source at Brower 's Spring , the Jefferson River is 298 miles ( 480 km ) long .\",\n \"Thus measured to its highest headwaters , the Missouri River stretches for 2 @,@ 639 miles ( 4 @,@ 247 km ) .\",\n \"When combined with the lower Mississippi , the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth @-@ longest river system in the world , at 3 @,@ <unk> miles ( 6 @,@ <unk> km ) .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n By discharge , the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States , after the Mississippi , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , and St. Clair .\",\n \"The latter two , however , are sometimes considered part of a <unk> between Lake Huron and Lake Erie .\",\n \"Among rivers of North America as a whole , the Missouri is thirteenth largest , after the Mississippi , Mackenzie , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , St. Clair , Fraser , Slave , and <unk> .\",\n \"As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi @-@ arid region , its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length .\",\n \"Before the construction of dams , the river flooded twice each year – once in the \\\" April Rise \\\" or \\\" Spring Fresh \\\" , with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed , and in the \\\" June Rise \\\" , caused by snowmelt and summer <unk> in the Rocky Mountains .\",\n \"The latter was far more destructive , with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years .\",\n \"The Missouri 's discharge is affected by over 17 @,@ 000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre feet ( 174 km3 ) .\",\n \"By providing flood control , the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows .\",\n \"<unk> from reservoirs significantly reduces the river 's runoff , causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre feet ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 7 km3 ) from mainstem reservoirs alone .\",\n \"The United States Geological Survey operates fifty @-@ one stream gauges along the Missouri River .\",\n \"The river 's average discharge at Bismarck , 1 @,@ 314 @.\",\n \"@ 5 miles ( 2 @,@ 115 @.\",\n \"@ 5 km ) from the mouth , is 21 @,@ 920 cu ft / s ( <unk> m3 / s ) .\",\n \"This is from a drainage area of 186 @,@ 400 sq mi ( 483 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 35 % of the total river basin .\",\n \"At Kansas City , 366 @.\",\n \"@ 1 miles ( <unk> @.\",\n \"@ 2 km ) from the mouth , the river 's average flow is 55 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 570 m3 / s ) .\",\n \"The river here drains about <unk> @,@ 100 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 254 @,@ 000 km2 ) , representing about 91 % of the entire basin .\",\n \"The <unk> gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann , Missouri – 97 @.\",\n \"@ 9 miles ( 157 @.\",\n \"@ 6 km ) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was 87 @,@ 520 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 478 m3 / s ) from 1897 to 2010 .\",\n \"About 522 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 98 @.\",\n \"@ 7 % of the watershed , lies above Hermann .\",\n \"The highest annual mean was 181 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 150 m3 / s ) in 1993 , and the lowest was 41 @,@ 690 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 181 m3 / s ) in 2006 .\",\n \"<unk> of the flow vary even further .\",\n \"The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 21 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) on July 31 , 1993 , during a historic flood .\",\n \"The lowest , a mere <unk> cu ft / s ( 17 @.\",\n \"@ 0 m3 / s ) – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23 , 1963 .\",\n \"= = Upper and Lower Missouri River = = \\n \\n The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam the last hydroelectric dam of 15 on the river and it 's just upstream from Sioux City , Iowa .\",\n \"The lower Missouri River is the 840 river miles until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis .\",\n \"The Lower Missouri River has no <unk> or Lock and dams but it has a <unk> of Wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200 foot wide , 12 foot deep channel .\",\n \"These wing dams have been put in place and maintained by the U.S. Army corps of engineers , and there currently are no plans to construct any Lock and dams to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River .\",\n \"See also : - List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River , List of locks and dams of the Ohio River \\n \\n = = Geology = = \\n \\n The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide <unk> , a mountain @-@ building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago ( the end of the <unk> through the early Cenozoic ) .\",\n \"This <unk> <unk> Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior <unk> , a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico , and deposited the sediments that now <unk> much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River .\",\n \"This Laramide <unk> caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains , the predecessor of the modern @-@ day Mississippi watershed .\",\n \"The Laramide <unk> is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology , as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries .\",\n \"The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains , flowing over or cutting into the <unk> Group and older mid @-@ Cenozoic <unk> rocks .\",\n \"The lowest major Cenozoic unit , the White River Formation , was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of <unk> , sandstone , limestone , and conglomerate .\",\n \"Channel <unk> and finer @-@ <unk> <unk> deposits of the <unk> Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago .\",\n \"The Miocene @-@ age <unk> and the slightly younger <unk> @-@ age <unk> Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group , and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief ; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt , and also constitute a major <unk> .\",\n \"Immediately before the <unk> Ice Age , the Missouri River was likely split into three segments : an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay , and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope .\",\n \"As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age , a pre @-@ <unk> ( or possibly the <unk> ) <unk> diverted the Missouri River <unk> towards its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope .\",\n \"In western Montana , the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear <unk> Mountains .\",\n \"<unk> are found in some spots along the river in western Montana .\",\n \"<unk> of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries , causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as <unk> Lakes Great Falls , <unk> and others .\",\n \"As the lakes rose , the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides , creating now @-@ abandoned channels and <unk> including the <unk> <unk> , 100 miles ( 160 km ) long .\",\n \"When the glaciers retreated , the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the <unk> , and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel .\",\n \"The Missouri 's nickname , the \\\" Big <unk> \\\" , was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river .\",\n \"In its pre @-@ development state , the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons ( 159 to 290 Mt ) per year .\",\n \"The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons ( 18 to 23 Mt ) in the present day .\",\n \"However , <unk> and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course .\",\n \"<unk> along the Missouri trap roughly 36 @.\",\n \"@ 4 million short tons ( 33 @.\",\n \"@ 0 Mt ) of sediment each year .\",\n \"Despite this , the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Mississippi River Delta , formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi , constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri .\",\n \"= = First peoples = = \\n \\n Archaeological evidence , especially in Missouri , suggests that man first made his presence in the watershed of the Missouri River between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene .\",\n \"During the end of the last glacial period , a great migration of humans began , traveling via the Bering land bridge from Eurasia into and throughout the Americas .\",\n \"As they traveled slowly over centuries , the Missouri River formed one of the main migration paths .\",\n \"Most settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley , but many , including the <unk> builders , stayed along the Missouri , becoming the ancestors of the later indigenous peoples of the Great Plains .\",\n \"The Native Americans that lived along the Missouri had access to ample food , water , and shelter .\",\n \"Many migratory animals inhabited the plains at the time , providing them meat , clothing , and other everyday items ; there were also great riparian areas in the river 's floodplain that provided them with natural herbs and staple foods .\",\n \"No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre @-@ European period exist because they did not use writing .\",\n \"According to the writings of explorers , some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the <unk> , <unk> , Omaha , <unk> , <unk> , Lakota , Sioux , <unk> , Hidatsa , Mandan , <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> used the Missouri , at least to a limited extent , as a path of trade and transport .\",\n \"In addition , the river and its tributaries formed tribal boundaries .\",\n \"<unk> of the indigenous mostly centered on a semi @-@ nomadic culture ; many tribes would have different summer and winter camps .\",\n \"However , the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south .\",\n \"A large cluster of walled Mandan , Hidatsa and <unk> villages situated on <unk> and islands of the river was home to thousands , and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders .\",\n \"Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes , possibly from feral European @-@ introduced populations , natives ' way of life changed dramatically .\",\n \"The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances , and thus facilitated hunting , communications and trade .\",\n \"Once , tens of millions of American bison ( commonly called buffalo ) , one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley , roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin .\",\n \"Most Native American groups in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source , and their hides and bones served to create other household items .\",\n \"In time , the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples ' periodic controlled <unk> of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth .\",\n \"The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term great bison belt , an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide .\",\n \"However , after the arrival of Europeans in North America , both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population .\",\n \"Hunting eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred .\",\n \"Foreign diseases such as smallpox raged across the land , <unk> Native American populations .\",\n \"Left without their primary source of sustenance , many of the remaining indigenous people were amalgamated into <unk> areas and reservations .\",\n \"= = Early European explorers = = \\n \\n In May <unk> , the French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers , aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean .\",\n \"In late June , Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European <unk> of the Missouri River , which according to their journals was in full flood . \\\"\",\n \"I never saw anything more terrific , \\\" Jolliet wrote , \\\" a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the <unk> [ Missouri ] with such <unk> that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger .\",\n \"The <unk> was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself . \\\"\",\n \"They recorded <unk> or <unk> as the local name for the Missouri .\",\n \"However , the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth , nor did they linger in the area .\",\n \"In addition , they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed ; the expedition turned back about 440 miles ( 710 km ) short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi .\",\n \"In 1682 , France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River , which included the lower portion of the Missouri .\",\n \"However , the Missouri itself remained formally <unk> until Étienne de <unk> , Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River .\",\n \"It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there ; he described the blond @-@ haired <unk> in his journals , so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present @-@ day North Dakota .\",\n \"Later that year , Bourgmont published The Route To Be Taken To <unk> The Missouri River , the first known document to use the name \\\" Missouri River \\\" ; many of the names he gave to tributaries , mostly for the native tribes that lived along them , are still in use today .\",\n \"The expedition 's discoveries eventually found their way to <unk> Guillaume <unk> , who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri .\",\n \"In <unk> , Jean @-@ Baptiste Le <unk> , Sieur de <unk> requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his \\\" outstanding service to France \\\" .\",\n \"Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706 , when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty @-@ one deaths .\",\n \"However , his reputation was enhanced in 1720 when the Pawnee – who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont – massacred the Spanish <unk> expedition near present @-@ day Columbus , Nebraska on the Missouri River and temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana .\",\n \"Bourgmont established Fort Orleans , the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River , near present @-@ day Brunswick , Missouri , in 1723 .\",\n \"The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist <unk> support against the Spanish , who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri .\",\n \"In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France .\",\n \"There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America .\",\n \"Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726 .\",\n \"The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754 .\",\n \"By 1763 , France was defeated by the much greater strength of the British army and was forced to cede its Canadian possessions to the English and Louisiana to the Spanish in the Treaty of Paris , amounting to most of its colonial holdings in North America .\",\n \"Initially , the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license .\",\n \"However , this ended after news of the British Hudson 's Bay Company incursions in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D <unk> in the early <unk> .\",\n \"In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of <unk> and <unk> of the Missouri , popularly referred to as the \\\" Missouri Company \\\" , and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri .\",\n \"In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean Baptiste <unk> and Antoine Simon <unk> de la <unk> did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota .\",\n \"<unk> the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans .\",\n \"The two set out along the Missouri , and established Fort Charles about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of present @-@ day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795 .\",\n \"At the Mandan villages in North Dakota , they expelled several British traders , and while talking to the populace they <unk> the location of the Yellowstone River , which was called Roche <unk> ( \\\" Yellow Rock \\\" ) by the French .\",\n \"Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific , they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River .\",\n \"In 1795 , the young United States and Spain signed <unk> 's Treaty , which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans .\",\n \"Three years later , Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San <unk> .\",\n \"This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory .\",\n \"In 1801 , Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States .\",\n \"Fearing that the <unk> could occur again , President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $ 10 million .\",\n \"Instead , faced with a debt crisis , Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana , including the Missouri River , for $ 15 million – amounting to less than 3 <unk> per acre .\",\n \"The deal was signed in 1803 , doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory .\",\n \"In 1803 , Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean .\",\n \"By then , it had been discovered that the Columbia River system , which drains into the Pacific , had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River , and it was widely believed that a connection or short <unk> existed between the two .\",\n \"However , Spain <unk> at the takeover , citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French .\",\n \"Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri , although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it .\",\n \"Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty @-@ three people in three boats .\",\n \"Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia , they found no trace of the Northwest Passage .\",\n \"The maps made by Lewis and Clark , especially those of the Pacific Northwest region , provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants .\",\n \"They also negotiated relations with multiple Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate , ecology and geology of the region .\",\n \"Many present @-@ day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition .\",\n \"= = American frontier = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Fur trade = = = \\n \\n As early as the 18th century , fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter , the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade .\",\n \"They came from many different places – some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay , some from the Pacific Northwest ( see also : Maritime fur trade ) , and some from the <unk> United States .\",\n \"Most did not stay in the area for long , as they failed to find significant resources .\",\n \"The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two @-@ year expedition .\",\n \"Their journals described lands rich with thousands of buffalo , beaver , and river otter ; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast .\",\n \"In 1807 , explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country .\",\n \"Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers , trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes , and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary , the Bighorn , in southern Montana .\",\n \"Although the business started small , it quickly grew into a thriving trade .\",\n \"Lisa 's men started construction of Fort Raymond , which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn , in the fall of 1807 .\",\n \"The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for <unk> with the Native Americans for furs .\",\n \"This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade , which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises , namely Hudson 's Bay .\",\n \"Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota ; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska .\",\n \"In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre <unk> , among others .\",\n \"In 1828 , the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers .\",\n \"Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin .\",\n \"Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes .\",\n \"<unk> of the Hudson 's Bay Company , St. Louis Missouri Fur Company , American Fur Company , Rocky Mountain Fur Company , North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia , Colorado , Arkansas , and Saskatchewan river systems .\",\n \"During this period , the trappers , also called mountain men , blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West .\",\n \"Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships , providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start .\",\n \"As the 1830s drew to a close , the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item .\",\n \"By this time , also , the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting .\",\n \"Furthermore , frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies .\",\n \"In some regions , the industry continued well into the 1840s , but in others such as the Platte River valley , declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise .\",\n \"The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850 , with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada .\",\n \"Despite the demise of the once @-@ prosperous trade , however , its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers , farmers , ranchers , adventurers , <unk> , financially bereft , and entrepreneurs took their place .\",\n \"= = = Settlers and pioneers = = = \\n \\n The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century , particularly downstream from Kansas City , where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri .\",\n \"The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river , including the California , Mormon , Oregon , and Santa Fe trails .\",\n \"The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph , Missouri .\",\n \"Similarly , most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs , Iowa and Omaha .\",\n \"The <unk> Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869 , and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis .\",\n \"True to the then @-@ ideal of <unk> Destiny , over 500 @,@ 000 people set out from the river town of Independence , Missouri to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s .\",\n \"These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year @-@ long journey – economic crisis , and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush , for example .\",\n \"For most , the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha , Nebraska , where they would set out along the Platte River , which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastwards through the Great Plains .\",\n \"An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the <unk> canoes they used , let alone the large <unk> and <unk> that would later <unk> the Missouri in increasing numbers .\",\n \"One explorer remarked that the Platte was \\\" too thick to drink , too thin to <unk> \\\" .\",\n \"Nevertheless , the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west .\",\n \"<unk> wagons , popularly referred to as prairie <unk> , provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s .\",\n \"During the 1860s , gold strikes in Montana , Colorado , Wyoming and northern Utah attracted another wave of <unk> to the region .\",\n \"Although some freight was hauled overland , most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers , as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah , Idaho and Wyoming .\",\n \"It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana , over 80 percent were transported by boat , a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction .\",\n \"A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams , Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River , to near Denver .\",\n \"The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route , as it passed through land held by often @-@ hostile Native Americans .\",\n \"<unk> paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near <unk> , Utah during the gold rush period , which led to the large @-@ scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin .\",\n \"As settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains , they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes .\",\n \"This resulted in frequent raids , massacres and armed conflicts , leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes , which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous .\",\n \"As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans , they were soon broken , leading to huge wars .\",\n \"Over 1 @,@ 000 battles , big and small , were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations .\",\n \"Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas , Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud 's War , in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army .\",\n \"The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory .\",\n \"In 1868 , the Treaty of Fort <unk> was signed , which \\\" guaranteed \\\" the use of the Black Hills , <unk> River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention .\",\n \"The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri ; pro @-@ slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark <unk> during Bleeding Kansas , leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri .\",\n \"Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of <unk> , which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river , <unk> the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy .\",\n \"However , the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long .\",\n \"The Great Sioux War of 1876 – 77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming .\",\n \"These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort <unk> .\",\n \"When the settlers <unk> onto the lands , they were attacked by Native Americans .\",\n \"U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners , and drive out the natives from the new settlements .\",\n \"During this bloody period , both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles , resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives .\",\n \"The war eventually ended in an American victory , and the Black Hills were opened to settlement .\",\n \"Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana .\",\n \"= = Dam @-@ building era = = \\n \\n In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri , transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs .\",\n \"River development was stimulated by a variety of factors , first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin , and also by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River .\",\n \"Small , privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s , but the large flood @-@ control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s .\",\n \"Between 1890 and 1940 , five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri , a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana .\",\n \"Black Eagle Dam , built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls , was the first dam of the Missouri .\",\n \"<unk> in 1926 with a more modern structure , the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls , diverting part of the Missouri 's flow into the Black Eagle power plant .\",\n \"The largest of the five dams , Ryan Dam , was built in 1913 .\",\n \"The dam lies directly above the 87 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) Great Falls , the largest waterfall of the Missouri .\",\n \"In the same period , several private establishments – most notably the Montana Power Company – began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation .\",\n \"A small run @-@ of @-@ the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam to be built on the Missouri .\",\n \"This rock @-@ filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside .\",\n \"The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907 , but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies , causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig .\",\n \"At Great Falls , a section of the Black Eagle Dam was <unk> to save nearby factories from inundation .\",\n \"Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure , and stands to this day .\",\n \"<unk> Dam , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) downstream of Helena , was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River .\",\n \"When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company , its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains , a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as \\\" the most remarkable <unk> that we have yet seen … the tow [ er ] ing and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us . \\\"\",\n \"In 1949 , the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ( <unk> ) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area .\",\n \"By 1954 , the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam , whose powerhouse still stands underwater about 1 @.\",\n \"@ 5 miles ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 4 km ) upstream of the present @-@ day dam . \\n \\\"\",\n \"[ The Missouri 's temperament was ] uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman 's mind . \\\"\",\n \"– Sioux City Register , March 28 , 1868 \\n The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century , most notably in 1844 , 1881 , and 1926 – 1927 .\",\n \"In 1940 , as part of the Great Depression @-@ era New Deal , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana .\",\n \"Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50 @,@ 000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River .\",\n \"However , Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed , and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later .\",\n \"This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City , greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II .\",\n \"Flooding damages on the Mississippi – Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944 , opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale .\",\n \"The 1944 act authorized the Pick – Sloan Missouri Basin Program ( Pick – Sloan Plan ) , which was a composite of two widely varying proposals .\",\n \"The Pick plan , with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power , called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri .\",\n \"The Sloan plan , which stressed the development of local irrigation , included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries .\",\n \"In the early stages of Pick – Sloan development , tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at <unk> , North Dakota and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries .\",\n \"This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin , and eventually the <unk> proposed a solution : to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at <unk> – today 's Garrison Dam , thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams .\",\n \"Because of this decision , the Yellowstone is now the longest free @-@ flowing river in the contiguous United States .\",\n \"In the 1950s , construction commenced on the five mainstem dams – Garrison , Oahe , Big Bend , Fort Randall and Gavins Point – proposed under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan .\",\n \"Along with Fort Peck , which was integrated as a unit of the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the 1940s , these dams now form what is known as the Missouri River Mainstem System .\",\n \"The six dams of the Mainstem System , chiefly Fort Peck , Garrison and Oahe , are among the largest dams in the world by volume ; their sprawling reservoirs also rank within the biggest of the nation .\",\n \"Holding up to 74 @.\",\n \"@ 1 million acre feet ( 91 @.\",\n \"@ 4 km3 ) in total , the six reservoirs can store more than three years ' worth of the river 's flow as measured below Gavins Point , the <unk> dam .\",\n \"This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America .\",\n \"In addition to storing irrigation water , the system also includes an annual flood @-@ control reservation of 16 @.\",\n \"@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.\",\n \"@ 1 km3 ) .\",\n \"Mainstem power plants generate about 9 @.\",\n \"@ 3 billion <unk> annually – equal to a constant output of almost 1 @,@ 100 megawatts .\",\n \"Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries , namely the Bighorn , Platte , Kansas , and Osage Rivers , the system provides irrigation water to nearly 7 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 19 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .\",\n \"The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River , ordered downstream .\",\n \"Many of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams on the Missouri ( marked in yellow ) form very small <unk> which may or may not have been given names ; those unnamed are left blank .\",\n \"All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City ; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel .\",\n \"= = Navigation = = \\n \\n \\\" [ Missouri River shipping ] never achieved its expectations .\",\n \"Even under the very best of circumstances , it was never a huge industry . \\\"\",\n \"~ Richard <unk> , former Missouri River Basin Association executive director \\n Boat travel on the Missouri started with the wood @-@ framed canoes and bull boats of the Native Americans , which were used for thousands of years before the introduction of larger craft to the river upon colonization of the Great Plains .\",\n \"The first steamboat on the Missouri was the Independence , which started running between St. Louis and <unk> , Missouri around 1819 .\",\n \"By the 1830s , large mail and freight @-@ carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis , and many traveled even farther upstream .\",\n \"A handful , such as the Western Engineer and the Yellowstone , were able to make it up the river as far as eastern Montana .\",\n \"During the early 19th century , at the height of the fur trade , steamboats and <unk> began traveling nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana 's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth , carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas that the trappers frequented .\",\n \"This resulted in the development of the Missouri River <unk> , which specialized in carrying furs .\",\n \"Since these boats could only travel <unk> , they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis .\",\n \"Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers , emigrants and miners ; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha .\",\n \"There , most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and <unk> Platte River , which was described by pioneers as \\\" a mile wide and an inch deep \\\" and \\\" the most magnificent and useless of rivers \\\" .\",\n \"<unk> navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full @-@ time on the Missouri , with many more smaller vessels .\",\n \"Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri .\",\n \"Side @-@ <unk> steamboats were preferred over the larger <unk> used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability .\",\n \"The industry 's success , however , did not guarantee safety .\",\n \"In the early decades before the river 's flow was controlled by man , its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment , which prevented a clear view of the bottom , wrecked some 300 vessels .\",\n \"Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River , the average ship 's lifespan was short , only about four years .\",\n \"The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific <unk> marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri .\",\n \"<unk> by trains , the number of boats slowly dwindled , until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s .\",\n \"Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge , however , saw a revival in the early twentieth century .\",\n \"= = = Passage to Sioux City = = = \\n \\n Since the beginning of the 20th century , the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes , and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially <unk> channels .\",\n \"In 1912 , the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of six feet ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 8 m ) from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth , a distance of 368 miles ( 592 km ) .\",\n \"This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river 's flow into a straight , narrow channel and prevent sedimentation .\",\n \"In 1925 , the USACE began a project to widen the river 's navigation channel to 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; two years later , they began dredging a deep @-@ water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City .\",\n \"These modifications have reduced the river 's length from some 2 @,@ 540 miles ( 4 @,@ 090 km ) in the late 19th century to 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) in the present day .\",\n \"Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the mid @-@ twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation .\",\n \"The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year @-@ round , and are capable of halting most of the river 's annual <unk> .\",\n \"However , high and low water cycles of the Missouri – notably the protracted early @-@ 21st @-@ century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 – are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control .\",\n \"@ 7 m ) .\",\n \"During work that continues to this day , the 735 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock <unk> to direct the river 's flow and <unk> out sediments , sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels , and dredging the riverbed .\",\n \"However , the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth .\",\n \"In 2006 , several U.S. Coast Guard boats ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely <unk> .\",\n \"The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth .\",\n \"In 1929 , the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the total amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons ( 13 @.\",\n \"@ 6 million metric tons ) , providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel .\",\n \"However , shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected – shipments of commodities including produce , manufactured items , lumber , and oil averaged only <unk> @,@ 000 tons ( <unk> @,@ 000 t ) per year from 1994 to 2006 .\",\n \"By tonnage of transported material , Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic , while Kansas has 12 percent , Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent .\",\n \"Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower 500 miles ( 800 km ) of the river ; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels .\",\n \"= = = Traffic decline = = = \\n \\n <unk> of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present .\",\n \"In the 1960s , the USACE predicted an increase to 12 million short tons ( 11 Mt ) per year by 2000 , but instead the opposite has happened .\",\n \"The amount of goods plunged from 3 @.\",\n \"@ 3 million short tons ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 0 Mt ) in 1977 to just 1 @.\",\n \"@ 3 million short tons ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 2 Mt ) in 2000 .\",\n \"One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products , especially wheat .\",\n \"Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential .\",\n \"In 2006 , barges on the Missouri hauled only 200 @,@ 000 short tons ( 180 @,@ 000 t ) of products which is equal to the amount of daily freight traffic on the Mississippi .\",\n \"Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport – mainly railroads – are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri .\",\n \"The failure of the USACE to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry .\",\n \"Currently , efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River , because of the efficiency and <unk> of river transport to haul agricultural products , and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes .\",\n \"<unk> such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are being considered .\",\n \"Drought conditions lifted in 2010 , in which about <unk> @,@ 000 short tons ( <unk> @,@ 000 t ) were <unk> on the Missouri , representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000 .\",\n \"However , flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic – \\\" wash [ ing ] away hopes for a bounce @-@ back year . \\\"\",\n \"There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River , but there are plenty of wing dams that <unk> out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate .\",\n \"In contrast , the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61 @.\",\n \"@ 3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011 , and its locks are closed in the winter .\",\n \"= = Ecology = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Natural history = = = \\n \\n Historically , the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species .\",\n \"Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold , subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate , moist climate of Missouri .\",\n \"Today , the river 's riparian zone consists primarily of <unk> , willows and <unk> , with several other types of trees such as maple and ash .\",\n \"Because of its large sediment concentrations , the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates .\",\n \"However , the basin does support about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish , some of which are endangered such as the <unk> <unk> .\",\n \"The Missouri 's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals , such as <unk> , river otters , <unk> , <unk> , and raccoons .\",\n \"The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater <unk> : the Upper Missouri , Lower Missouri and Central Prairie .\",\n \"The Upper Missouri , roughly encompassing the area within Montana , Wyoming , southern Alberta and Saskatchewan , and North Dakota , comprises mainly <unk> shrub @-@ steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age <unk> .\",\n \"There are no known endemic species within the region .\",\n \"Except for the headwaters in the Rockies , there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed .\",\n \"The Middle Missouri ecoregion , extending through Colorado , southwestern Minnesota , northern Kansas , Nebraska , and parts of Wyoming and Iowa , has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands .\",\n \"Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri , which is also home to about twice as many animal species .\",\n \"Finally , the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri , encompassing all or parts of Missouri , Kansas , Oklahoma and Arkansas .\",\n \"Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations , this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three .\",\n \"Thirteen species of <unk> are endemic to the lower Missouri .\",\n \"= = = Human impacts = = = \\n \\n Since the beginning of river commerce and industrial development in the 1800s , the Missouri has been severely polluted and its water quality degraded by human activity .\",\n \"Most of the river 's floodplain habitat is long gone , replaced by irrigated agricultural land .\",\n \"Development of the floodplain has led to increasing amounts of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation .\",\n \"<unk> have been constructed along more than a third of the river in order to keep <unk> within the channel , but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas .\",\n \"<unk> runoff , which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients , is a major problem along the Missouri River , especially in Iowa and Missouri .\",\n \"This form of pollution also heavily affects the upper Mississippi , Illinois and Ohio Rivers .\",\n \"Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi .\",\n \"<unk> of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower , deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna .\",\n \"Channel control has significantly reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish , birds and amphibians .\",\n \"By the early 21st century , declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S.\",\n \"Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for <unk> endangered bird and fish species .\",\n \"The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century .\",\n \"By 2001 , there were 87 @,@ 000 acres ( 350 km2 ) of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration .\",\n \"A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River , evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment .\",\n \"The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River , including the creation of a \\\" sediment budget \\\" – an accounting of sediment transport , erosion , and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River – would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species .\",\n \"= = Tourism and recreation = = \\n \\n With over 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) of open water , the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin .\",\n \"<unk> has increased from 10 million visitor @-@ hours in the mid @-@ 1960s to over 60 million visitor @-@ hours in 1990 .\",\n \"Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965 , which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps , campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs .\",\n \"Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $ 85 – 100 million to the regional economy each year .\",\n \"The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail , some 3 @,@ 700 miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) long , follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source , <unk> the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition .\",\n \"<unk> from Wood River , Illinois , in the east , to Astoria , Oregon , in the west , it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers .\",\n \"The trail , which spans through eleven U.S. states , is maintained by various federal and state government agencies ; it passes through some 100 historic sites , notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian <unk> National Historic Site .\",\n \"Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or <unk> use .\",\n \"The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point <unk> that total 98 miles ( 158 km ) .\",\n \"These reaches exhibit islands , meanders , <unk> , underwater rocks , <unk> , <unk> , and other once @-@ common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling .\",\n \"About forty @-@ five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river .\",\n \"<unk> from Great Falls , Montana , about 149 miles ( 240 km ) of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks .\",\n \"This part of the river , designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976 , flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument , a 375 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 520 km2 ) preserve comprising steep cliffs , deep <unk> , arid plains , badlands , archaeological sites , and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself .\",\n \"The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life ; recreational activities include boating , rafting , hiking and wildlife observation .\",\n \"In north @-@ central Montana , some 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) along over 125 miles ( 201 km ) of the Missouri River , centering on Fort Peck Lake , comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge .\",\n \"The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development , except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam .\",\n \"Although there are few designated trails , the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping .\",\n \"Many U.S. national parks , such as Glacier National Park , Rocky Mountain National Park , Yellowstone National Park and <unk> National Park are in the watershed .\",\n \"Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use – notably the Niobrara National Scenic River , which is a 76 @-@ mile ( 122 km ) protected stretch of the Niobrara River , one of the Missouri 's longest tributaries .\",\n \"The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks , which include Three Forks of the Missouri , Fort Benton , Montana , Big Hidatsa Village Site , Fort Atkinson , Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":93,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Condom = \n \n A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS .","It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks <unk> semen from entering the body of a sexual partner .","Condoms are also used during <unk> and for collection of semen for use in infertility treatment .","In the modern age , condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , polyisoprene , or lamb intestine .","A female condom is also available , often made of <unk> rubber .","As a method of birth control , male condoms have the advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , having few side effects , and offering protection against sexually transmitted infections .","With proper use — and use at every act of intercourse — women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2 % per @-@ year pregnancy rate .","With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18 % per @-@ year .","Condoms have been used for at least 400 years .","Since the 19th century , they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world .","While widely accepted in modern times , condoms have generated some controversy , primarily over what role they should play in sex education classes .","= = Medical uses = = \n \n \n = = = Birth control = = = \n \n The effectiveness of condoms , as of most forms of contraception , can be assessed two ways .","Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently .","<unk> use , or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users , including those who use condoms incorrectly or do not use condoms at every act of intercourse .","<unk> are generally presented for the first year of use .","Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates , but some studies use <unk> tables .","The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied , ranging from 10 to 18 % per year .","The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2 % per year .","Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception ( such as spermicide ) for greater protection .","= = = <unk> transmitted infections = = = \n \n Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) .","They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women , but not eliminating it .","While not perfect , the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of organisms that cause AIDS , genital herpes , cervical cancer , genital warts , syphilis , <unk> , <unk> , and other diseases .","Condoms are often recommended as an <unk> to more effective birth control methods ( such as <unk> ) in situations where STD protection is also desired .","According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health ( <unk> ) , consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV / AIDS transmission by approximately 85 % relative to risk when unprotected , putting the <unk> rate ( infection rate ) at 0 @.","@ 9 per 100 person @-@ years with condom , down from 6 @.","@ 7 per 100 person @-@ years .","Analysis published in 2007 from the University of Texas Medical Branch and the World Health Organization found similar risk reductions of 80 – 95 % .","The 2000 <unk> review concluded that condom use significantly reduces the risk of <unk> for men .","A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission of human <unk> ( <unk> ) to women by approximately 70 % .","Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes <unk> virus @-@ 2 also known as genital herpes , in both men and women .","Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure , some disease transmission may occur even with a condom .","<unk> areas of the <unk> , especially when symptoms are present , may not be covered by a condom , and as a result , some diseases like <unk> and herpes may be transmitted by direct contact .","The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs , however , is inconsistent use .","Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially <unk> cervical changes .","Exposure to human <unk> , even in individuals already infected with the virus , appears to increase the risk of <unk> changes .","The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes .","In addition , researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can <unk> existing cervical cancer , condom use during sex can prevent exposure to the hormone .","= = = Causes of failure = = = \n \n Condoms may slip off the penis after ejaculation , break due to improper application or physical damage ( such as tears caused when opening the package ) , or break or slip due to latex degradation ( typically from usage past the expiration date , improper storage , or exposure to oils ) .","The rate of breakage is between 0 @.","@ 4 % and 2 @.","@ 3 % , while the rate of slippage is between 0 @.","@ 6 % and 1 @.","@ 3 % .","Even if no breakage or slippage is observed , 1 – 3 % of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom . \n \"","Double <unk> \" , using two condoms at once , is often believed to cause a higher rate of failure due to the friction of rubber on rubber .","This claim is not supported by research .","The limited studies that have been done on the subject support that double <unk> is likely not harmful and possibly beneficial .","Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure .","If a failure occurs during application , the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins – such failures generally pose no risk to the user .","One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse ; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one @-@ fifth that of unprotected intercourse .","Standard condoms will fit almost any penis , with varying degrees of comfort or risk of slippage .","Many condom manufacturers offer \" <unk> \" or \" magnum \" sizes .","Some manufacturers also offer custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condoms , with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation / comfort .","Some studies have associated larger <unk> and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates ( and vice versa ) , but other studies have been inconclusive .","It is recommended for condoms manufacturers to avoid very thick or very thin condoms , because they are both considered less effective .","Some authors encourage users to choose thinner condoms \" for greater <unk> , sensation , and comfort \" , but others warn that \" the thinner the condom , the smaller the force required to break it \" .","<unk> condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first @-@ time users , although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure .","An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage .","A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage , but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage .","Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control , pregnancy may occur when the user has sex without a condom .","The person may have run out of condoms , or be traveling and not have a condom with them , or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to \" take a chance \" .","This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure ( as opposed to method or perfect use failure ) .","Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage .","One motive is to have a child against a partner 's wishes or consent .","Some commercial sex workers from Nigeria reported clients <unk> condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use .","Using a fine needle to make several <unk> at the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness .","Cases of such condom sabotage have occurred .","= = <unk> effects = = \n \n The use of latex condoms by people with an allergy to latex can cause allergic symptoms , such as skin irritation .","In people with severe latex <unk> , using a latex condom can potentially be life @-@ threatening .","<unk> use of latex condoms can also cause the development of a latex allergy in some people .","= = Use = = \n \n Male condoms are usually packaged inside a foil or plastic <unk> , in a rolled @-@ up form , and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then <unk> over the erect penis .","It is important that some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect ; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device .","After use , it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot , then disposed of in a trash receptacle .","Condoms are used to reduce the likelihood of pregnancy during intercourse and to reduce the likelihood of contracting sexually @-@ transmitted infections ( STIs ) .","Condoms are also used during <unk> to reduce the likelihood of contracting STIs .","Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts sex , although others incorporate condom application as part of their <unk> .","Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom <unk> sensation .","<unk> of <unk> sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation ; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement .","<unk> of condom use also cite their advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , and having few side effects .","= = = Adult film industry = = = \n \n In 2012 proponents gathered 372 @,@ 000 <unk> signatures through a citizens ' initiative in Los Angeles County to put Measure B on the 2012 ballot .","As a result , Measure B , a law requiring the use of condoms in the production of pornographic films , was passed .","This requirement has received much criticism and is said by some to be counter @-@ productive , merely forcing companies that make pornographic films to relocate to other places without this requirement .","<unk> claim that condom use <unk> sales .","= = = Sex education = = = \n \n Condoms are often used in sex education programs , because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly .","A recent American <unk> Association ( <unk> ) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in sex education , saying \" comprehensive sexuality education programs ... discuss the appropriate use of condoms \" , and \" promote condom use for those who are sexually active . \"","In the United States , teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations .","Planned <unk> , which advocates family planning and sex education , argues that no studies have shown abstinence @-@ only programs to result in delayed intercourse , and cites surveys showing that 76 % of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use .","= = = <unk> treatment = = = \n \n Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and <unk> insemination ( <unk> ) require collection of semen samples .","These are most commonly obtained through masturbation , but an alternative to masturbation is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse .","Collection condoms are made from <unk> or polyurethane , as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm .","Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation , and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely .","Also , compared with samples obtained from masturbation , semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts , sperm <unk> , and percentage of sperm with normal morphology .","For this reason , they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis , and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as <unk> or <unk> insemination .","<unk> of religions that prohibit contraception , such as Catholicism , may use collection condoms with holes <unk> in them .","For fertility treatments , a collection condom may be used to collect semen during sexual intercourse where the semen is provided by the woman 's partner .","Private sperm donors may also use a collection condom to obtain samples through masturbation or by sexual intercourse with a partner and will transfer the <unk> from the collection condom to a specially designed container .","The sperm is transported in such containers , in the case of a donor , to a recipient woman to be used for insemination , and in the case of a woman 's partner , to a fertility clinic for processing and use .","However , transportation may reduce the <unk> of the sperm .","Collection condoms may also be used where semen is produced at a sperm bank or fertility clinic .","Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of <unk> antibodies .","The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner 's semen will lower her level of <unk> antibodies , and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued .","However , condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates .","= = = Other uses = = = \n \n Condoms <unk> as multipurpose containers and barriers because they are <unk> , elastic , durable , and ( for military and espionage uses ) will not <unk> suspicion if found .","<unk> military <unk> began during World War II , and includes covering the <unk> of rifle barrels to prevent <unk> , the waterproofing of firing assemblies in underwater <unk> , and storage of corrosive materials and <unk> by paramilitary agencies .","Condoms have also been used to smuggle alcohol , cocaine , heroin , and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs , tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the <unk> .","These methods are very dangerous and potentially lethal ; if the condom breaks , the drugs inside become absorbed into the bloodstream and can cause an <unk> .","<unk> , condoms can be used to cover <unk> <unk> probes , or in field chest needle <unk> they can be used to make a one @-@ way valve .","Condoms have also been used to protect scientific samples from the environment , and to <unk> microphones for underwater recording .","= = Types = = \n \n Most condoms have a reservoir tip or <unk> end , making it easier to accommodate the man 's <unk> .","Condoms come in different sizes , from oversized to <unk> and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user 's partner .","Condoms are usually supplied with a <unk> coating to facilitate penetration , while flavored condoms are principally used for oral sex .","As mentioned above , most condoms are made of latex , but polyurethane and lambskin condoms also exist .","= = = Female condom = = = \n \n Male condoms have a tight ring to form a seal around the penis while female condoms typically have a large stiff ring to keep them from slipping into the body <unk> .","The Female Health Company produced a female condom that was initially made of polyurethane , but newer versions are made of <unk> .","<unk> <unk> produces a female condom made of latex .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n \n = = = = Natural latex = = = = \n \n Latex has outstanding elastic properties : Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa , and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800 % before breaking .","In 1990 the <unk> set standards for condom production ( <unk> <unk> , Natural latex rubber condoms ) , and the EU followed suit with its <unk> standard ( Directive 93 / 42 / EEC concerning medical devices ) .","Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electric current .","If the condom passes , it is rolled and packaged .","In addition , a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing .","While the advantages of latex have made it the most popular condom material , it does have some drawbacks .","Latex condoms are damaged when used with oil @-@ based substances as lubricants , such as petroleum <unk> , cooking oil , baby oil , mineral oil , skin <unk> , <unk> <unk> , cold <unk> , butter or <unk> .","Contact with oil makes latex condoms more likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils .","Additionally , latex allergy <unk> use of latex condoms and is one of the principal reasons for the use of other materials .","In May 2009 the U.S. Food and <unk> Administration granted approval for the production of condoms composed of <unk> , latex that has been treated to remove 90 % of the proteins responsible for allergic reactions .","An <unk> @-@ free condom made of synthetic latex ( polyisoprene ) is also available .","= = = = <unk> = = = = \n \n The most common non @-@ latex condoms are made from polyurethane .","Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials , such as AT @-@ 10 resin , and most recently polyisoprene .","Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms , with most polyurethane condoms between 0 @.","@ 04 mm and 0 @.","@ 07 mm thick .","Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways : it conducts heat better than latex , is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light ( and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life ) , can be used with oil @-@ based lubricants , is less <unk> than latex , and does not have an odor .","Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention , and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes .","However , polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones , and may be more likely to slip or break than latex , lose their shape or bunch up more than latex , and are more expensive .","<unk> is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex .","While significantly more expensive , it has the advantages of latex ( such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms ) without the protein which is responsible for latex <unk> .","Like polyurethane condoms , polyisoprene condoms are said to do a better job of transmitting body heat .","Unlike polyurethane condoms , they cannot be used with an oil @-@ based <unk> .","= = = = <unk> = = = = \n \n Condoms made from sheep intestines , labeled \" lambskin \" , are also available .","Although they are generally effective as a contraceptive by blocking sperm , it is presumed that they are likely less effective than latex in preventing the transmission of agents that cause STDs , because of pores in the material .","This is based on the idea that intestines , by their nature , are porous , <unk> membranes , and while sperm are too large to pass through the pores , viruses — such as HIV , herpes , and genital warts — are small enough to pass through .","However , there are to date no clinical data confirming or denying this theory .","Some believe that lambskin condoms provide a more \" natural \" sensation , and they lack the <unk> that are inherent to latex , but because of their lesser protection against infection , other <unk> materials such as polyurethane are recommended for latex @-@ allergic users and / or partners .","<unk> condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types and as slaughter by @-@ products they are also not vegetarian .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol @-@ 9 , a <unk> chemical .","According to Consumer Reports , condoms lubricated with spermicide have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy , have a shorter shelf life , and may cause urinary @-@ tract infections in women .","In contrast , application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive <unk> of condoms .","<unk> @-@ 9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs ( including HIV ) but recent studies have shown that , with frequent use , nonoxynol @-@ 9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission .","The World Health Organization says that <unk> lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted .","However , it recommends using a nonoxynol @-@ 9 lubricated condom over no condom at all .","As of 2005 , nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol @-@ 9 and Planned <unk> has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated .","= = = <unk> and studded = = = \n \n <unk> condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners .","The <unk> or ribs can be located on the inside , outside , or both ; alternatively , they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g @-@ spot or <unk> .","Many textured condoms which advertise \" mutual pleasure \" also are bulb @-@ shaped at the top , to provide extra stimulation to the penis .","Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms .","= = = Youth condoms = = = \n \n In March 2010 , the Swiss government announced that it was planning to promote smaller condoms intended for boys and youths of 12 – 14 years old following concern about the pregnancy rate among adolescent girls , and also about the potential spread of AIDS among this age group .","This was due to the fact that standard condoms were too wide and consequently failed to afford protection to adolescent boys during vaginal and anal intercourse .","Family planning groups and the Swiss AIDS Federation had campaigned to have a narrower condom produced for youths after a number of studies , including a government study researched at the Centre for Development and Personality Psychology at Basel University , found that standard condoms were unsuitable for boys in this age range , and that the condoms either failed during use or that the boys rejected them altogether because they were too wide , and consequently they used no protection at all .","As a result of these studies , a condom aimed at <unk> to 14 @-@ year @-@ old boys is now produced and is available in Switzerland and in certain other countries .","Manufactured by <unk> , the \" <unk> \" is a lubricated , <unk> @-@ ended latex condom which is narrower than a standard condom and has a tight band at the opening to ensure that it remains on the youth 's penis during intercourse .","A standard condom has a diameter of 2 inches ( 5 @.","@ 2 cm ) whereas the <unk> has a diameter of 1 @.","@ 7 inches ( 4 @.","@ 5 cm ) .","Both are the same length – 7 @.","@ 4 inches ( 19 cm ) .","In 2014 , in response to demand for condoms from a younger age @-@ group , German condom manufacturer Amor started producing another condom aimed at young people .","Known as \" Amor Young Love \" , these lubricated condoms have a diameter of 1 @.","@ 9 inches ( 4 @.","@ 9 cm ) .","= = = Other = = = \n \n The anti @-@ rape condom is another variation designed to be worn by women .","It is designed to cause pain to the attacker , hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape .","A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis .","These condoms are designed to <unk> sperm life .","Some condom @-@ like devices are intended for entertainment only , such as glow @-@ in @-@ the dark condoms .","These novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs .","= = <unk> = = \n \n The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries .","Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women , or women in informal unions .","Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in that country , condoms account for almost 80 % of contraceptive use by married women .","On average , in developed countries , condoms are the most popular method of birth control : 28 % of married contraceptive users rely on condoms .","In the average less @-@ developed country , condoms are less common : only 6 – 8 % of married contraceptive users choose condoms .","= = History = = \n \n \n = = = Before the 19th century = = = \n \n Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians .","In ancient Egypt , Greece , and Rome , pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman 's responsibility , and the only well documented contraception methods were female @-@ controlled devices .","In Asia before the 15th century , some use of glans condoms ( devices covering only the head of the penis ) is recorded .","Condoms seem to have been used for contraception , and to have been known only by members of the upper classes .","In China , glans condoms may have been made of <unk> silk paper , or of lamb intestines .","In Japan , they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn .","In 16th century Italy , <unk> Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis .","The earliest documented strain of syphilis , first appearing in Europe in a <unk> outbreak , caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease .","Falloppio 's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use : it describes linen <unk> soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use .","The <unk> he described were sized to cover the glans of the penis , and were held on with a ribbon .","Falloppio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis .","After this , the use of penis <unk> to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe .","The first indication that these devices were used for birth control , rather than disease prevention , is the 1605 theological publication De <unk> et <unk> ( On justice and law ) by Catholic theologian <unk> <unk> , who condemned them as immoral .","In 1666 , the English Birth <unk> Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of \" <unk> \" , the first documented use of that word ( or any similar spelling ) .","In addition to linen , condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and <unk> .","In the late 16th century , Dutch traders introduced condoms made from \" fine leather \" to Japan .","Unlike the horn condoms used previously , these leather condoms covered the entire penis .","<unk> in the 18th century was one of the first reported using \" assurance caps \" to prevent <unk> his <unk> .","From at least the 18th century , condom use was opposed in some legal , religious , and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today : condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy , which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation ; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections , while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity ; and , they are not used consistently due to <unk> , expense , or loss of sensation .","Despite some opposition , the condom market grew rapidly .","In the 18th century , condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes , made from either linen treated with chemicals , or \" skin \" ( <unk> or intestine softened by treatment with sulfur and <unk> ) .","They were sold at <unk> , <unk> , chemist shops , open @-@ air markets , and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia .","They later spread to America , although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes , due to both expense and lack of sex education .","= = = 1800 through 1920s = = = \n \n The early 19th century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time .","Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control to the condom .","By the late 19th century many <unk> expressed distrust of the condom as a contraceptive , as its use was controlled and decided upon by men alone .","They advocated instead for methods which were controlled by women , such as <unk> and <unk> <unk> .","Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their <unk> ( they were often riddled with holes , and often fell off or broke ) , but they discussed condoms as a good option for some , and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease .","Many countries passed laws <unk> the manufacture and promotion of contraceptives .","In spite of these restrictions , condoms were promoted by traveling <unk> and in newspaper advertisements , using <unk> in places where such <unk> were illegal .","<unk> on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe .","Despite social and legal opposition , at the end of the 19th century the condom was the Western world 's most popular birth control method .","Beginning in the second half of the 19th century , American rates of sexually transmitted diseases <unk> .","Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War , and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the <unk> laws .","To fight the growing epidemic , sex education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time , teaching about <unk> diseases and how they were transmitted .","They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases .","Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention because the medical community and moral <unk> considered STDs to be punishment for sexual <unk> .","The stigma against victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis .","The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers , beginning in the later 19th century .","Early 20th century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases .","During World War I , the United States and ( at the beginning of the war only ) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use .","In the decades after World War I , there remained social and legal obstacles to condom use throughout the U.S. and Europe .","<unk> of <unk> Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high .","Freud was especially opposed to the condom because he thought it cut down on sexual pleasure .","Some <unk> continued to oppose male @-@ controlled contraceptives such as condoms .","In 1920 the Church of England 's Lambeth Conference condemned all \" unnatural means of conception avoidance \" .","London 's Bishop Arthur <unk> @-@ Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks , especially after weekends and holidays .","However , European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection , even in countries where they were illegal for the general population .","Through the 1920s , catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items , including condoms and cigarettes .","Quality testing became more common , involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure .","Worldwide , condom sales doubled in the 1920s .","= = = <unk> and manufacturing advances = = = \n \n In 1839 , Charles <unk> discovered a way of processing natural rubber , which is too stiff when cold and too soft when warm , in such a way as to make it elastic .","This proved to have advantages for the manufacture of condoms ; unlike the sheep 's gut condoms , they could stretch and did not tear quickly when used .","The rubber <unk> process was patented by <unk> in 1844 .","The first rubber condom was produced in 1855 .","The earliest rubber condoms had a seam and were as thick as a bicycle inner tube .","Besides this type , small rubber condoms covering only the glans were often used in England and the United States .","There was more risk of losing them and if the rubber ring was too tight , it would <unk> the penis .","This type of condom was the original \" <unk> \" ( French for condom ) , perhaps because of its resemblance to a woman 's bonnet worn at that time , also called a <unk> .","For many decades , rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around penis @-@ shaped molds , then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber .","In 1912 , Polish inventor Julius <unk> developed a new , improved manufacturing technique for condoms : dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution .","Called cement dipping , this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid .","Latex , rubber suspended in water , was invented in 1920 .","Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement @-@ dipped rubber condoms , which had to be <unk> by rubbing and <unk> .","The use of water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom factories .","Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer : they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms , and had a shelf life of five years ( compared to three months for rubber ) .","Until the twenties , all condoms were individually hand @-@ dipped by semi @-@ skilled workers .","Throughout the decade of the 1920s , advances in the <unk> of the condom assembly line were made .","The first fully automated line was patented in 1930 .","Major condom manufacturers bought or leased <unk> systems , and small manufacturers were driven out of business .","The skin condom , now significantly more expensive than the latex variety , became restricted to a niche high @-@ end market .","= = = 1930 to present = = = \n \n In 1930 the Anglican Church 's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples .","In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement .","The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical <unk> <unk> <unk> its opposition to all contraceptives , a stance it has never reversed .","In the 1930s , legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed .","But during this period <unk> Italy and Nazi Germany increased restrictions on condoms ( limited sales as disease <unk> were still allowed ) .","During the Depression , condom lines by <unk> gained in popularity .","<unk> still used the cement @-@ dipping method of manufacture which had two advantages over the latex variety .","Firstly , cement @-@ dipped condoms could be safely used with oil @-@ based lubricants .","<unk> , while less comfortable , these older @-@ style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical , a valued feature in hard times .","More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s , and the U.S. Food and <unk> Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States .","Throughout World War II , condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members , but also heavily promoted with films , posters , and lectures .","European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war , even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941 .","In part because condoms were readily available , soldiers found a number of non @-@ sexual uses for the devices , many of which continue to this day .","After the war , condom sales continued to grow .","From 1955 – 1965 , 42 % of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control .","In Britain from 1950 – 1960 , 60 % of married couples used condoms .","The birth control pill became the world 's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 <unk> , but condoms remained a strong second .","The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the \" world population <unk> \" : by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone .","( This number has grown in recent decades : in 2004 , the government of India purchased 1 @.","@ 9 billion condoms for distribution at family planning clinics . )","In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations <unk> , and more legal barriers to condom use were removed .","In Ireland , legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978 .","Advertising , however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions .","In the late 1950s , the American National Association of <unk> banned condom advertisements from national television : this policy remained in place until 1979 .","After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection , the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV .","Despite opposition by some political , religious , and other figures , national condom promotion campaigns occurred in the U.S. and Europe .","These campaigns increased condom use significantly .","Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance , condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets , including in <unk> and in discount department stores such as Wal @-@ Mart .","Condom sales increased every year until 1994 , when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline .","The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease <unk> has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue .","Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America .","As one response , manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous .","New developments continued to occur in the condom market , with the first polyurethane condom — branded <unk> and produced by the manufacturer of <unk> — introduced in the 1990s , and the first custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condom , called <unk> , introduced in the early 2000s .","Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow : one study predicted that developing nations would need 18 @.","@ 6 billion condoms by 2015 .","As of September 2013 , condoms are available inside prisons in Canada , most of the European Union , Australia , Brazil , Indonesia , South Africa , and the US states of Vermont ( on September 17 , 2013 , the Californian Senate approved a bill for condom distribution inside the state 's prisons , but the bill was not yet law at the time of approval ) .","= = = Etymology and other terms = = = \n \n The term condom first appears in the early 18th century .","Its etymology is unknown .","In popular tradition , the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England 's King Charles II , one \" Dr.","Condom \" or \" Earl of Condom \" .","There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person , and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne .","A variety of unproven Latin etymologies have been proposed , including <unk> ( receptacle ) , <unk> ( house ) , and <unk> ( <unk> or case ) .","It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word <unk> , derived from <unk> , meaning <unk> .","William E. <unk> wrote an article in 1981 concluding that , \" As for the word ' condom ' , I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown , and there ends this search for an etymology . \"","Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as \" unknown \" .","Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms .","In North America condoms are also commonly known as <unk> , or rubbers .","In Britain they may be called French letters .","Additionally , condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer 's name .","= = Society and culture = = \n \n Some moral and scientific criticism of condoms exists despite the many benefits of condoms agreed on by scientific consensus and sexual health experts .","Condom usage is typically recommended for new couples who have yet to develop full trust in their partner with regard to STDs .","Established couples on the other hand have few concerns about STDs , and can use other methods of birth control such as the pill , which does not act as a barrier to intimate sexual contact .","Note that the polar debate with regard to condom usage is <unk> by the target group the argument is directed .","Notably the age category and stable partner question are factors , as well as the distinction between heterosexual and homosexuals , who have different kinds of sex and have different risk consequences and factors .","Among the prime objections to condom usage is the blocking of erotic sensation , and / or the intimacy that barrier @-@ free sex provides .","As the condom is held tightly to the skin of the penis , it <unk> the delivery of stimulation through rubbing and friction .","Condom proponents claim this has the benefit of making sex last longer , by diminishing sensation and delaying male ejaculation .","Those who promote condom @-@ free heterosexual sex ( slang : \" <unk> \" ) claim that the condom puts a <unk> barrier between partners , diminishing what is normally a highly sensual , intimate , and spiritual connection between partners .","= = = Religious = = = \n \n Roman Catholic Church opposes all kinds of sexual acts outside of marriage , as well as any sexual act in which the chance of successful conception has been reduced by direct and intentional acts ( for example , surgery to prevent conception ) or foreign objects ( for example , condoms ) .","The use of condoms to prevent STD transmission is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine , and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high @-@ ranking Catholic authorities .","A few , such as Belgian Cardinal <unk> <unk> , believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease , especially serious diseases such as AIDS .","However , the majority view — including all statements from the Vatican — is that condom @-@ promotion programs encourage promiscuity , thereby actually increasing STD transmission .","This view was most recently reiterated in 2009 by Pope Benedict XVI .","The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion .","The church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa , but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial .","In a November 2011 interview , the Pope discussed for the first time the use of condoms to prevent STD transmission .","He said that the use of a condom can be justified in a few individual cases if the purpose is to reduce the risk of an HIV infection .","He gave as an example male prostitutes .","There was some confusion at first whether the statement applied only to homosexual prostitutes and thus not to heterosexual intercourse at all .","However , Federico Lombardi , spokesman for the Vatican , clarified that it applied to heterosexual and <unk> prostitutes , whether male or female , as well .","He did , however , also clarify that the Vatican 's principles on sexuality and contraception had not been changed .","= = = Scientific and environmental = = = \n \n More generally , some scientific researchers have expressed objective concern over certain ingredients sometimes added to condoms , notably <unk> and <unk> .","Dry <unk> <unk> are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up .","Previously , <unk> was used by most manufacturers , but <unk> is currently the most popular <unk> powder .","<unk> is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity ( i.e.",", via the <unk> ) .","<unk> is generally believed to be safe ; however , some researchers have raised concerns over its use as well .","<unk> , which are potentially carcinogenic in humans , are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms .","A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 times greater <unk> exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low .","However , a 2004 study in Germany detected <unk> in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested , and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by <unk> to 3 @-@ fold .","In addition , the large @-@ scale use of <unk> condoms has resulted in concerns over their environmental impact via <unk> and in <unk> , where they can eventually wind up in wildlife environments if not <unk> or otherwise permanently disposed of first .","Polyurethane condoms in particular , given they are a form of plastic , are not biodegradable , and latex condoms take a very long time to break down .","Experts , such as <unk> , recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle , as <unk> them down the toilet ( which some people do ) may cause <unk> <unk> and other problems .","Furthermore , the plastic and foil <unk> condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable .","However , the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass .","Frequent condom or <unk> disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem .","While biodegradable , latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly .","According to the Ocean Conservancy , condoms , along with certain other types of trash , cover the coral reefs and <unk> sea grass and other bottom dwellers .","The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food .","= = = Cultural barriers to use = = = \n \n In much of the Western world , the introduction of the pill in the 1960s was associated with a decline in condom use .","In Japan , oral contraceptives were not approved for use until September 1999 , and even then access was more restricted than in other <unk> nations .","Perhaps because of this restricted access to <unk> contraception , Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in 2008 , 80 % of contraceptive users relied on condoms .","Cultural attitudes toward gender roles , contraception , and sexual activity vary greatly around the world , and range from extremely conservative to extremely liberal .","But in places where condoms are misunderstood , <unk> , <unk> , or looked upon with overall cultural disapproval , the prevalence of condom use is directly affected .","In less @-@ developed countries and among less @-@ educated populations , <unk> about how disease transmission and conception work negatively affect the use of condoms ; additionally , in cultures with more traditional gender roles , women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms .","As an example , Latino immigrants in the United States often face cultural barriers to condom use .","A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of Sex Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe sex due to traditional gender @-@ role norms in the Latino community , and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners .","Women who participated in the study often reported that because of the general machismo subtly encouraged in Latino culture , their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the woman 's suggestion that they use condoms .","A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low @-@ income American black women ; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion to their male partners that condoms be used .","A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University , and published in the Journal of <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among United States black men is linked to rates of condom use .","As conspiracy beliefs about AIDS grow in a given sector of these black men , consistent condom use drops in that same sector .","Female use of condoms was not similarly affected .","In the African continent , condom promotion in some areas has been impeded by anti @-@ condom campaigns by some Muslim and Catholic clerics .","Among the Maasai in Tanzania , condom use is hampered by an aversion to \" wasting \" sperm , which is given <unk> importance beyond reproduction .","<unk> is believed to be an \" elixir \" to women and to have beneficial health effects .","Maasai women believe that , after <unk> a child , they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child 's development .","Frequent condom use is also considered by some Maasai to cause impotence .","Some women in Africa believe that condoms are \" for prostitutes \" and that respectable women should not use them .","A few clerics even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV .","In the United States , possession of many condoms has been used by police to accuse women of engaging in prostitution .","The Presidential Advisory Council on HIV / AIDS has condemned this practice and there are efforts to end it .","In March 2013 , technology <unk> Bill Gates offered a US $ 100 @,@ 000 grant through his foundation for a condom design that \" significantly preserves or enhances pleasure \" to encourage more males to adopt the use of condoms for safer sex .","The grant information states : “ The primary drawback from the male perspective is that condoms decrease pleasure as compared to no condom , creating a trade @-@ off that many men find unacceptable , particularly given that the decisions about use must be made just prior to intercourse .","Is it possible to develop a product without this stigma , or better , one that is felt to enhance pleasure ?","” The project has been named the \" Next Generation Condom \" and anyone who can provide a \" <unk> hypothesis \" is eligible to apply .","Middle @-@ Eastern couples who have not had children , because of the strong desire and social pressure to establish fertility as soon as possible within marriage , rarely use condoms .","= = = Major manufacturers = = = \n \n One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that \" <unk> the mind \" .","Numerous small manufacturers , <unk> groups , and government @-@ run manufacturing plants exist around the world .","Within the condom market , there are several major contributors , among them both for @-@ profit businesses and philanthropic organizations .","Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century .","= = Research = = \n \n A <unk> @-@ on condom made of latex is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases .","As of 2009 , the <unk> @-@ on condom was not going to market because the drying time could not be reduced below two to three minutes .","The Invisible Condom , developed at <unk> <unk> in <unk> , Canada , is a gel that <unk> upon increased temperature after insertion into the <unk> or <unk> .","In the lab , it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes <unk> virus .","The barrier breaks down and <unk> after several hours .","As of 2005 , the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase , and has not yet been approved for use .","Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an <unk> compound .","The drug @-@ treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection , which should also help reduce slippage .","If approved , the condom would be marketed under the <unk> brand .","As of 2007 , it was still in clinical trials .","In 2009 , <unk> Healthcare , the makers of <unk> condoms , introduced the <unk> condom lubricated with \" <unk> <unk> \" which contains the amino acid l @-@ <unk> and is intended to improve the strength of the <unk> response ."],"string":"[\n \" = Condom = \\n \\n A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS .\",\n \"It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks <unk> semen from entering the body of a sexual partner .\",\n \"Condoms are also used during <unk> and for collection of semen for use in infertility treatment .\",\n \"In the modern age , condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , polyisoprene , or lamb intestine .\",\n \"A female condom is also available , often made of <unk> rubber .\",\n \"As a method of birth control , male condoms have the advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , having few side effects , and offering protection against sexually transmitted infections .\",\n \"With proper use — and use at every act of intercourse — women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2 % per @-@ year pregnancy rate .\",\n \"With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18 % per @-@ year .\",\n \"Condoms have been used for at least 400 years .\",\n \"Since the 19th century , they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world .\",\n \"While widely accepted in modern times , condoms have generated some controversy , primarily over what role they should play in sex education classes .\",\n \"= = Medical uses = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Birth control = = = \\n \\n The effectiveness of condoms , as of most forms of contraception , can be assessed two ways .\",\n \"Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently .\",\n \"<unk> use , or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users , including those who use condoms incorrectly or do not use condoms at every act of intercourse .\",\n \"<unk> are generally presented for the first year of use .\",\n \"Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates , but some studies use <unk> tables .\",\n \"The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied , ranging from 10 to 18 % per year .\",\n \"The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2 % per year .\",\n \"Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception ( such as spermicide ) for greater protection .\",\n \"= = = <unk> transmitted infections = = = \\n \\n Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) .\",\n \"They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women , but not eliminating it .\",\n \"While not perfect , the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of organisms that cause AIDS , genital herpes , cervical cancer , genital warts , syphilis , <unk> , <unk> , and other diseases .\",\n \"Condoms are often recommended as an <unk> to more effective birth control methods ( such as <unk> ) in situations where STD protection is also desired .\",\n \"According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health ( <unk> ) , consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV / AIDS transmission by approximately 85 % relative to risk when unprotected , putting the <unk> rate ( infection rate ) at 0 @.\",\n \"@ 9 per 100 person @-@ years with condom , down from 6 @.\",\n \"@ 7 per 100 person @-@ years .\",\n \"Analysis published in 2007 from the University of Texas Medical Branch and the World Health Organization found similar risk reductions of 80 – 95 % .\",\n \"The 2000 <unk> review concluded that condom use significantly reduces the risk of <unk> for men .\",\n \"A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission of human <unk> ( <unk> ) to women by approximately 70 % .\",\n \"Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes <unk> virus @-@ 2 also known as genital herpes , in both men and women .\",\n \"Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure , some disease transmission may occur even with a condom .\",\n \"<unk> areas of the <unk> , especially when symptoms are present , may not be covered by a condom , and as a result , some diseases like <unk> and herpes may be transmitted by direct contact .\",\n \"The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs , however , is inconsistent use .\",\n \"Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially <unk> cervical changes .\",\n \"Exposure to human <unk> , even in individuals already infected with the virus , appears to increase the risk of <unk> changes .\",\n \"The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes .\",\n \"In addition , researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can <unk> existing cervical cancer , condom use during sex can prevent exposure to the hormone .\",\n \"= = = Causes of failure = = = \\n \\n Condoms may slip off the penis after ejaculation , break due to improper application or physical damage ( such as tears caused when opening the package ) , or break or slip due to latex degradation ( typically from usage past the expiration date , improper storage , or exposure to oils ) .\",\n \"The rate of breakage is between 0 @.\",\n \"@ 4 % and 2 @.\",\n \"@ 3 % , while the rate of slippage is between 0 @.\",\n \"@ 6 % and 1 @.\",\n \"@ 3 % .\",\n \"Even if no breakage or slippage is observed , 1 – 3 % of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom . \\n \\\"\",\n \"Double <unk> \\\" , using two condoms at once , is often believed to cause a higher rate of failure due to the friction of rubber on rubber .\",\n \"This claim is not supported by research .\",\n \"The limited studies that have been done on the subject support that double <unk> is likely not harmful and possibly beneficial .\",\n \"Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure .\",\n \"If a failure occurs during application , the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins – such failures generally pose no risk to the user .\",\n \"One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse ; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one @-@ fifth that of unprotected intercourse .\",\n \"Standard condoms will fit almost any penis , with varying degrees of comfort or risk of slippage .\",\n \"Many condom manufacturers offer \\\" <unk> \\\" or \\\" magnum \\\" sizes .\",\n \"Some manufacturers also offer custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condoms , with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation / comfort .\",\n \"Some studies have associated larger <unk> and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates ( and vice versa ) , but other studies have been inconclusive .\",\n \"It is recommended for condoms manufacturers to avoid very thick or very thin condoms , because they are both considered less effective .\",\n \"Some authors encourage users to choose thinner condoms \\\" for greater <unk> , sensation , and comfort \\\" , but others warn that \\\" the thinner the condom , the smaller the force required to break it \\\" .\",\n \"<unk> condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first @-@ time users , although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure .\",\n \"An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage .\",\n \"A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage , but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage .\",\n \"Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control , pregnancy may occur when the user has sex without a condom .\",\n \"The person may have run out of condoms , or be traveling and not have a condom with them , or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to \\\" take a chance \\\" .\",\n \"This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure ( as opposed to method or perfect use failure ) .\",\n \"Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage .\",\n \"One motive is to have a child against a partner 's wishes or consent .\",\n \"Some commercial sex workers from Nigeria reported clients <unk> condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use .\",\n \"Using a fine needle to make several <unk> at the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness .\",\n \"Cases of such condom sabotage have occurred .\",\n \"= = <unk> effects = = \\n \\n The use of latex condoms by people with an allergy to latex can cause allergic symptoms , such as skin irritation .\",\n \"In people with severe latex <unk> , using a latex condom can potentially be life @-@ threatening .\",\n \"<unk> use of latex condoms can also cause the development of a latex allergy in some people .\",\n \"= = Use = = \\n \\n Male condoms are usually packaged inside a foil or plastic <unk> , in a rolled @-@ up form , and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then <unk> over the erect penis .\",\n \"It is important that some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect ; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device .\",\n \"After use , it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot , then disposed of in a trash receptacle .\",\n \"Condoms are used to reduce the likelihood of pregnancy during intercourse and to reduce the likelihood of contracting sexually @-@ transmitted infections ( STIs ) .\",\n \"Condoms are also used during <unk> to reduce the likelihood of contracting STIs .\",\n \"Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts sex , although others incorporate condom application as part of their <unk> .\",\n \"Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom <unk> sensation .\",\n \"<unk> of <unk> sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation ; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement .\",\n \"<unk> of condom use also cite their advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , and having few side effects .\",\n \"= = = Adult film industry = = = \\n \\n In 2012 proponents gathered 372 @,@ 000 <unk> signatures through a citizens ' initiative in Los Angeles County to put Measure B on the 2012 ballot .\",\n \"As a result , Measure B , a law requiring the use of condoms in the production of pornographic films , was passed .\",\n \"This requirement has received much criticism and is said by some to be counter @-@ productive , merely forcing companies that make pornographic films to relocate to other places without this requirement .\",\n \"<unk> claim that condom use <unk> sales .\",\n \"= = = Sex education = = = \\n \\n Condoms are often used in sex education programs , because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly .\",\n \"A recent American <unk> Association ( <unk> ) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in sex education , saying \\\" comprehensive sexuality education programs ... discuss the appropriate use of condoms \\\" , and \\\" promote condom use for those who are sexually active . \\\"\",\n \"In the United States , teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations .\",\n \"Planned <unk> , which advocates family planning and sex education , argues that no studies have shown abstinence @-@ only programs to result in delayed intercourse , and cites surveys showing that 76 % of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use .\",\n \"= = = <unk> treatment = = = \\n \\n Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and <unk> insemination ( <unk> ) require collection of semen samples .\",\n \"These are most commonly obtained through masturbation , but an alternative to masturbation is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse .\",\n \"Collection condoms are made from <unk> or polyurethane , as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm .\",\n \"Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation , and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely .\",\n \"Also , compared with samples obtained from masturbation , semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts , sperm <unk> , and percentage of sperm with normal morphology .\",\n \"For this reason , they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis , and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as <unk> or <unk> insemination .\",\n \"<unk> of religions that prohibit contraception , such as Catholicism , may use collection condoms with holes <unk> in them .\",\n \"For fertility treatments , a collection condom may be used to collect semen during sexual intercourse where the semen is provided by the woman 's partner .\",\n \"Private sperm donors may also use a collection condom to obtain samples through masturbation or by sexual intercourse with a partner and will transfer the <unk> from the collection condom to a specially designed container .\",\n \"The sperm is transported in such containers , in the case of a donor , to a recipient woman to be used for insemination , and in the case of a woman 's partner , to a fertility clinic for processing and use .\",\n \"However , transportation may reduce the <unk> of the sperm .\",\n \"Collection condoms may also be used where semen is produced at a sperm bank or fertility clinic .\",\n \"Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of <unk> antibodies .\",\n \"The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner 's semen will lower her level of <unk> antibodies , and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued .\",\n \"However , condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates .\",\n \"= = = Other uses = = = \\n \\n Condoms <unk> as multipurpose containers and barriers because they are <unk> , elastic , durable , and ( for military and espionage uses ) will not <unk> suspicion if found .\",\n \"<unk> military <unk> began during World War II , and includes covering the <unk> of rifle barrels to prevent <unk> , the waterproofing of firing assemblies in underwater <unk> , and storage of corrosive materials and <unk> by paramilitary agencies .\",\n \"Condoms have also been used to smuggle alcohol , cocaine , heroin , and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs , tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the <unk> .\",\n \"These methods are very dangerous and potentially lethal ; if the condom breaks , the drugs inside become absorbed into the bloodstream and can cause an <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> , condoms can be used to cover <unk> <unk> probes , or in field chest needle <unk> they can be used to make a one @-@ way valve .\",\n \"Condoms have also been used to protect scientific samples from the environment , and to <unk> microphones for underwater recording .\",\n \"= = Types = = \\n \\n Most condoms have a reservoir tip or <unk> end , making it easier to accommodate the man 's <unk> .\",\n \"Condoms come in different sizes , from oversized to <unk> and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user 's partner .\",\n \"Condoms are usually supplied with a <unk> coating to facilitate penetration , while flavored condoms are principally used for oral sex .\",\n \"As mentioned above , most condoms are made of latex , but polyurethane and lambskin condoms also exist .\",\n \"= = = Female condom = = = \\n \\n Male condoms have a tight ring to form a seal around the penis while female condoms typically have a large stiff ring to keep them from slipping into the body <unk> .\",\n \"The Female Health Company produced a female condom that was initially made of polyurethane , but newer versions are made of <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> <unk> produces a female condom made of latex .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Natural latex = = = = \\n \\n Latex has outstanding elastic properties : Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa , and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800 % before breaking .\",\n \"In 1990 the <unk> set standards for condom production ( <unk> <unk> , Natural latex rubber condoms ) , and the EU followed suit with its <unk> standard ( Directive 93 / 42 / EEC concerning medical devices ) .\",\n \"Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electric current .\",\n \"If the condom passes , it is rolled and packaged .\",\n \"In addition , a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing .\",\n \"While the advantages of latex have made it the most popular condom material , it does have some drawbacks .\",\n \"Latex condoms are damaged when used with oil @-@ based substances as lubricants , such as petroleum <unk> , cooking oil , baby oil , mineral oil , skin <unk> , <unk> <unk> , cold <unk> , butter or <unk> .\",\n \"Contact with oil makes latex condoms more likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils .\",\n \"Additionally , latex allergy <unk> use of latex condoms and is one of the principal reasons for the use of other materials .\",\n \"In May 2009 the U.S. Food and <unk> Administration granted approval for the production of condoms composed of <unk> , latex that has been treated to remove 90 % of the proteins responsible for allergic reactions .\",\n \"An <unk> @-@ free condom made of synthetic latex ( polyisoprene ) is also available .\",\n \"= = = = <unk> = = = = \\n \\n The most common non @-@ latex condoms are made from polyurethane .\",\n \"Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials , such as AT @-@ 10 resin , and most recently polyisoprene .\",\n \"Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms , with most polyurethane condoms between 0 @.\",\n \"@ 04 mm and 0 @.\",\n \"@ 07 mm thick .\",\n \"Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways : it conducts heat better than latex , is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light ( and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life ) , can be used with oil @-@ based lubricants , is less <unk> than latex , and does not have an odor .\",\n \"Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention , and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes .\",\n \"However , polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones , and may be more likely to slip or break than latex , lose their shape or bunch up more than latex , and are more expensive .\",\n \"<unk> is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex .\",\n \"While significantly more expensive , it has the advantages of latex ( such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms ) without the protein which is responsible for latex <unk> .\",\n \"Like polyurethane condoms , polyisoprene condoms are said to do a better job of transmitting body heat .\",\n \"Unlike polyurethane condoms , they cannot be used with an oil @-@ based <unk> .\",\n \"= = = = <unk> = = = = \\n \\n Condoms made from sheep intestines , labeled \\\" lambskin \\\" , are also available .\",\n \"Although they are generally effective as a contraceptive by blocking sperm , it is presumed that they are likely less effective than latex in preventing the transmission of agents that cause STDs , because of pores in the material .\",\n \"This is based on the idea that intestines , by their nature , are porous , <unk> membranes , and while sperm are too large to pass through the pores , viruses — such as HIV , herpes , and genital warts — are small enough to pass through .\",\n \"However , there are to date no clinical data confirming or denying this theory .\",\n \"Some believe that lambskin condoms provide a more \\\" natural \\\" sensation , and they lack the <unk> that are inherent to latex , but because of their lesser protection against infection , other <unk> materials such as polyurethane are recommended for latex @-@ allergic users and / or partners .\",\n \"<unk> condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types and as slaughter by @-@ products they are also not vegetarian .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol @-@ 9 , a <unk> chemical .\",\n \"According to Consumer Reports , condoms lubricated with spermicide have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy , have a shorter shelf life , and may cause urinary @-@ tract infections in women .\",\n \"In contrast , application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive <unk> of condoms .\",\n \"<unk> @-@ 9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs ( including HIV ) but recent studies have shown that , with frequent use , nonoxynol @-@ 9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission .\",\n \"The World Health Organization says that <unk> lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted .\",\n \"However , it recommends using a nonoxynol @-@ 9 lubricated condom over no condom at all .\",\n \"As of 2005 , nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol @-@ 9 and Planned <unk> has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated .\",\n \"= = = <unk> and studded = = = \\n \\n <unk> condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners .\",\n \"The <unk> or ribs can be located on the inside , outside , or both ; alternatively , they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g @-@ spot or <unk> .\",\n \"Many textured condoms which advertise \\\" mutual pleasure \\\" also are bulb @-@ shaped at the top , to provide extra stimulation to the penis .\",\n \"Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms .\",\n \"= = = Youth condoms = = = \\n \\n In March 2010 , the Swiss government announced that it was planning to promote smaller condoms intended for boys and youths of 12 – 14 years old following concern about the pregnancy rate among adolescent girls , and also about the potential spread of AIDS among this age group .\",\n \"This was due to the fact that standard condoms were too wide and consequently failed to afford protection to adolescent boys during vaginal and anal intercourse .\",\n \"Family planning groups and the Swiss AIDS Federation had campaigned to have a narrower condom produced for youths after a number of studies , including a government study researched at the Centre for Development and Personality Psychology at Basel University , found that standard condoms were unsuitable for boys in this age range , and that the condoms either failed during use or that the boys rejected them altogether because they were too wide , and consequently they used no protection at all .\",\n \"As a result of these studies , a condom aimed at <unk> to 14 @-@ year @-@ old boys is now produced and is available in Switzerland and in certain other countries .\",\n \"Manufactured by <unk> , the \\\" <unk> \\\" is a lubricated , <unk> @-@ ended latex condom which is narrower than a standard condom and has a tight band at the opening to ensure that it remains on the youth 's penis during intercourse .\",\n \"A standard condom has a diameter of 2 inches ( 5 @.\",\n \"@ 2 cm ) whereas the <unk> has a diameter of 1 @.\",\n \"@ 7 inches ( 4 @.\",\n \"@ 5 cm ) .\",\n \"Both are the same length – 7 @.\",\n \"@ 4 inches ( 19 cm ) .\",\n \"In 2014 , in response to demand for condoms from a younger age @-@ group , German condom manufacturer Amor started producing another condom aimed at young people .\",\n \"Known as \\\" Amor Young Love \\\" , these lubricated condoms have a diameter of 1 @.\",\n \"@ 9 inches ( 4 @.\",\n \"@ 9 cm ) .\",\n \"= = = Other = = = \\n \\n The anti @-@ rape condom is another variation designed to be worn by women .\",\n \"It is designed to cause pain to the attacker , hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape .\",\n \"A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis .\",\n \"These condoms are designed to <unk> sperm life .\",\n \"Some condom @-@ like devices are intended for entertainment only , such as glow @-@ in @-@ the dark condoms .\",\n \"These novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs .\",\n \"= = <unk> = = \\n \\n The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries .\",\n \"Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women , or women in informal unions .\",\n \"Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in that country , condoms account for almost 80 % of contraceptive use by married women .\",\n \"On average , in developed countries , condoms are the most popular method of birth control : 28 % of married contraceptive users rely on condoms .\",\n \"In the average less @-@ developed country , condoms are less common : only 6 – 8 % of married contraceptive users choose condoms .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Before the 19th century = = = \\n \\n Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians .\",\n \"In ancient Egypt , Greece , and Rome , pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman 's responsibility , and the only well documented contraception methods were female @-@ controlled devices .\",\n \"In Asia before the 15th century , some use of glans condoms ( devices covering only the head of the penis ) is recorded .\",\n \"Condoms seem to have been used for contraception , and to have been known only by members of the upper classes .\",\n \"In China , glans condoms may have been made of <unk> silk paper , or of lamb intestines .\",\n \"In Japan , they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn .\",\n \"In 16th century Italy , <unk> Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis .\",\n \"The earliest documented strain of syphilis , first appearing in Europe in a <unk> outbreak , caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease .\",\n \"Falloppio 's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use : it describes linen <unk> soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use .\",\n \"The <unk> he described were sized to cover the glans of the penis , and were held on with a ribbon .\",\n \"Falloppio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis .\",\n \"After this , the use of penis <unk> to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe .\",\n \"The first indication that these devices were used for birth control , rather than disease prevention , is the 1605 theological publication De <unk> et <unk> ( On justice and law ) by Catholic theologian <unk> <unk> , who condemned them as immoral .\",\n \"In 1666 , the English Birth <unk> Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of \\\" <unk> \\\" , the first documented use of that word ( or any similar spelling ) .\",\n \"In addition to linen , condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and <unk> .\",\n \"In the late 16th century , Dutch traders introduced condoms made from \\\" fine leather \\\" to Japan .\",\n \"Unlike the horn condoms used previously , these leather condoms covered the entire penis .\",\n \"<unk> in the 18th century was one of the first reported using \\\" assurance caps \\\" to prevent <unk> his <unk> .\",\n \"From at least the 18th century , condom use was opposed in some legal , religious , and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today : condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy , which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation ; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections , while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity ; and , they are not used consistently due to <unk> , expense , or loss of sensation .\",\n \"Despite some opposition , the condom market grew rapidly .\",\n \"In the 18th century , condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes , made from either linen treated with chemicals , or \\\" skin \\\" ( <unk> or intestine softened by treatment with sulfur and <unk> ) .\",\n \"They were sold at <unk> , <unk> , chemist shops , open @-@ air markets , and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia .\",\n \"They later spread to America , although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes , due to both expense and lack of sex education .\",\n \"= = = 1800 through 1920s = = = \\n \\n The early 19th century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time .\",\n \"Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control to the condom .\",\n \"By the late 19th century many <unk> expressed distrust of the condom as a contraceptive , as its use was controlled and decided upon by men alone .\",\n \"They advocated instead for methods which were controlled by women , such as <unk> and <unk> <unk> .\",\n \"Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their <unk> ( they were often riddled with holes , and often fell off or broke ) , but they discussed condoms as a good option for some , and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease .\",\n \"Many countries passed laws <unk> the manufacture and promotion of contraceptives .\",\n \"In spite of these restrictions , condoms were promoted by traveling <unk> and in newspaper advertisements , using <unk> in places where such <unk> were illegal .\",\n \"<unk> on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe .\",\n \"Despite social and legal opposition , at the end of the 19th century the condom was the Western world 's most popular birth control method .\",\n \"Beginning in the second half of the 19th century , American rates of sexually transmitted diseases <unk> .\",\n \"Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War , and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the <unk> laws .\",\n \"To fight the growing epidemic , sex education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time , teaching about <unk> diseases and how they were transmitted .\",\n \"They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases .\",\n \"Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention because the medical community and moral <unk> considered STDs to be punishment for sexual <unk> .\",\n \"The stigma against victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis .\",\n \"The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers , beginning in the later 19th century .\",\n \"Early 20th century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases .\",\n \"During World War I , the United States and ( at the beginning of the war only ) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use .\",\n \"In the decades after World War I , there remained social and legal obstacles to condom use throughout the U.S. and Europe .\",\n \"<unk> of <unk> Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high .\",\n \"Freud was especially opposed to the condom because he thought it cut down on sexual pleasure .\",\n \"Some <unk> continued to oppose male @-@ controlled contraceptives such as condoms .\",\n \"In 1920 the Church of England 's Lambeth Conference condemned all \\\" unnatural means of conception avoidance \\\" .\",\n \"London 's Bishop Arthur <unk> @-@ Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks , especially after weekends and holidays .\",\n \"However , European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection , even in countries where they were illegal for the general population .\",\n \"Through the 1920s , catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items , including condoms and cigarettes .\",\n \"Quality testing became more common , involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure .\",\n \"Worldwide , condom sales doubled in the 1920s .\",\n \"= = = <unk> and manufacturing advances = = = \\n \\n In 1839 , Charles <unk> discovered a way of processing natural rubber , which is too stiff when cold and too soft when warm , in such a way as to make it elastic .\",\n \"This proved to have advantages for the manufacture of condoms ; unlike the sheep 's gut condoms , they could stretch and did not tear quickly when used .\",\n \"The rubber <unk> process was patented by <unk> in 1844 .\",\n \"The first rubber condom was produced in 1855 .\",\n \"The earliest rubber condoms had a seam and were as thick as a bicycle inner tube .\",\n \"Besides this type , small rubber condoms covering only the glans were often used in England and the United States .\",\n \"There was more risk of losing them and if the rubber ring was too tight , it would <unk> the penis .\",\n \"This type of condom was the original \\\" <unk> \\\" ( French for condom ) , perhaps because of its resemblance to a woman 's bonnet worn at that time , also called a <unk> .\",\n \"For many decades , rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around penis @-@ shaped molds , then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber .\",\n \"In 1912 , Polish inventor Julius <unk> developed a new , improved manufacturing technique for condoms : dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution .\",\n \"Called cement dipping , this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid .\",\n \"Latex , rubber suspended in water , was invented in 1920 .\",\n \"Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement @-@ dipped rubber condoms , which had to be <unk> by rubbing and <unk> .\",\n \"The use of water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom factories .\",\n \"Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer : they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms , and had a shelf life of five years ( compared to three months for rubber ) .\",\n \"Until the twenties , all condoms were individually hand @-@ dipped by semi @-@ skilled workers .\",\n \"Throughout the decade of the 1920s , advances in the <unk> of the condom assembly line were made .\",\n \"The first fully automated line was patented in 1930 .\",\n \"Major condom manufacturers bought or leased <unk> systems , and small manufacturers were driven out of business .\",\n \"The skin condom , now significantly more expensive than the latex variety , became restricted to a niche high @-@ end market .\",\n \"= = = 1930 to present = = = \\n \\n In 1930 the Anglican Church 's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples .\",\n \"In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement .\",\n \"The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical <unk> <unk> <unk> its opposition to all contraceptives , a stance it has never reversed .\",\n \"In the 1930s , legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed .\",\n \"But during this period <unk> Italy and Nazi Germany increased restrictions on condoms ( limited sales as disease <unk> were still allowed ) .\",\n \"During the Depression , condom lines by <unk> gained in popularity .\",\n \"<unk> still used the cement @-@ dipping method of manufacture which had two advantages over the latex variety .\",\n \"Firstly , cement @-@ dipped condoms could be safely used with oil @-@ based lubricants .\",\n \"<unk> , while less comfortable , these older @-@ style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical , a valued feature in hard times .\",\n \"More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s , and the U.S. Food and <unk> Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States .\",\n \"Throughout World War II , condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members , but also heavily promoted with films , posters , and lectures .\",\n \"European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war , even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941 .\",\n \"In part because condoms were readily available , soldiers found a number of non @-@ sexual uses for the devices , many of which continue to this day .\",\n \"After the war , condom sales continued to grow .\",\n \"From 1955 – 1965 , 42 % of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control .\",\n \"In Britain from 1950 – 1960 , 60 % of married couples used condoms .\",\n \"The birth control pill became the world 's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 <unk> , but condoms remained a strong second .\",\n \"The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the \\\" world population <unk> \\\" : by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone .\",\n \"( This number has grown in recent decades : in 2004 , the government of India purchased 1 @.\",\n \"@ 9 billion condoms for distribution at family planning clinics . )\",\n \"In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations <unk> , and more legal barriers to condom use were removed .\",\n \"In Ireland , legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978 .\",\n \"Advertising , however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions .\",\n \"In the late 1950s , the American National Association of <unk> banned condom advertisements from national television : this policy remained in place until 1979 .\",\n \"After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection , the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV .\",\n \"Despite opposition by some political , religious , and other figures , national condom promotion campaigns occurred in the U.S. and Europe .\",\n \"These campaigns increased condom use significantly .\",\n \"Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance , condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets , including in <unk> and in discount department stores such as Wal @-@ Mart .\",\n \"Condom sales increased every year until 1994 , when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline .\",\n \"The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease <unk> has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue .\",\n \"Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America .\",\n \"As one response , manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous .\",\n \"New developments continued to occur in the condom market , with the first polyurethane condom — branded <unk> and produced by the manufacturer of <unk> — introduced in the 1990s , and the first custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condom , called <unk> , introduced in the early 2000s .\",\n \"Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow : one study predicted that developing nations would need 18 @.\",\n \"@ 6 billion condoms by 2015 .\",\n \"As of September 2013 , condoms are available inside prisons in Canada , most of the European Union , Australia , Brazil , Indonesia , South Africa , and the US states of Vermont ( on September 17 , 2013 , the Californian Senate approved a bill for condom distribution inside the state 's prisons , but the bill was not yet law at the time of approval ) .\",\n \"= = = Etymology and other terms = = = \\n \\n The term condom first appears in the early 18th century .\",\n \"Its etymology is unknown .\",\n \"In popular tradition , the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England 's King Charles II , one \\\" Dr.\",\n \"Condom \\\" or \\\" Earl of Condom \\\" .\",\n \"There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person , and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne .\",\n \"A variety of unproven Latin etymologies have been proposed , including <unk> ( receptacle ) , <unk> ( house ) , and <unk> ( <unk> or case ) .\",\n \"It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word <unk> , derived from <unk> , meaning <unk> .\",\n \"William E. <unk> wrote an article in 1981 concluding that , \\\" As for the word ' condom ' , I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown , and there ends this search for an etymology . \\\"\",\n \"Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as \\\" unknown \\\" .\",\n \"Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms .\",\n \"In North America condoms are also commonly known as <unk> , or rubbers .\",\n \"In Britain they may be called French letters .\",\n \"Additionally , condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer 's name .\",\n \"= = Society and culture = = \\n \\n Some moral and scientific criticism of condoms exists despite the many benefits of condoms agreed on by scientific consensus and sexual health experts .\",\n \"Condom usage is typically recommended for new couples who have yet to develop full trust in their partner with regard to STDs .\",\n \"Established couples on the other hand have few concerns about STDs , and can use other methods of birth control such as the pill , which does not act as a barrier to intimate sexual contact .\",\n \"Note that the polar debate with regard to condom usage is <unk> by the target group the argument is directed .\",\n \"Notably the age category and stable partner question are factors , as well as the distinction between heterosexual and homosexuals , who have different kinds of sex and have different risk consequences and factors .\",\n \"Among the prime objections to condom usage is the blocking of erotic sensation , and / or the intimacy that barrier @-@ free sex provides .\",\n \"As the condom is held tightly to the skin of the penis , it <unk> the delivery of stimulation through rubbing and friction .\",\n \"Condom proponents claim this has the benefit of making sex last longer , by diminishing sensation and delaying male ejaculation .\",\n \"Those who promote condom @-@ free heterosexual sex ( slang : \\\" <unk> \\\" ) claim that the condom puts a <unk> barrier between partners , diminishing what is normally a highly sensual , intimate , and spiritual connection between partners .\",\n \"= = = Religious = = = \\n \\n Roman Catholic Church opposes all kinds of sexual acts outside of marriage , as well as any sexual act in which the chance of successful conception has been reduced by direct and intentional acts ( for example , surgery to prevent conception ) or foreign objects ( for example , condoms ) .\",\n \"The use of condoms to prevent STD transmission is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine , and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high @-@ ranking Catholic authorities .\",\n \"A few , such as Belgian Cardinal <unk> <unk> , believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease , especially serious diseases such as AIDS .\",\n \"However , the majority view — including all statements from the Vatican — is that condom @-@ promotion programs encourage promiscuity , thereby actually increasing STD transmission .\",\n \"This view was most recently reiterated in 2009 by Pope Benedict XVI .\",\n \"The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion .\",\n \"The church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa , but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial .\",\n \"In a November 2011 interview , the Pope discussed for the first time the use of condoms to prevent STD transmission .\",\n \"He said that the use of a condom can be justified in a few individual cases if the purpose is to reduce the risk of an HIV infection .\",\n \"He gave as an example male prostitutes .\",\n \"There was some confusion at first whether the statement applied only to homosexual prostitutes and thus not to heterosexual intercourse at all .\",\n \"However , Federico Lombardi , spokesman for the Vatican , clarified that it applied to heterosexual and <unk> prostitutes , whether male or female , as well .\",\n \"He did , however , also clarify that the Vatican 's principles on sexuality and contraception had not been changed .\",\n \"= = = Scientific and environmental = = = \\n \\n More generally , some scientific researchers have expressed objective concern over certain ingredients sometimes added to condoms , notably <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"Dry <unk> <unk> are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up .\",\n \"Previously , <unk> was used by most manufacturers , but <unk> is currently the most popular <unk> powder .\",\n \"<unk> is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity ( i.e.\",\n \", via the <unk> ) .\",\n \"<unk> is generally believed to be safe ; however , some researchers have raised concerns over its use as well .\",\n \"<unk> , which are potentially carcinogenic in humans , are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms .\",\n \"A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 times greater <unk> exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low .\",\n \"However , a 2004 study in Germany detected <unk> in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested , and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by <unk> to 3 @-@ fold .\",\n \"In addition , the large @-@ scale use of <unk> condoms has resulted in concerns over their environmental impact via <unk> and in <unk> , where they can eventually wind up in wildlife environments if not <unk> or otherwise permanently disposed of first .\",\n \"Polyurethane condoms in particular , given they are a form of plastic , are not biodegradable , and latex condoms take a very long time to break down .\",\n \"Experts , such as <unk> , recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle , as <unk> them down the toilet ( which some people do ) may cause <unk> <unk> and other problems .\",\n \"Furthermore , the plastic and foil <unk> condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable .\",\n \"However , the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass .\",\n \"Frequent condom or <unk> disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem .\",\n \"While biodegradable , latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly .\",\n \"According to the Ocean Conservancy , condoms , along with certain other types of trash , cover the coral reefs and <unk> sea grass and other bottom dwellers .\",\n \"The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food .\",\n \"= = = Cultural barriers to use = = = \\n \\n In much of the Western world , the introduction of the pill in the 1960s was associated with a decline in condom use .\",\n \"In Japan , oral contraceptives were not approved for use until September 1999 , and even then access was more restricted than in other <unk> nations .\",\n \"Perhaps because of this restricted access to <unk> contraception , Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in 2008 , 80 % of contraceptive users relied on condoms .\",\n \"Cultural attitudes toward gender roles , contraception , and sexual activity vary greatly around the world , and range from extremely conservative to extremely liberal .\",\n \"But in places where condoms are misunderstood , <unk> , <unk> , or looked upon with overall cultural disapproval , the prevalence of condom use is directly affected .\",\n \"In less @-@ developed countries and among less @-@ educated populations , <unk> about how disease transmission and conception work negatively affect the use of condoms ; additionally , in cultures with more traditional gender roles , women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms .\",\n \"As an example , Latino immigrants in the United States often face cultural barriers to condom use .\",\n \"A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of Sex Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe sex due to traditional gender @-@ role norms in the Latino community , and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners .\",\n \"Women who participated in the study often reported that because of the general machismo subtly encouraged in Latino culture , their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the woman 's suggestion that they use condoms .\",\n \"A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low @-@ income American black women ; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion to their male partners that condoms be used .\",\n \"A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University , and published in the Journal of <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among United States black men is linked to rates of condom use .\",\n \"As conspiracy beliefs about AIDS grow in a given sector of these black men , consistent condom use drops in that same sector .\",\n \"Female use of condoms was not similarly affected .\",\n \"In the African continent , condom promotion in some areas has been impeded by anti @-@ condom campaigns by some Muslim and Catholic clerics .\",\n \"Among the Maasai in Tanzania , condom use is hampered by an aversion to \\\" wasting \\\" sperm , which is given <unk> importance beyond reproduction .\",\n \"<unk> is believed to be an \\\" elixir \\\" to women and to have beneficial health effects .\",\n \"Maasai women believe that , after <unk> a child , they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child 's development .\",\n \"Frequent condom use is also considered by some Maasai to cause impotence .\",\n \"Some women in Africa believe that condoms are \\\" for prostitutes \\\" and that respectable women should not use them .\",\n \"A few clerics even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV .\",\n \"In the United States , possession of many condoms has been used by police to accuse women of engaging in prostitution .\",\n \"The Presidential Advisory Council on HIV / AIDS has condemned this practice and there are efforts to end it .\",\n \"In March 2013 , technology <unk> Bill Gates offered a US $ 100 @,@ 000 grant through his foundation for a condom design that \\\" significantly preserves or enhances pleasure \\\" to encourage more males to adopt the use of condoms for safer sex .\",\n \"The grant information states : “ The primary drawback from the male perspective is that condoms decrease pleasure as compared to no condom , creating a trade @-@ off that many men find unacceptable , particularly given that the decisions about use must be made just prior to intercourse .\",\n \"Is it possible to develop a product without this stigma , or better , one that is felt to enhance pleasure ?\",\n \"” The project has been named the \\\" Next Generation Condom \\\" and anyone who can provide a \\\" <unk> hypothesis \\\" is eligible to apply .\",\n \"Middle @-@ Eastern couples who have not had children , because of the strong desire and social pressure to establish fertility as soon as possible within marriage , rarely use condoms .\",\n \"= = = Major manufacturers = = = \\n \\n One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that \\\" <unk> the mind \\\" .\",\n \"Numerous small manufacturers , <unk> groups , and government @-@ run manufacturing plants exist around the world .\",\n \"Within the condom market , there are several major contributors , among them both for @-@ profit businesses and philanthropic organizations .\",\n \"Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century .\",\n \"= = Research = = \\n \\n A <unk> @-@ on condom made of latex is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases .\",\n \"As of 2009 , the <unk> @-@ on condom was not going to market because the drying time could not be reduced below two to three minutes .\",\n \"The Invisible Condom , developed at <unk> <unk> in <unk> , Canada , is a gel that <unk> upon increased temperature after insertion into the <unk> or <unk> .\",\n \"In the lab , it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes <unk> virus .\",\n \"The barrier breaks down and <unk> after several hours .\",\n \"As of 2005 , the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase , and has not yet been approved for use .\",\n \"Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an <unk> compound .\",\n \"The drug @-@ treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection , which should also help reduce slippage .\",\n \"If approved , the condom would be marketed under the <unk> brand .\",\n \"As of 2007 , it was still in clinical trials .\",\n \"In 2009 , <unk> Healthcare , the makers of <unk> condoms , introduced the <unk> condom lubricated with \\\" <unk> <unk> \\\" which contains the amino acid l @-@ <unk> and is intended to improve the strength of the <unk> response .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Collection condoms may also be used where semen is produced at a sperm bank or fertility clinic ."],"string":"[\n \"Collection condoms may also be used where semen is produced at a sperm bank or fertility clinic .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Condom = \n \n A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS .","It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks <unk> semen from entering the body of a sexual partner .","Condoms are also used during <unk> and for collection of semen for use in infertility treatment .","In the modern age , condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , polyisoprene , or lamb intestine .","A female condom is also available , often made of <unk> rubber .","As a method of birth control , male condoms have the advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , having few side effects , and offering protection against sexually transmitted infections .","With proper use — and use at every act of intercourse — women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2 % per @-@ year pregnancy rate .","With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18 % per @-@ year .","Condoms have been used for at least 400 years .","Since the 19th century , they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world .","While widely accepted in modern times , condoms have generated some controversy , primarily over what role they should play in sex education classes .","= = Medical uses = = \n \n \n = = = Birth control = = = \n \n The effectiveness of condoms , as of most forms of contraception , can be assessed two ways .","Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently .","<unk> use , or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users , including those who use condoms incorrectly or do not use condoms at every act of intercourse .","<unk> are generally presented for the first year of use .","Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates , but some studies use <unk> tables .","The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied , ranging from 10 to 18 % per year .","The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2 % per year .","Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception ( such as spermicide ) for greater protection .","= = = <unk> transmitted infections = = = \n \n Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) .","They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women , but not eliminating it .","While not perfect , the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of organisms that cause AIDS , genital herpes , cervical cancer , genital warts , syphilis , <unk> , <unk> , and other diseases .","Condoms are often recommended as an <unk> to more effective birth control methods ( such as <unk> ) in situations where STD protection is also desired .","According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health ( <unk> ) , consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV / AIDS transmission by approximately 85 % relative to risk when unprotected , putting the <unk> rate ( infection rate ) at 0 @.","@ 9 per 100 person @-@ years with condom , down from 6 @.","@ 7 per 100 person @-@ years .","Analysis published in 2007 from the University of Texas Medical Branch and the World Health Organization found similar risk reductions of 80 – 95 % .","The 2000 <unk> review concluded that condom use significantly reduces the risk of <unk> for men .","A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission of human <unk> ( <unk> ) to women by approximately 70 % .","Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes <unk> virus @-@ 2 also known as genital herpes , in both men and women .","Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure , some disease transmission may occur even with a condom .","<unk> areas of the <unk> , especially when symptoms are present , may not be covered by a condom , and as a result , some diseases like <unk> and herpes may be transmitted by direct contact .","The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs , however , is inconsistent use .","Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially <unk> cervical changes .","Exposure to human <unk> , even in individuals already infected with the virus , appears to increase the risk of <unk> changes .","The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes .","In addition , researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can <unk> existing cervical cancer , condom use during sex can prevent exposure to the hormone .","= = = Causes of failure = = = \n \n Condoms may slip off the penis after ejaculation , break due to improper application or physical damage ( such as tears caused when opening the package ) , or break or slip due to latex degradation ( typically from usage past the expiration date , improper storage , or exposure to oils ) .","The rate of breakage is between 0 @.","@ 4 % and 2 @.","@ 3 % , while the rate of slippage is between 0 @.","@ 6 % and 1 @.","@ 3 % .","Even if no breakage or slippage is observed , 1 – 3 % of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom . \n \"","Double <unk> \" , using two condoms at once , is often believed to cause a higher rate of failure due to the friction of rubber on rubber .","This claim is not supported by research .","The limited studies that have been done on the subject support that double <unk> is likely not harmful and possibly beneficial .","Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure .","If a failure occurs during application , the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins – such failures generally pose no risk to the user .","One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse ; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one @-@ fifth that of unprotected intercourse .","Standard condoms will fit almost any penis , with varying degrees of comfort or risk of slippage .","Many condom manufacturers offer \" <unk> \" or \" magnum \" sizes .","Some manufacturers also offer custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condoms , with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation / comfort .","Some studies have associated larger <unk> and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates ( and vice versa ) , but other studies have been inconclusive .","It is recommended for condoms manufacturers to avoid very thick or very thin condoms , because they are both considered less effective .","Some authors encourage users to choose thinner condoms \" for greater <unk> , sensation , and comfort \" , but others warn that \" the thinner the condom , the smaller the force required to break it \" .","<unk> condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first @-@ time users , although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure .","An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage .","A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage , but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage .","Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control , pregnancy may occur when the user has sex without a condom .","The person may have run out of condoms , or be traveling and not have a condom with them , or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to \" take a chance \" .","This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure ( as opposed to method or perfect use failure ) .","Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage .","One motive is to have a child against a partner 's wishes or consent .","Some commercial sex workers from Nigeria reported clients <unk> condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use .","Using a fine needle to make several <unk> at the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness .","Cases of such condom sabotage have occurred .","= = <unk> effects = = \n \n The use of latex condoms by people with an allergy to latex can cause allergic symptoms , such as skin irritation .","In people with severe latex <unk> , using a latex condom can potentially be life @-@ threatening .","<unk> use of latex condoms can also cause the development of a latex allergy in some people .","= = Use = = \n \n Male condoms are usually packaged inside a foil or plastic <unk> , in a rolled @-@ up form , and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then <unk> over the erect penis .","It is important that some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect ; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device .","After use , it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot , then disposed of in a trash receptacle .","Condoms are used to reduce the likelihood of pregnancy during intercourse and to reduce the likelihood of contracting sexually @-@ transmitted infections ( STIs ) .","Condoms are also used during <unk> to reduce the likelihood of contracting STIs .","Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts sex , although others incorporate condom application as part of their <unk> .","Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom <unk> sensation .","<unk> of <unk> sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation ; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement .","<unk> of condom use also cite their advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , and having few side effects .","= = = Adult film industry = = = \n \n In 2012 proponents gathered 372 @,@ 000 <unk> signatures through a citizens ' initiative in Los Angeles County to put Measure B on the 2012 ballot .","As a result , Measure B , a law requiring the use of condoms in the production of pornographic films , was passed .","This requirement has received much criticism and is said by some to be counter @-@ productive , merely forcing companies that make pornographic films to relocate to other places without this requirement .","<unk> claim that condom use <unk> sales .","= = = Sex education = = = \n \n Condoms are often used in sex education programs , because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly .","A recent American <unk> Association ( <unk> ) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in sex education , saying \" comprehensive sexuality education programs ... discuss the appropriate use of condoms \" , and \" promote condom use for those who are sexually active . \"","In the United States , teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations .","Planned <unk> , which advocates family planning and sex education , argues that no studies have shown abstinence @-@ only programs to result in delayed intercourse , and cites surveys showing that 76 % of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use .","= = = <unk> treatment = = = \n \n Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and <unk> insemination ( <unk> ) require collection of semen samples .","These are most commonly obtained through masturbation , but an alternative to masturbation is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse .","Collection condoms are made from <unk> or polyurethane , as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm .","Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation , and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely .","Also , compared with samples obtained from masturbation , semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts , sperm <unk> , and percentage of sperm with normal morphology .","For this reason , they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis , and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as <unk> or <unk> insemination .","<unk> of religions that prohibit contraception , such as Catholicism , may use collection condoms with holes <unk> in them .","For fertility treatments , a collection condom may be used to collect semen during sexual intercourse where the semen is provided by the woman 's partner .","Private sperm donors may also use a collection condom to obtain samples through masturbation or by sexual intercourse with a partner and will transfer the <unk> from the collection condom to a specially designed container .","The sperm is transported in such containers , in the case of a donor , to a recipient woman to be used for insemination , and in the case of a woman 's partner , to a fertility clinic for processing and use .","However , transportation may reduce the <unk> of the sperm .","Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of <unk> antibodies .","The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner 's semen will lower her level of <unk> antibodies , and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued .","However , condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates .","= = = Other uses = = = \n \n Condoms <unk> as multipurpose containers and barriers because they are <unk> , elastic , durable , and ( for military and espionage uses ) will not <unk> suspicion if found .","<unk> military <unk> began during World War II , and includes covering the <unk> of rifle barrels to prevent <unk> , the waterproofing of firing assemblies in underwater <unk> , and storage of corrosive materials and <unk> by paramilitary agencies .","Condoms have also been used to smuggle alcohol , cocaine , heroin , and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs , tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the <unk> .","These methods are very dangerous and potentially lethal ; if the condom breaks , the drugs inside become absorbed into the bloodstream and can cause an <unk> .","<unk> , condoms can be used to cover <unk> <unk> probes , or in field chest needle <unk> they can be used to make a one @-@ way valve .","Condoms have also been used to protect scientific samples from the environment , and to <unk> microphones for underwater recording .","= = Types = = \n \n Most condoms have a reservoir tip or <unk> end , making it easier to accommodate the man 's <unk> .","Condoms come in different sizes , from oversized to <unk> and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user 's partner .","Condoms are usually supplied with a <unk> coating to facilitate penetration , while flavored condoms are principally used for oral sex .","As mentioned above , most condoms are made of latex , but polyurethane and lambskin condoms also exist .","= = = Female condom = = = \n \n Male condoms have a tight ring to form a seal around the penis while female condoms typically have a large stiff ring to keep them from slipping into the body <unk> .","The Female Health Company produced a female condom that was initially made of polyurethane , but newer versions are made of <unk> .","<unk> <unk> produces a female condom made of latex .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n \n = = = = Natural latex = = = = \n \n Latex has outstanding elastic properties : Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa , and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800 % before breaking .","In 1990 the <unk> set standards for condom production ( <unk> <unk> , Natural latex rubber condoms ) , and the EU followed suit with its <unk> standard ( Directive 93 / 42 / EEC concerning medical devices ) .","Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electric current .","If the condom passes , it is rolled and packaged .","In addition , a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing .","While the advantages of latex have made it the most popular condom material , it does have some drawbacks .","Latex condoms are damaged when used with oil @-@ based substances as lubricants , such as petroleum <unk> , cooking oil , baby oil , mineral oil , skin <unk> , <unk> <unk> , cold <unk> , butter or <unk> .","Contact with oil makes latex condoms more likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils .","Additionally , latex allergy <unk> use of latex condoms and is one of the principal reasons for the use of other materials .","In May 2009 the U.S. Food and <unk> Administration granted approval for the production of condoms composed of <unk> , latex that has been treated to remove 90 % of the proteins responsible for allergic reactions .","An <unk> @-@ free condom made of synthetic latex ( polyisoprene ) is also available .","= = = = <unk> = = = = \n \n The most common non @-@ latex condoms are made from polyurethane .","Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials , such as AT @-@ 10 resin , and most recently polyisoprene .","Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms , with most polyurethane condoms between 0 @.","@ 04 mm and 0 @.","@ 07 mm thick .","Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways : it conducts heat better than latex , is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light ( and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life ) , can be used with oil @-@ based lubricants , is less <unk> than latex , and does not have an odor .","Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention , and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes .","However , polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones , and may be more likely to slip or break than latex , lose their shape or bunch up more than latex , and are more expensive .","<unk> is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex .","While significantly more expensive , it has the advantages of latex ( such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms ) without the protein which is responsible for latex <unk> .","Like polyurethane condoms , polyisoprene condoms are said to do a better job of transmitting body heat .","Unlike polyurethane condoms , they cannot be used with an oil @-@ based <unk> .","= = = = <unk> = = = = \n \n Condoms made from sheep intestines , labeled \" lambskin \" , are also available .","Although they are generally effective as a contraceptive by blocking sperm , it is presumed that they are likely less effective than latex in preventing the transmission of agents that cause STDs , because of pores in the material .","This is based on the idea that intestines , by their nature , are porous , <unk> membranes , and while sperm are too large to pass through the pores , viruses — such as HIV , herpes , and genital warts — are small enough to pass through .","However , there are to date no clinical data confirming or denying this theory .","Some believe that lambskin condoms provide a more \" natural \" sensation , and they lack the <unk> that are inherent to latex , but because of their lesser protection against infection , other <unk> materials such as polyurethane are recommended for latex @-@ allergic users and / or partners .","<unk> condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types and as slaughter by @-@ products they are also not vegetarian .","= = = <unk> = = = \n \n Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol @-@ 9 , a <unk> chemical .","According to Consumer Reports , condoms lubricated with spermicide have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy , have a shorter shelf life , and may cause urinary @-@ tract infections in women .","In contrast , application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive <unk> of condoms .","<unk> @-@ 9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs ( including HIV ) but recent studies have shown that , with frequent use , nonoxynol @-@ 9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission .","The World Health Organization says that <unk> lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted .","However , it recommends using a nonoxynol @-@ 9 lubricated condom over no condom at all .","As of 2005 , nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol @-@ 9 and Planned <unk> has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated .","= = = <unk> and studded = = = \n \n <unk> condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners .","The <unk> or ribs can be located on the inside , outside , or both ; alternatively , they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g @-@ spot or <unk> .","Many textured condoms which advertise \" mutual pleasure \" also are bulb @-@ shaped at the top , to provide extra stimulation to the penis .","Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms .","= = = Youth condoms = = = \n \n In March 2010 , the Swiss government announced that it was planning to promote smaller condoms intended for boys and youths of 12 – 14 years old following concern about the pregnancy rate among adolescent girls , and also about the potential spread of AIDS among this age group .","This was due to the fact that standard condoms were too wide and consequently failed to afford protection to adolescent boys during vaginal and anal intercourse .","Family planning groups and the Swiss AIDS Federation had campaigned to have a narrower condom produced for youths after a number of studies , including a government study researched at the Centre for Development and Personality Psychology at Basel University , found that standard condoms were unsuitable for boys in this age range , and that the condoms either failed during use or that the boys rejected them altogether because they were too wide , and consequently they used no protection at all .","As a result of these studies , a condom aimed at <unk> to 14 @-@ year @-@ old boys is now produced and is available in Switzerland and in certain other countries .","Manufactured by <unk> , the \" <unk> \" is a lubricated , <unk> @-@ ended latex condom which is narrower than a standard condom and has a tight band at the opening to ensure that it remains on the youth 's penis during intercourse .","A standard condom has a diameter of 2 inches ( 5 @.","@ 2 cm ) whereas the <unk> has a diameter of 1 @.","@ 7 inches ( 4 @.","@ 5 cm ) .","Both are the same length – 7 @.","@ 4 inches ( 19 cm ) .","In 2014 , in response to demand for condoms from a younger age @-@ group , German condom manufacturer Amor started producing another condom aimed at young people .","Known as \" Amor Young Love \" , these lubricated condoms have a diameter of 1 @.","@ 9 inches ( 4 @.","@ 9 cm ) .","= = = Other = = = \n \n The anti @-@ rape condom is another variation designed to be worn by women .","It is designed to cause pain to the attacker , hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape .","A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis .","These condoms are designed to <unk> sperm life .","Some condom @-@ like devices are intended for entertainment only , such as glow @-@ in @-@ the dark condoms .","These novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs .","= = <unk> = = \n \n The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries .","Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women , or women in informal unions .","Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in that country , condoms account for almost 80 % of contraceptive use by married women .","On average , in developed countries , condoms are the most popular method of birth control : 28 % of married contraceptive users rely on condoms .","In the average less @-@ developed country , condoms are less common : only 6 – 8 % of married contraceptive users choose condoms .","= = History = = \n \n \n = = = Before the 19th century = = = \n \n Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians .","In ancient Egypt , Greece , and Rome , pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman 's responsibility , and the only well documented contraception methods were female @-@ controlled devices .","In Asia before the 15th century , some use of glans condoms ( devices covering only the head of the penis ) is recorded .","Condoms seem to have been used for contraception , and to have been known only by members of the upper classes .","In China , glans condoms may have been made of <unk> silk paper , or of lamb intestines .","In Japan , they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn .","In 16th century Italy , <unk> Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis .","The earliest documented strain of syphilis , first appearing in Europe in a <unk> outbreak , caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease .","Falloppio 's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use : it describes linen <unk> soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use .","The <unk> he described were sized to cover the glans of the penis , and were held on with a ribbon .","Falloppio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis .","After this , the use of penis <unk> to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe .","The first indication that these devices were used for birth control , rather than disease prevention , is the 1605 theological publication De <unk> et <unk> ( On justice and law ) by Catholic theologian <unk> <unk> , who condemned them as immoral .","In 1666 , the English Birth <unk> Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of \" <unk> \" , the first documented use of that word ( or any similar spelling ) .","In addition to linen , condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and <unk> .","In the late 16th century , Dutch traders introduced condoms made from \" fine leather \" to Japan .","Unlike the horn condoms used previously , these leather condoms covered the entire penis .","<unk> in the 18th century was one of the first reported using \" assurance caps \" to prevent <unk> his <unk> .","From at least the 18th century , condom use was opposed in some legal , religious , and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today : condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy , which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation ; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections , while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity ; and , they are not used consistently due to <unk> , expense , or loss of sensation .","Despite some opposition , the condom market grew rapidly .","In the 18th century , condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes , made from either linen treated with chemicals , or \" skin \" ( <unk> or intestine softened by treatment with sulfur and <unk> ) .","They were sold at <unk> , <unk> , chemist shops , open @-@ air markets , and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia .","They later spread to America , although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes , due to both expense and lack of sex education .","= = = 1800 through 1920s = = = \n \n The early 19th century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time .","Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control to the condom .","By the late 19th century many <unk> expressed distrust of the condom as a contraceptive , as its use was controlled and decided upon by men alone .","They advocated instead for methods which were controlled by women , such as <unk> and <unk> <unk> .","Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their <unk> ( they were often riddled with holes , and often fell off or broke ) , but they discussed condoms as a good option for some , and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease .","Many countries passed laws <unk> the manufacture and promotion of contraceptives .","In spite of these restrictions , condoms were promoted by traveling <unk> and in newspaper advertisements , using <unk> in places where such <unk> were illegal .","<unk> on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe .","Despite social and legal opposition , at the end of the 19th century the condom was the Western world 's most popular birth control method .","Beginning in the second half of the 19th century , American rates of sexually transmitted diseases <unk> .","Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War , and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the <unk> laws .","To fight the growing epidemic , sex education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time , teaching about <unk> diseases and how they were transmitted .","They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases .","Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention because the medical community and moral <unk> considered STDs to be punishment for sexual <unk> .","The stigma against victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis .","The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers , beginning in the later 19th century .","Early 20th century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases .","During World War I , the United States and ( at the beginning of the war only ) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use .","In the decades after World War I , there remained social and legal obstacles to condom use throughout the U.S. and Europe .","<unk> of <unk> Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high .","Freud was especially opposed to the condom because he thought it cut down on sexual pleasure .","Some <unk> continued to oppose male @-@ controlled contraceptives such as condoms .","In 1920 the Church of England 's Lambeth Conference condemned all \" unnatural means of conception avoidance \" .","London 's Bishop Arthur <unk> @-@ Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks , especially after weekends and holidays .","However , European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection , even in countries where they were illegal for the general population .","Through the 1920s , catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items , including condoms and cigarettes .","Quality testing became more common , involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure .","Worldwide , condom sales doubled in the 1920s .","= = = <unk> and manufacturing advances = = = \n \n In 1839 , Charles <unk> discovered a way of processing natural rubber , which is too stiff when cold and too soft when warm , in such a way as to make it elastic .","This proved to have advantages for the manufacture of condoms ; unlike the sheep 's gut condoms , they could stretch and did not tear quickly when used .","The rubber <unk> process was patented by <unk> in 1844 .","The first rubber condom was produced in 1855 .","The earliest rubber condoms had a seam and were as thick as a bicycle inner tube .","Besides this type , small rubber condoms covering only the glans were often used in England and the United States .","There was more risk of losing them and if the rubber ring was too tight , it would <unk> the penis .","This type of condom was the original \" <unk> \" ( French for condom ) , perhaps because of its resemblance to a woman 's bonnet worn at that time , also called a <unk> .","For many decades , rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around penis @-@ shaped molds , then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber .","In 1912 , Polish inventor Julius <unk> developed a new , improved manufacturing technique for condoms : dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution .","Called cement dipping , this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid .","Latex , rubber suspended in water , was invented in 1920 .","Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement @-@ dipped rubber condoms , which had to be <unk> by rubbing and <unk> .","The use of water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom factories .","Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer : they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms , and had a shelf life of five years ( compared to three months for rubber ) .","Until the twenties , all condoms were individually hand @-@ dipped by semi @-@ skilled workers .","Throughout the decade of the 1920s , advances in the <unk> of the condom assembly line were made .","The first fully automated line was patented in 1930 .","Major condom manufacturers bought or leased <unk> systems , and small manufacturers were driven out of business .","The skin condom , now significantly more expensive than the latex variety , became restricted to a niche high @-@ end market .","= = = 1930 to present = = = \n \n In 1930 the Anglican Church 's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples .","In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement .","The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical <unk> <unk> <unk> its opposition to all contraceptives , a stance it has never reversed .","In the 1930s , legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed .","But during this period <unk> Italy and Nazi Germany increased restrictions on condoms ( limited sales as disease <unk> were still allowed ) .","During the Depression , condom lines by <unk> gained in popularity .","<unk> still used the cement @-@ dipping method of manufacture which had two advantages over the latex variety .","Firstly , cement @-@ dipped condoms could be safely used with oil @-@ based lubricants .","<unk> , while less comfortable , these older @-@ style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical , a valued feature in hard times .","More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s , and the U.S. Food and <unk> Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States .","Throughout World War II , condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members , but also heavily promoted with films , posters , and lectures .","European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war , even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941 .","In part because condoms were readily available , soldiers found a number of non @-@ sexual uses for the devices , many of which continue to this day .","After the war , condom sales continued to grow .","From 1955 – 1965 , 42 % of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control .","In Britain from 1950 – 1960 , 60 % of married couples used condoms .","The birth control pill became the world 's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 <unk> , but condoms remained a strong second .","The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the \" world population <unk> \" : by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone .","( This number has grown in recent decades : in 2004 , the government of India purchased 1 @.","@ 9 billion condoms for distribution at family planning clinics . )","In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations <unk> , and more legal barriers to condom use were removed .","In Ireland , legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978 .","Advertising , however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions .","In the late 1950s , the American National Association of <unk> banned condom advertisements from national television : this policy remained in place until 1979 .","After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection , the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV .","Despite opposition by some political , religious , and other figures , national condom promotion campaigns occurred in the U.S. and Europe .","These campaigns increased condom use significantly .","Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance , condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets , including in <unk> and in discount department stores such as Wal @-@ Mart .","Condom sales increased every year until 1994 , when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline .","The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease <unk> has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue .","Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America .","As one response , manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous .","New developments continued to occur in the condom market , with the first polyurethane condom — branded <unk> and produced by the manufacturer of <unk> — introduced in the 1990s , and the first custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condom , called <unk> , introduced in the early 2000s .","Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow : one study predicted that developing nations would need 18 @.","@ 6 billion condoms by 2015 .","As of September 2013 , condoms are available inside prisons in Canada , most of the European Union , Australia , Brazil , Indonesia , South Africa , and the US states of Vermont ( on September 17 , 2013 , the Californian Senate approved a bill for condom distribution inside the state 's prisons , but the bill was not yet law at the time of approval ) .","= = = Etymology and other terms = = = \n \n The term condom first appears in the early 18th century .","Its etymology is unknown .","In popular tradition , the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England 's King Charles II , one \" Dr.","Condom \" or \" Earl of Condom \" .","There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person , and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne .","A variety of unproven Latin etymologies have been proposed , including <unk> ( receptacle ) , <unk> ( house ) , and <unk> ( <unk> or case ) .","It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word <unk> , derived from <unk> , meaning <unk> .","William E. <unk> wrote an article in 1981 concluding that , \" As for the word ' condom ' , I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown , and there ends this search for an etymology . \"","Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as \" unknown \" .","Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms .","In North America condoms are also commonly known as <unk> , or rubbers .","In Britain they may be called French letters .","Additionally , condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer 's name .","= = Society and culture = = \n \n Some moral and scientific criticism of condoms exists despite the many benefits of condoms agreed on by scientific consensus and sexual health experts .","Condom usage is typically recommended for new couples who have yet to develop full trust in their partner with regard to STDs .","Established couples on the other hand have few concerns about STDs , and can use other methods of birth control such as the pill , which does not act as a barrier to intimate sexual contact .","Note that the polar debate with regard to condom usage is <unk> by the target group the argument is directed .","Notably the age category and stable partner question are factors , as well as the distinction between heterosexual and homosexuals , who have different kinds of sex and have different risk consequences and factors .","Among the prime objections to condom usage is the blocking of erotic sensation , and / or the intimacy that barrier @-@ free sex provides .","As the condom is held tightly to the skin of the penis , it <unk> the delivery of stimulation through rubbing and friction .","Condom proponents claim this has the benefit of making sex last longer , by diminishing sensation and delaying male ejaculation .","Those who promote condom @-@ free heterosexual sex ( slang : \" <unk> \" ) claim that the condom puts a <unk> barrier between partners , diminishing what is normally a highly sensual , intimate , and spiritual connection between partners .","= = = Religious = = = \n \n Roman Catholic Church opposes all kinds of sexual acts outside of marriage , as well as any sexual act in which the chance of successful conception has been reduced by direct and intentional acts ( for example , surgery to prevent conception ) or foreign objects ( for example , condoms ) .","The use of condoms to prevent STD transmission is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine , and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high @-@ ranking Catholic authorities .","A few , such as Belgian Cardinal <unk> <unk> , believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease , especially serious diseases such as AIDS .","However , the majority view — including all statements from the Vatican — is that condom @-@ promotion programs encourage promiscuity , thereby actually increasing STD transmission .","This view was most recently reiterated in 2009 by Pope Benedict XVI .","The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion .","The church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa , but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial .","In a November 2011 interview , the Pope discussed for the first time the use of condoms to prevent STD transmission .","He said that the use of a condom can be justified in a few individual cases if the purpose is to reduce the risk of an HIV infection .","He gave as an example male prostitutes .","There was some confusion at first whether the statement applied only to homosexual prostitutes and thus not to heterosexual intercourse at all .","However , Federico Lombardi , spokesman for the Vatican , clarified that it applied to heterosexual and <unk> prostitutes , whether male or female , as well .","He did , however , also clarify that the Vatican 's principles on sexuality and contraception had not been changed .","= = = Scientific and environmental = = = \n \n More generally , some scientific researchers have expressed objective concern over certain ingredients sometimes added to condoms , notably <unk> and <unk> .","Dry <unk> <unk> are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up .","Previously , <unk> was used by most manufacturers , but <unk> is currently the most popular <unk> powder .","<unk> is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity ( i.e.",", via the <unk> ) .","<unk> is generally believed to be safe ; however , some researchers have raised concerns over its use as well .","<unk> , which are potentially carcinogenic in humans , are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms .","A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 times greater <unk> exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low .","However , a 2004 study in Germany detected <unk> in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested , and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by <unk> to 3 @-@ fold .","In addition , the large @-@ scale use of <unk> condoms has resulted in concerns over their environmental impact via <unk> and in <unk> , where they can eventually wind up in wildlife environments if not <unk> or otherwise permanently disposed of first .","Polyurethane condoms in particular , given they are a form of plastic , are not biodegradable , and latex condoms take a very long time to break down .","Experts , such as <unk> , recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle , as <unk> them down the toilet ( which some people do ) may cause <unk> <unk> and other problems .","Furthermore , the plastic and foil <unk> condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable .","However , the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass .","Frequent condom or <unk> disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem .","While biodegradable , latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly .","According to the Ocean Conservancy , condoms , along with certain other types of trash , cover the coral reefs and <unk> sea grass and other bottom dwellers .","The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food .","= = = Cultural barriers to use = = = \n \n In much of the Western world , the introduction of the pill in the 1960s was associated with a decline in condom use .","In Japan , oral contraceptives were not approved for use until September 1999 , and even then access was more restricted than in other <unk> nations .","Perhaps because of this restricted access to <unk> contraception , Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in 2008 , 80 % of contraceptive users relied on condoms .","Cultural attitudes toward gender roles , contraception , and sexual activity vary greatly around the world , and range from extremely conservative to extremely liberal .","But in places where condoms are misunderstood , <unk> , <unk> , or looked upon with overall cultural disapproval , the prevalence of condom use is directly affected .","In less @-@ developed countries and among less @-@ educated populations , <unk> about how disease transmission and conception work negatively affect the use of condoms ; additionally , in cultures with more traditional gender roles , women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms .","As an example , Latino immigrants in the United States often face cultural barriers to condom use .","A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of Sex Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe sex due to traditional gender @-@ role norms in the Latino community , and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners .","Women who participated in the study often reported that because of the general machismo subtly encouraged in Latino culture , their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the woman 's suggestion that they use condoms .","A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low @-@ income American black women ; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion to their male partners that condoms be used .","A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University , and published in the Journal of <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among United States black men is linked to rates of condom use .","As conspiracy beliefs about AIDS grow in a given sector of these black men , consistent condom use drops in that same sector .","Female use of condoms was not similarly affected .","In the African continent , condom promotion in some areas has been impeded by anti @-@ condom campaigns by some Muslim and Catholic clerics .","Among the Maasai in Tanzania , condom use is hampered by an aversion to \" wasting \" sperm , which is given <unk> importance beyond reproduction .","<unk> is believed to be an \" elixir \" to women and to have beneficial health effects .","Maasai women believe that , after <unk> a child , they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child 's development .","Frequent condom use is also considered by some Maasai to cause impotence .","Some women in Africa believe that condoms are \" for prostitutes \" and that respectable women should not use them .","A few clerics even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV .","In the United States , possession of many condoms has been used by police to accuse women of engaging in prostitution .","The Presidential Advisory Council on HIV / AIDS has condemned this practice and there are efforts to end it .","In March 2013 , technology <unk> Bill Gates offered a US $ 100 @,@ 000 grant through his foundation for a condom design that \" significantly preserves or enhances pleasure \" to encourage more males to adopt the use of condoms for safer sex .","The grant information states : “ The primary drawback from the male perspective is that condoms decrease pleasure as compared to no condom , creating a trade @-@ off that many men find unacceptable , particularly given that the decisions about use must be made just prior to intercourse .","Is it possible to develop a product without this stigma , or better , one that is felt to enhance pleasure ?","” The project has been named the \" Next Generation Condom \" and anyone who can provide a \" <unk> hypothesis \" is eligible to apply .","Middle @-@ Eastern couples who have not had children , because of the strong desire and social pressure to establish fertility as soon as possible within marriage , rarely use condoms .","= = = Major manufacturers = = = \n \n One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that \" <unk> the mind \" .","Numerous small manufacturers , <unk> groups , and government @-@ run manufacturing plants exist around the world .","Within the condom market , there are several major contributors , among them both for @-@ profit businesses and philanthropic organizations .","Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century .","= = Research = = \n \n A <unk> @-@ on condom made of latex is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases .","As of 2009 , the <unk> @-@ on condom was not going to market because the drying time could not be reduced below two to three minutes .","The Invisible Condom , developed at <unk> <unk> in <unk> , Canada , is a gel that <unk> upon increased temperature after insertion into the <unk> or <unk> .","In the lab , it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes <unk> virus .","The barrier breaks down and <unk> after several hours .","As of 2005 , the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase , and has not yet been approved for use .","Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an <unk> compound .","The drug @-@ treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection , which should also help reduce slippage .","If approved , the condom would be marketed under the <unk> brand .","As of 2007 , it was still in clinical trials .","In 2009 , <unk> Healthcare , the makers of <unk> condoms , introduced the <unk> condom lubricated with \" <unk> <unk> \" which contains the amino acid l @-@ <unk> and is intended to improve the strength of the <unk> response ."],"string":"[\n \" = Condom = \\n \\n A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS .\",\n \"It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks <unk> semen from entering the body of a sexual partner .\",\n \"Condoms are also used during <unk> and for collection of semen for use in infertility treatment .\",\n \"In the modern age , condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , polyisoprene , or lamb intestine .\",\n \"A female condom is also available , often made of <unk> rubber .\",\n \"As a method of birth control , male condoms have the advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , having few side effects , and offering protection against sexually transmitted infections .\",\n \"With proper use — and use at every act of intercourse — women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2 % per @-@ year pregnancy rate .\",\n \"With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18 % per @-@ year .\",\n \"Condoms have been used for at least 400 years .\",\n \"Since the 19th century , they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world .\",\n \"While widely accepted in modern times , condoms have generated some controversy , primarily over what role they should play in sex education classes .\",\n \"= = Medical uses = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Birth control = = = \\n \\n The effectiveness of condoms , as of most forms of contraception , can be assessed two ways .\",\n \"Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently .\",\n \"<unk> use , or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users , including those who use condoms incorrectly or do not use condoms at every act of intercourse .\",\n \"<unk> are generally presented for the first year of use .\",\n \"Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates , but some studies use <unk> tables .\",\n \"The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied , ranging from 10 to 18 % per year .\",\n \"The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2 % per year .\",\n \"Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception ( such as spermicide ) for greater protection .\",\n \"= = = <unk> transmitted infections = = = \\n \\n Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) .\",\n \"They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women , but not eliminating it .\",\n \"While not perfect , the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of organisms that cause AIDS , genital herpes , cervical cancer , genital warts , syphilis , <unk> , <unk> , and other diseases .\",\n \"Condoms are often recommended as an <unk> to more effective birth control methods ( such as <unk> ) in situations where STD protection is also desired .\",\n \"According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health ( <unk> ) , consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV / AIDS transmission by approximately 85 % relative to risk when unprotected , putting the <unk> rate ( infection rate ) at 0 @.\",\n \"@ 9 per 100 person @-@ years with condom , down from 6 @.\",\n \"@ 7 per 100 person @-@ years .\",\n \"Analysis published in 2007 from the University of Texas Medical Branch and the World Health Organization found similar risk reductions of 80 – 95 % .\",\n \"The 2000 <unk> review concluded that condom use significantly reduces the risk of <unk> for men .\",\n \"A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission of human <unk> ( <unk> ) to women by approximately 70 % .\",\n \"Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes <unk> virus @-@ 2 also known as genital herpes , in both men and women .\",\n \"Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure , some disease transmission may occur even with a condom .\",\n \"<unk> areas of the <unk> , especially when symptoms are present , may not be covered by a condom , and as a result , some diseases like <unk> and herpes may be transmitted by direct contact .\",\n \"The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs , however , is inconsistent use .\",\n \"Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially <unk> cervical changes .\",\n \"Exposure to human <unk> , even in individuals already infected with the virus , appears to increase the risk of <unk> changes .\",\n \"The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes .\",\n \"In addition , researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can <unk> existing cervical cancer , condom use during sex can prevent exposure to the hormone .\",\n \"= = = Causes of failure = = = \\n \\n Condoms may slip off the penis after ejaculation , break due to improper application or physical damage ( such as tears caused when opening the package ) , or break or slip due to latex degradation ( typically from usage past the expiration date , improper storage , or exposure to oils ) .\",\n \"The rate of breakage is between 0 @.\",\n \"@ 4 % and 2 @.\",\n \"@ 3 % , while the rate of slippage is between 0 @.\",\n \"@ 6 % and 1 @.\",\n \"@ 3 % .\",\n \"Even if no breakage or slippage is observed , 1 – 3 % of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom . \\n \\\"\",\n \"Double <unk> \\\" , using two condoms at once , is often believed to cause a higher rate of failure due to the friction of rubber on rubber .\",\n \"This claim is not supported by research .\",\n \"The limited studies that have been done on the subject support that double <unk> is likely not harmful and possibly beneficial .\",\n \"Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure .\",\n \"If a failure occurs during application , the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins – such failures generally pose no risk to the user .\",\n \"One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse ; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one @-@ fifth that of unprotected intercourse .\",\n \"Standard condoms will fit almost any penis , with varying degrees of comfort or risk of slippage .\",\n \"Many condom manufacturers offer \\\" <unk> \\\" or \\\" magnum \\\" sizes .\",\n \"Some manufacturers also offer custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condoms , with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation / comfort .\",\n \"Some studies have associated larger <unk> and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates ( and vice versa ) , but other studies have been inconclusive .\",\n \"It is recommended for condoms manufacturers to avoid very thick or very thin condoms , because they are both considered less effective .\",\n \"Some authors encourage users to choose thinner condoms \\\" for greater <unk> , sensation , and comfort \\\" , but others warn that \\\" the thinner the condom , the smaller the force required to break it \\\" .\",\n \"<unk> condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first @-@ time users , although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure .\",\n \"An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage .\",\n \"A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage , but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage .\",\n \"Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control , pregnancy may occur when the user has sex without a condom .\",\n \"The person may have run out of condoms , or be traveling and not have a condom with them , or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to \\\" take a chance \\\" .\",\n \"This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure ( as opposed to method or perfect use failure ) .\",\n \"Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage .\",\n \"One motive is to have a child against a partner 's wishes or consent .\",\n \"Some commercial sex workers from Nigeria reported clients <unk> condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use .\",\n \"Using a fine needle to make several <unk> at the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness .\",\n \"Cases of such condom sabotage have occurred .\",\n \"= = <unk> effects = = \\n \\n The use of latex condoms by people with an allergy to latex can cause allergic symptoms , such as skin irritation .\",\n \"In people with severe latex <unk> , using a latex condom can potentially be life @-@ threatening .\",\n \"<unk> use of latex condoms can also cause the development of a latex allergy in some people .\",\n \"= = Use = = \\n \\n Male condoms are usually packaged inside a foil or plastic <unk> , in a rolled @-@ up form , and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then <unk> over the erect penis .\",\n \"It is important that some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect ; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device .\",\n \"After use , it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot , then disposed of in a trash receptacle .\",\n \"Condoms are used to reduce the likelihood of pregnancy during intercourse and to reduce the likelihood of contracting sexually @-@ transmitted infections ( STIs ) .\",\n \"Condoms are also used during <unk> to reduce the likelihood of contracting STIs .\",\n \"Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts sex , although others incorporate condom application as part of their <unk> .\",\n \"Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom <unk> sensation .\",\n \"<unk> of <unk> sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation ; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement .\",\n \"<unk> of condom use also cite their advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , and having few side effects .\",\n \"= = = Adult film industry = = = \\n \\n In 2012 proponents gathered 372 @,@ 000 <unk> signatures through a citizens ' initiative in Los Angeles County to put Measure B on the 2012 ballot .\",\n \"As a result , Measure B , a law requiring the use of condoms in the production of pornographic films , was passed .\",\n \"This requirement has received much criticism and is said by some to be counter @-@ productive , merely forcing companies that make pornographic films to relocate to other places without this requirement .\",\n \"<unk> claim that condom use <unk> sales .\",\n \"= = = Sex education = = = \\n \\n Condoms are often used in sex education programs , because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly .\",\n \"A recent American <unk> Association ( <unk> ) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in sex education , saying \\\" comprehensive sexuality education programs ... discuss the appropriate use of condoms \\\" , and \\\" promote condom use for those who are sexually active . \\\"\",\n \"In the United States , teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations .\",\n \"Planned <unk> , which advocates family planning and sex education , argues that no studies have shown abstinence @-@ only programs to result in delayed intercourse , and cites surveys showing that 76 % of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use .\",\n \"= = = <unk> treatment = = = \\n \\n Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and <unk> insemination ( <unk> ) require collection of semen samples .\",\n \"These are most commonly obtained through masturbation , but an alternative to masturbation is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse .\",\n \"Collection condoms are made from <unk> or polyurethane , as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm .\",\n \"Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation , and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely .\",\n \"Also , compared with samples obtained from masturbation , semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts , sperm <unk> , and percentage of sperm with normal morphology .\",\n \"For this reason , they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis , and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as <unk> or <unk> insemination .\",\n \"<unk> of religions that prohibit contraception , such as Catholicism , may use collection condoms with holes <unk> in them .\",\n \"For fertility treatments , a collection condom may be used to collect semen during sexual intercourse where the semen is provided by the woman 's partner .\",\n \"Private sperm donors may also use a collection condom to obtain samples through masturbation or by sexual intercourse with a partner and will transfer the <unk> from the collection condom to a specially designed container .\",\n \"The sperm is transported in such containers , in the case of a donor , to a recipient woman to be used for insemination , and in the case of a woman 's partner , to a fertility clinic for processing and use .\",\n \"However , transportation may reduce the <unk> of the sperm .\",\n \"Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of <unk> antibodies .\",\n \"The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner 's semen will lower her level of <unk> antibodies , and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued .\",\n \"However , condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates .\",\n \"= = = Other uses = = = \\n \\n Condoms <unk> as multipurpose containers and barriers because they are <unk> , elastic , durable , and ( for military and espionage uses ) will not <unk> suspicion if found .\",\n \"<unk> military <unk> began during World War II , and includes covering the <unk> of rifle barrels to prevent <unk> , the waterproofing of firing assemblies in underwater <unk> , and storage of corrosive materials and <unk> by paramilitary agencies .\",\n \"Condoms have also been used to smuggle alcohol , cocaine , heroin , and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs , tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the <unk> .\",\n \"These methods are very dangerous and potentially lethal ; if the condom breaks , the drugs inside become absorbed into the bloodstream and can cause an <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> , condoms can be used to cover <unk> <unk> probes , or in field chest needle <unk> they can be used to make a one @-@ way valve .\",\n \"Condoms have also been used to protect scientific samples from the environment , and to <unk> microphones for underwater recording .\",\n \"= = Types = = \\n \\n Most condoms have a reservoir tip or <unk> end , making it easier to accommodate the man 's <unk> .\",\n \"Condoms come in different sizes , from oversized to <unk> and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user 's partner .\",\n \"Condoms are usually supplied with a <unk> coating to facilitate penetration , while flavored condoms are principally used for oral sex .\",\n \"As mentioned above , most condoms are made of latex , but polyurethane and lambskin condoms also exist .\",\n \"= = = Female condom = = = \\n \\n Male condoms have a tight ring to form a seal around the penis while female condoms typically have a large stiff ring to keep them from slipping into the body <unk> .\",\n \"The Female Health Company produced a female condom that was initially made of polyurethane , but newer versions are made of <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> <unk> produces a female condom made of latex .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n \\n = = = = Natural latex = = = = \\n \\n Latex has outstanding elastic properties : Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa , and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800 % before breaking .\",\n \"In 1990 the <unk> set standards for condom production ( <unk> <unk> , Natural latex rubber condoms ) , and the EU followed suit with its <unk> standard ( Directive 93 / 42 / EEC concerning medical devices ) .\",\n \"Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electric current .\",\n \"If the condom passes , it is rolled and packaged .\",\n \"In addition , a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing .\",\n \"While the advantages of latex have made it the most popular condom material , it does have some drawbacks .\",\n \"Latex condoms are damaged when used with oil @-@ based substances as lubricants , such as petroleum <unk> , cooking oil , baby oil , mineral oil , skin <unk> , <unk> <unk> , cold <unk> , butter or <unk> .\",\n \"Contact with oil makes latex condoms more likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils .\",\n \"Additionally , latex allergy <unk> use of latex condoms and is one of the principal reasons for the use of other materials .\",\n \"In May 2009 the U.S. Food and <unk> Administration granted approval for the production of condoms composed of <unk> , latex that has been treated to remove 90 % of the proteins responsible for allergic reactions .\",\n \"An <unk> @-@ free condom made of synthetic latex ( polyisoprene ) is also available .\",\n \"= = = = <unk> = = = = \\n \\n The most common non @-@ latex condoms are made from polyurethane .\",\n \"Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials , such as AT @-@ 10 resin , and most recently polyisoprene .\",\n \"Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms , with most polyurethane condoms between 0 @.\",\n \"@ 04 mm and 0 @.\",\n \"@ 07 mm thick .\",\n \"Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways : it conducts heat better than latex , is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light ( and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life ) , can be used with oil @-@ based lubricants , is less <unk> than latex , and does not have an odor .\",\n \"Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention , and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes .\",\n \"However , polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones , and may be more likely to slip or break than latex , lose their shape or bunch up more than latex , and are more expensive .\",\n \"<unk> is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex .\",\n \"While significantly more expensive , it has the advantages of latex ( such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms ) without the protein which is responsible for latex <unk> .\",\n \"Like polyurethane condoms , polyisoprene condoms are said to do a better job of transmitting body heat .\",\n \"Unlike polyurethane condoms , they cannot be used with an oil @-@ based <unk> .\",\n \"= = = = <unk> = = = = \\n \\n Condoms made from sheep intestines , labeled \\\" lambskin \\\" , are also available .\",\n \"Although they are generally effective as a contraceptive by blocking sperm , it is presumed that they are likely less effective than latex in preventing the transmission of agents that cause STDs , because of pores in the material .\",\n \"This is based on the idea that intestines , by their nature , are porous , <unk> membranes , and while sperm are too large to pass through the pores , viruses — such as HIV , herpes , and genital warts — are small enough to pass through .\",\n \"However , there are to date no clinical data confirming or denying this theory .\",\n \"Some believe that lambskin condoms provide a more \\\" natural \\\" sensation , and they lack the <unk> that are inherent to latex , but because of their lesser protection against infection , other <unk> materials such as polyurethane are recommended for latex @-@ allergic users and / or partners .\",\n \"<unk> condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types and as slaughter by @-@ products they are also not vegetarian .\",\n \"= = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol @-@ 9 , a <unk> chemical .\",\n \"According to Consumer Reports , condoms lubricated with spermicide have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy , have a shorter shelf life , and may cause urinary @-@ tract infections in women .\",\n \"In contrast , application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive <unk> of condoms .\",\n \"<unk> @-@ 9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs ( including HIV ) but recent studies have shown that , with frequent use , nonoxynol @-@ 9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission .\",\n \"The World Health Organization says that <unk> lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted .\",\n \"However , it recommends using a nonoxynol @-@ 9 lubricated condom over no condom at all .\",\n \"As of 2005 , nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol @-@ 9 and Planned <unk> has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated .\",\n \"= = = <unk> and studded = = = \\n \\n <unk> condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners .\",\n \"The <unk> or ribs can be located on the inside , outside , or both ; alternatively , they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g @-@ spot or <unk> .\",\n \"Many textured condoms which advertise \\\" mutual pleasure \\\" also are bulb @-@ shaped at the top , to provide extra stimulation to the penis .\",\n \"Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms .\",\n \"= = = Youth condoms = = = \\n \\n In March 2010 , the Swiss government announced that it was planning to promote smaller condoms intended for boys and youths of 12 – 14 years old following concern about the pregnancy rate among adolescent girls , and also about the potential spread of AIDS among this age group .\",\n \"This was due to the fact that standard condoms were too wide and consequently failed to afford protection to adolescent boys during vaginal and anal intercourse .\",\n \"Family planning groups and the Swiss AIDS Federation had campaigned to have a narrower condom produced for youths after a number of studies , including a government study researched at the Centre for Development and Personality Psychology at Basel University , found that standard condoms were unsuitable for boys in this age range , and that the condoms either failed during use or that the boys rejected them altogether because they were too wide , and consequently they used no protection at all .\",\n \"As a result of these studies , a condom aimed at <unk> to 14 @-@ year @-@ old boys is now produced and is available in Switzerland and in certain other countries .\",\n \"Manufactured by <unk> , the \\\" <unk> \\\" is a lubricated , <unk> @-@ ended latex condom which is narrower than a standard condom and has a tight band at the opening to ensure that it remains on the youth 's penis during intercourse .\",\n \"A standard condom has a diameter of 2 inches ( 5 @.\",\n \"@ 2 cm ) whereas the <unk> has a diameter of 1 @.\",\n \"@ 7 inches ( 4 @.\",\n \"@ 5 cm ) .\",\n \"Both are the same length – 7 @.\",\n \"@ 4 inches ( 19 cm ) .\",\n \"In 2014 , in response to demand for condoms from a younger age @-@ group , German condom manufacturer Amor started producing another condom aimed at young people .\",\n \"Known as \\\" Amor Young Love \\\" , these lubricated condoms have a diameter of 1 @.\",\n \"@ 9 inches ( 4 @.\",\n \"@ 9 cm ) .\",\n \"= = = Other = = = \\n \\n The anti @-@ rape condom is another variation designed to be worn by women .\",\n \"It is designed to cause pain to the attacker , hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape .\",\n \"A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis .\",\n \"These condoms are designed to <unk> sperm life .\",\n \"Some condom @-@ like devices are intended for entertainment only , such as glow @-@ in @-@ the dark condoms .\",\n \"These novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs .\",\n \"= = <unk> = = \\n \\n The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries .\",\n \"Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women , or women in informal unions .\",\n \"Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in that country , condoms account for almost 80 % of contraceptive use by married women .\",\n \"On average , in developed countries , condoms are the most popular method of birth control : 28 % of married contraceptive users rely on condoms .\",\n \"In the average less @-@ developed country , condoms are less common : only 6 – 8 % of married contraceptive users choose condoms .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Before the 19th century = = = \\n \\n Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians .\",\n \"In ancient Egypt , Greece , and Rome , pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman 's responsibility , and the only well documented contraception methods were female @-@ controlled devices .\",\n \"In Asia before the 15th century , some use of glans condoms ( devices covering only the head of the penis ) is recorded .\",\n \"Condoms seem to have been used for contraception , and to have been known only by members of the upper classes .\",\n \"In China , glans condoms may have been made of <unk> silk paper , or of lamb intestines .\",\n \"In Japan , they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn .\",\n \"In 16th century Italy , <unk> Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis .\",\n \"The earliest documented strain of syphilis , first appearing in Europe in a <unk> outbreak , caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease .\",\n \"Falloppio 's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use : it describes linen <unk> soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use .\",\n \"The <unk> he described were sized to cover the glans of the penis , and were held on with a ribbon .\",\n \"Falloppio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis .\",\n \"After this , the use of penis <unk> to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe .\",\n \"The first indication that these devices were used for birth control , rather than disease prevention , is the 1605 theological publication De <unk> et <unk> ( On justice and law ) by Catholic theologian <unk> <unk> , who condemned them as immoral .\",\n \"In 1666 , the English Birth <unk> Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of \\\" <unk> \\\" , the first documented use of that word ( or any similar spelling ) .\",\n \"In addition to linen , condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and <unk> .\",\n \"In the late 16th century , Dutch traders introduced condoms made from \\\" fine leather \\\" to Japan .\",\n \"Unlike the horn condoms used previously , these leather condoms covered the entire penis .\",\n \"<unk> in the 18th century was one of the first reported using \\\" assurance caps \\\" to prevent <unk> his <unk> .\",\n \"From at least the 18th century , condom use was opposed in some legal , religious , and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today : condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy , which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation ; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections , while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity ; and , they are not used consistently due to <unk> , expense , or loss of sensation .\",\n \"Despite some opposition , the condom market grew rapidly .\",\n \"In the 18th century , condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes , made from either linen treated with chemicals , or \\\" skin \\\" ( <unk> or intestine softened by treatment with sulfur and <unk> ) .\",\n \"They were sold at <unk> , <unk> , chemist shops , open @-@ air markets , and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia .\",\n \"They later spread to America , although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes , due to both expense and lack of sex education .\",\n \"= = = 1800 through 1920s = = = \\n \\n The early 19th century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time .\",\n \"Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control to the condom .\",\n \"By the late 19th century many <unk> expressed distrust of the condom as a contraceptive , as its use was controlled and decided upon by men alone .\",\n \"They advocated instead for methods which were controlled by women , such as <unk> and <unk> <unk> .\",\n \"Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their <unk> ( they were often riddled with holes , and often fell off or broke ) , but they discussed condoms as a good option for some , and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease .\",\n \"Many countries passed laws <unk> the manufacture and promotion of contraceptives .\",\n \"In spite of these restrictions , condoms were promoted by traveling <unk> and in newspaper advertisements , using <unk> in places where such <unk> were illegal .\",\n \"<unk> on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe .\",\n \"Despite social and legal opposition , at the end of the 19th century the condom was the Western world 's most popular birth control method .\",\n \"Beginning in the second half of the 19th century , American rates of sexually transmitted diseases <unk> .\",\n \"Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War , and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the <unk> laws .\",\n \"To fight the growing epidemic , sex education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time , teaching about <unk> diseases and how they were transmitted .\",\n \"They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases .\",\n \"Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention because the medical community and moral <unk> considered STDs to be punishment for sexual <unk> .\",\n \"The stigma against victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis .\",\n \"The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers , beginning in the later 19th century .\",\n \"Early 20th century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases .\",\n \"During World War I , the United States and ( at the beginning of the war only ) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use .\",\n \"In the decades after World War I , there remained social and legal obstacles to condom use throughout the U.S. and Europe .\",\n \"<unk> of <unk> Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high .\",\n \"Freud was especially opposed to the condom because he thought it cut down on sexual pleasure .\",\n \"Some <unk> continued to oppose male @-@ controlled contraceptives such as condoms .\",\n \"In 1920 the Church of England 's Lambeth Conference condemned all \\\" unnatural means of conception avoidance \\\" .\",\n \"London 's Bishop Arthur <unk> @-@ Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks , especially after weekends and holidays .\",\n \"However , European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection , even in countries where they were illegal for the general population .\",\n \"Through the 1920s , catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items , including condoms and cigarettes .\",\n \"Quality testing became more common , involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure .\",\n \"Worldwide , condom sales doubled in the 1920s .\",\n \"= = = <unk> and manufacturing advances = = = \\n \\n In 1839 , Charles <unk> discovered a way of processing natural rubber , which is too stiff when cold and too soft when warm , in such a way as to make it elastic .\",\n \"This proved to have advantages for the manufacture of condoms ; unlike the sheep 's gut condoms , they could stretch and did not tear quickly when used .\",\n \"The rubber <unk> process was patented by <unk> in 1844 .\",\n \"The first rubber condom was produced in 1855 .\",\n \"The earliest rubber condoms had a seam and were as thick as a bicycle inner tube .\",\n \"Besides this type , small rubber condoms covering only the glans were often used in England and the United States .\",\n \"There was more risk of losing them and if the rubber ring was too tight , it would <unk> the penis .\",\n \"This type of condom was the original \\\" <unk> \\\" ( French for condom ) , perhaps because of its resemblance to a woman 's bonnet worn at that time , also called a <unk> .\",\n \"For many decades , rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around penis @-@ shaped molds , then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber .\",\n \"In 1912 , Polish inventor Julius <unk> developed a new , improved manufacturing technique for condoms : dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution .\",\n \"Called cement dipping , this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid .\",\n \"Latex , rubber suspended in water , was invented in 1920 .\",\n \"Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement @-@ dipped rubber condoms , which had to be <unk> by rubbing and <unk> .\",\n \"The use of water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom factories .\",\n \"Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer : they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms , and had a shelf life of five years ( compared to three months for rubber ) .\",\n \"Until the twenties , all condoms were individually hand @-@ dipped by semi @-@ skilled workers .\",\n \"Throughout the decade of the 1920s , advances in the <unk> of the condom assembly line were made .\",\n \"The first fully automated line was patented in 1930 .\",\n \"Major condom manufacturers bought or leased <unk> systems , and small manufacturers were driven out of business .\",\n \"The skin condom , now significantly more expensive than the latex variety , became restricted to a niche high @-@ end market .\",\n \"= = = 1930 to present = = = \\n \\n In 1930 the Anglican Church 's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples .\",\n \"In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement .\",\n \"The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical <unk> <unk> <unk> its opposition to all contraceptives , a stance it has never reversed .\",\n \"In the 1930s , legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed .\",\n \"But during this period <unk> Italy and Nazi Germany increased restrictions on condoms ( limited sales as disease <unk> were still allowed ) .\",\n \"During the Depression , condom lines by <unk> gained in popularity .\",\n \"<unk> still used the cement @-@ dipping method of manufacture which had two advantages over the latex variety .\",\n \"Firstly , cement @-@ dipped condoms could be safely used with oil @-@ based lubricants .\",\n \"<unk> , while less comfortable , these older @-@ style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical , a valued feature in hard times .\",\n \"More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s , and the U.S. Food and <unk> Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States .\",\n \"Throughout World War II , condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members , but also heavily promoted with films , posters , and lectures .\",\n \"European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war , even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941 .\",\n \"In part because condoms were readily available , soldiers found a number of non @-@ sexual uses for the devices , many of which continue to this day .\",\n \"After the war , condom sales continued to grow .\",\n \"From 1955 – 1965 , 42 % of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control .\",\n \"In Britain from 1950 – 1960 , 60 % of married couples used condoms .\",\n \"The birth control pill became the world 's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 <unk> , but condoms remained a strong second .\",\n \"The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the \\\" world population <unk> \\\" : by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone .\",\n \"( This number has grown in recent decades : in 2004 , the government of India purchased 1 @.\",\n \"@ 9 billion condoms for distribution at family planning clinics . )\",\n \"In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations <unk> , and more legal barriers to condom use were removed .\",\n \"In Ireland , legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978 .\",\n \"Advertising , however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions .\",\n \"In the late 1950s , the American National Association of <unk> banned condom advertisements from national television : this policy remained in place until 1979 .\",\n \"After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection , the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV .\",\n \"Despite opposition by some political , religious , and other figures , national condom promotion campaigns occurred in the U.S. and Europe .\",\n \"These campaigns increased condom use significantly .\",\n \"Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance , condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets , including in <unk> and in discount department stores such as Wal @-@ Mart .\",\n \"Condom sales increased every year until 1994 , when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline .\",\n \"The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease <unk> has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue .\",\n \"Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America .\",\n \"As one response , manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous .\",\n \"New developments continued to occur in the condom market , with the first polyurethane condom — branded <unk> and produced by the manufacturer of <unk> — introduced in the 1990s , and the first custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condom , called <unk> , introduced in the early 2000s .\",\n \"Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow : one study predicted that developing nations would need 18 @.\",\n \"@ 6 billion condoms by 2015 .\",\n \"As of September 2013 , condoms are available inside prisons in Canada , most of the European Union , Australia , Brazil , Indonesia , South Africa , and the US states of Vermont ( on September 17 , 2013 , the Californian Senate approved a bill for condom distribution inside the state 's prisons , but the bill was not yet law at the time of approval ) .\",\n \"= = = Etymology and other terms = = = \\n \\n The term condom first appears in the early 18th century .\",\n \"Its etymology is unknown .\",\n \"In popular tradition , the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England 's King Charles II , one \\\" Dr.\",\n \"Condom \\\" or \\\" Earl of Condom \\\" .\",\n \"There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person , and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne .\",\n \"A variety of unproven Latin etymologies have been proposed , including <unk> ( receptacle ) , <unk> ( house ) , and <unk> ( <unk> or case ) .\",\n \"It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word <unk> , derived from <unk> , meaning <unk> .\",\n \"William E. <unk> wrote an article in 1981 concluding that , \\\" As for the word ' condom ' , I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown , and there ends this search for an etymology . \\\"\",\n \"Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as \\\" unknown \\\" .\",\n \"Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms .\",\n \"In North America condoms are also commonly known as <unk> , or rubbers .\",\n \"In Britain they may be called French letters .\",\n \"Additionally , condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer 's name .\",\n \"= = Society and culture = = \\n \\n Some moral and scientific criticism of condoms exists despite the many benefits of condoms agreed on by scientific consensus and sexual health experts .\",\n \"Condom usage is typically recommended for new couples who have yet to develop full trust in their partner with regard to STDs .\",\n \"Established couples on the other hand have few concerns about STDs , and can use other methods of birth control such as the pill , which does not act as a barrier to intimate sexual contact .\",\n \"Note that the polar debate with regard to condom usage is <unk> by the target group the argument is directed .\",\n \"Notably the age category and stable partner question are factors , as well as the distinction between heterosexual and homosexuals , who have different kinds of sex and have different risk consequences and factors .\",\n \"Among the prime objections to condom usage is the blocking of erotic sensation , and / or the intimacy that barrier @-@ free sex provides .\",\n \"As the condom is held tightly to the skin of the penis , it <unk> the delivery of stimulation through rubbing and friction .\",\n \"Condom proponents claim this has the benefit of making sex last longer , by diminishing sensation and delaying male ejaculation .\",\n \"Those who promote condom @-@ free heterosexual sex ( slang : \\\" <unk> \\\" ) claim that the condom puts a <unk> barrier between partners , diminishing what is normally a highly sensual , intimate , and spiritual connection between partners .\",\n \"= = = Religious = = = \\n \\n Roman Catholic Church opposes all kinds of sexual acts outside of marriage , as well as any sexual act in which the chance of successful conception has been reduced by direct and intentional acts ( for example , surgery to prevent conception ) or foreign objects ( for example , condoms ) .\",\n \"The use of condoms to prevent STD transmission is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine , and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high @-@ ranking Catholic authorities .\",\n \"A few , such as Belgian Cardinal <unk> <unk> , believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease , especially serious diseases such as AIDS .\",\n \"However , the majority view — including all statements from the Vatican — is that condom @-@ promotion programs encourage promiscuity , thereby actually increasing STD transmission .\",\n \"This view was most recently reiterated in 2009 by Pope Benedict XVI .\",\n \"The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion .\",\n \"The church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa , but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial .\",\n \"In a November 2011 interview , the Pope discussed for the first time the use of condoms to prevent STD transmission .\",\n \"He said that the use of a condom can be justified in a few individual cases if the purpose is to reduce the risk of an HIV infection .\",\n \"He gave as an example male prostitutes .\",\n \"There was some confusion at first whether the statement applied only to homosexual prostitutes and thus not to heterosexual intercourse at all .\",\n \"However , Federico Lombardi , spokesman for the Vatican , clarified that it applied to heterosexual and <unk> prostitutes , whether male or female , as well .\",\n \"He did , however , also clarify that the Vatican 's principles on sexuality and contraception had not been changed .\",\n \"= = = Scientific and environmental = = = \\n \\n More generally , some scientific researchers have expressed objective concern over certain ingredients sometimes added to condoms , notably <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"Dry <unk> <unk> are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up .\",\n \"Previously , <unk> was used by most manufacturers , but <unk> is currently the most popular <unk> powder .\",\n \"<unk> is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity ( i.e.\",\n \", via the <unk> ) .\",\n \"<unk> is generally believed to be safe ; however , some researchers have raised concerns over its use as well .\",\n \"<unk> , which are potentially carcinogenic in humans , are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms .\",\n \"A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 times greater <unk> exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low .\",\n \"However , a 2004 study in Germany detected <unk> in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested , and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by <unk> to 3 @-@ fold .\",\n \"In addition , the large @-@ scale use of <unk> condoms has resulted in concerns over their environmental impact via <unk> and in <unk> , where they can eventually wind up in wildlife environments if not <unk> or otherwise permanently disposed of first .\",\n \"Polyurethane condoms in particular , given they are a form of plastic , are not biodegradable , and latex condoms take a very long time to break down .\",\n \"Experts , such as <unk> , recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle , as <unk> them down the toilet ( which some people do ) may cause <unk> <unk> and other problems .\",\n \"Furthermore , the plastic and foil <unk> condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable .\",\n \"However , the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass .\",\n \"Frequent condom or <unk> disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem .\",\n \"While biodegradable , latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly .\",\n \"According to the Ocean Conservancy , condoms , along with certain other types of trash , cover the coral reefs and <unk> sea grass and other bottom dwellers .\",\n \"The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food .\",\n \"= = = Cultural barriers to use = = = \\n \\n In much of the Western world , the introduction of the pill in the 1960s was associated with a decline in condom use .\",\n \"In Japan , oral contraceptives were not approved for use until September 1999 , and even then access was more restricted than in other <unk> nations .\",\n \"Perhaps because of this restricted access to <unk> contraception , Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in 2008 , 80 % of contraceptive users relied on condoms .\",\n \"Cultural attitudes toward gender roles , contraception , and sexual activity vary greatly around the world , and range from extremely conservative to extremely liberal .\",\n \"But in places where condoms are misunderstood , <unk> , <unk> , or looked upon with overall cultural disapproval , the prevalence of condom use is directly affected .\",\n \"In less @-@ developed countries and among less @-@ educated populations , <unk> about how disease transmission and conception work negatively affect the use of condoms ; additionally , in cultures with more traditional gender roles , women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms .\",\n \"As an example , Latino immigrants in the United States often face cultural barriers to condom use .\",\n \"A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of Sex Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe sex due to traditional gender @-@ role norms in the Latino community , and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners .\",\n \"Women who participated in the study often reported that because of the general machismo subtly encouraged in Latino culture , their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the woman 's suggestion that they use condoms .\",\n \"A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low @-@ income American black women ; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion to their male partners that condoms be used .\",\n \"A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University , and published in the Journal of <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among United States black men is linked to rates of condom use .\",\n \"As conspiracy beliefs about AIDS grow in a given sector of these black men , consistent condom use drops in that same sector .\",\n \"Female use of condoms was not similarly affected .\",\n \"In the African continent , condom promotion in some areas has been impeded by anti @-@ condom campaigns by some Muslim and Catholic clerics .\",\n \"Among the Maasai in Tanzania , condom use is hampered by an aversion to \\\" wasting \\\" sperm , which is given <unk> importance beyond reproduction .\",\n \"<unk> is believed to be an \\\" elixir \\\" to women and to have beneficial health effects .\",\n \"Maasai women believe that , after <unk> a child , they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child 's development .\",\n \"Frequent condom use is also considered by some Maasai to cause impotence .\",\n \"Some women in Africa believe that condoms are \\\" for prostitutes \\\" and that respectable women should not use them .\",\n \"A few clerics even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV .\",\n \"In the United States , possession of many condoms has been used by police to accuse women of engaging in prostitution .\",\n \"The Presidential Advisory Council on HIV / AIDS has condemned this practice and there are efforts to end it .\",\n \"In March 2013 , technology <unk> Bill Gates offered a US $ 100 @,@ 000 grant through his foundation for a condom design that \\\" significantly preserves or enhances pleasure \\\" to encourage more males to adopt the use of condoms for safer sex .\",\n \"The grant information states : “ The primary drawback from the male perspective is that condoms decrease pleasure as compared to no condom , creating a trade @-@ off that many men find unacceptable , particularly given that the decisions about use must be made just prior to intercourse .\",\n \"Is it possible to develop a product without this stigma , or better , one that is felt to enhance pleasure ?\",\n \"” The project has been named the \\\" Next Generation Condom \\\" and anyone who can provide a \\\" <unk> hypothesis \\\" is eligible to apply .\",\n \"Middle @-@ Eastern couples who have not had children , because of the strong desire and social pressure to establish fertility as soon as possible within marriage , rarely use condoms .\",\n \"= = = Major manufacturers = = = \\n \\n One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that \\\" <unk> the mind \\\" .\",\n \"Numerous small manufacturers , <unk> groups , and government @-@ run manufacturing plants exist around the world .\",\n \"Within the condom market , there are several major contributors , among them both for @-@ profit businesses and philanthropic organizations .\",\n \"Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century .\",\n \"= = Research = = \\n \\n A <unk> @-@ on condom made of latex is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases .\",\n \"As of 2009 , the <unk> @-@ on condom was not going to market because the drying time could not be reduced below two to three minutes .\",\n \"The Invisible Condom , developed at <unk> <unk> in <unk> , Canada , is a gel that <unk> upon increased temperature after insertion into the <unk> or <unk> .\",\n \"In the lab , it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes <unk> virus .\",\n \"The barrier breaks down and <unk> after several hours .\",\n \"As of 2005 , the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase , and has not yet been approved for use .\",\n \"Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an <unk> compound .\",\n \"The drug @-@ treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection , which should also help reduce slippage .\",\n \"If approved , the condom would be marketed under the <unk> brand .\",\n \"As of 2007 , it was still in clinical trials .\",\n \"In 2009 , <unk> Healthcare , the makers of <unk> condoms , introduced the <unk> condom lubricated with \\\" <unk> <unk> \\\" which contains the amino acid l @-@ <unk> and is intended to improve the strength of the <unk> response .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":94,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Islais Creek = \n \n Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du <unk> Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California .","The name of the creek is derived from a <unk> Native American word \" <unk> \" or \" <unk> \" , the name for the <unk> <unk> wild cherries .","Around the time of the Gold Rush , the area became an industrial hub , and the condition of the creek worsened .","After the devastating earthquake in 1906 , the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris , reducing the <unk> to its present size .","Though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert , remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street .","Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants , as they are important wildlife habitats .","= = Course = = \n \n The historic Islais Creek , the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @.","@ <unk> sq mi ; 20 @.","@ 234 km2 ) , had two main branches .","One originated near the southern slope of Twin <unk> , slightly north of <unk> Drive .","It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park <unk> Bosworth Street and eventually reaching the bottom of the Mission Street viaduct at I @-@ 280 .","The other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street .","It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I @-@ 280 viaduct .","Together , as a wider creek , it ran parallel to <unk> Boulevard and I @-@ 280 and emptied into the Islais Creek estuary , near Industrial Street and <unk> Avenue .","<unk> Creek , a nearby creek that originated from <unk> Valley , also joined Islais Creek at the César <unk> Boulevard and Evans Avenue intersection .","From its sources in the Glen Canyon , the entire creek stretched about 3 @.","@ 5 miles ( 5 @.","@ 6 km ) to the San Francisco Bay .","The mouth was nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.","@ 2 km ) wide , providing up to 85 % of the drinking water in San Francisco .","Due to urban development , however , the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80 % from its historical extent .","A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today , such as <unk> Heights , Hunters Point , <unk> Valley , parts of the Mission and <unk> Hill , was once covered by the extent of the creek .","In 2007 , the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission , which manages the city 's water , began investigating the possibility of \" <unk> \" underground portions of the creek .","As of 2009 , remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.","@ 6 km ) channel near Third Street where Islais Creek emptied into the bay .","= = History = = \n \n The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century .","The name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834 , named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area .","By 1850 , water from the creek was used by farmers to <unk> crops .","The Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers <unk> into the city .","A railroad <unk> was built over the creek and <unk> flats in the 1860s and in a lawsuit that went up to the California Supreme Court called The People of the State of California ex <unk> The Board of State Harbor Commissioners <unk> .","The <unk> And Bay View Railroad Company , Islais Creek was declared a non @-@ navigable waterway in 1883 .","In 1871 , the area along the creek became known as the city ’ s \" New <unk> \" when more than 100 <unk> opened .","Since then , the condition of the creek deteriorated , literally becoming a dumping place of garbage , sewage , animal waste , and <unk> meat products .","The condition became so bad that the creek was commonly referred to as \" <unk> Creek \" by San Franciscans , according to historian Karl <unk> .","After the 1906 earthquake , San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris , reducing the creek to its present size .","During World War II , it served as <unk> areas for large ocean @-@ going <unk> .","The area also located the largest <unk> <unk> processing plant in the United States West Coast .","In fact , the abandoned five @-@ story high <unk> crane , used to transport large amount of <unk> from ships to the plant as late as 1974 , still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark .","In the 1950s , Islais Creek was home to the largest <unk> <unk> industry in the world .","The deteriorated condition of the creek gradually improved after the construction of a water treatment plant in 1970 .","Today , the majority of the creek is covered and transformed into a culvert with its remnants flowing at Glen Canyon and near the bay .","Many local community organizations were set up to improve the condition of the creek and nearby areas .","Friends of Islais Creek , established back in 1984 , and David <unk> , a local community figure , were committed to build a waterfront park in Islais Creek .","The initial plan for a park was finally launched in 1988 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from the State Department of Water Resources as well as community groups in The <unk> .","With an additional of $ 100 @,@ 000 federal and local grants as well as supports from non @-@ profit organizations and governmental agencies , namely the Sierra Club , San Francisco Municipal Railway ( <unk> ) , Department of Public Works , Public Utilities Commission , Port of San Francisco , and Caltrans , the park was finished in 1998 .","Located adjacent to Pier 80 on the shores of the creek , the Muwekma Ohlone Park or the Muwekma Ohlone <unk> is named after the native inhabitants and has since became an important habitat for a wide array of wildlife , including the Pacific Chorus Frog and Mission blue butterfly .","On November 19 , 2001 , construction crews , while preparing to drill an electrical conduit ( consisting of six large <unk> electrical cables ) across the creek for the <unk> Metro T Third Street light rail line , cracked the concrete sewer underground which carries more than 80 million gallons of sewage a day .","The incident flooded the creek and its adjacent Muwekma Ohlone Park with sewage .","The park had to be excavated to make way for the repairing of the sewer pipe .","It was estimated that it would take more than $ 101 @,@ 660 to repair and $ 65 @,@ 000 for wildlife habitat restoration .","= = = Health hazard = = = \n \n Since Islais Creek is a culvert that carries storm water , domestic sewage , and industrial wastewater , it is possible for the sewage to overflow .","Such overflow can cause a public health hazard as Islais Creek displays higher level of heavy metals , <unk> , bacteria , as well as <unk> than other parts of the San Francisco Bay .","= = Transportation = = \n \n The Third Street Bridge is the major crossing of the creek , carrying T Third Street light rail line and Third Street .","It is a bascule @-@ type drawbridge .","The Port of San Francisco extended Illinois Street across Islais Creek in 2006 to relieve traffic for Third Street .","This crossing also uses a bascule bridge ."],"string":"[\n \" = Islais Creek = \\n \\n Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du <unk> Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California .\",\n \"The name of the creek is derived from a <unk> Native American word \\\" <unk> \\\" or \\\" <unk> \\\" , the name for the <unk> <unk> wild cherries .\",\n \"Around the time of the Gold Rush , the area became an industrial hub , and the condition of the creek worsened .\",\n \"After the devastating earthquake in 1906 , the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris , reducing the <unk> to its present size .\",\n \"Though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert , remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street .\",\n \"Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants , as they are important wildlife habitats .\",\n \"= = Course = = \\n \\n The historic Islais Creek , the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @.\",\n \"@ <unk> sq mi ; 20 @.\",\n \"@ 234 km2 ) , had two main branches .\",\n \"One originated near the southern slope of Twin <unk> , slightly north of <unk> Drive .\",\n \"It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park <unk> Bosworth Street and eventually reaching the bottom of the Mission Street viaduct at I @-@ 280 .\",\n \"The other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street .\",\n \"It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I @-@ 280 viaduct .\",\n \"Together , as a wider creek , it ran parallel to <unk> Boulevard and I @-@ 280 and emptied into the Islais Creek estuary , near Industrial Street and <unk> Avenue .\",\n \"<unk> Creek , a nearby creek that originated from <unk> Valley , also joined Islais Creek at the César <unk> Boulevard and Evans Avenue intersection .\",\n \"From its sources in the Glen Canyon , the entire creek stretched about 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 miles ( 5 @.\",\n \"@ 6 km ) to the San Francisco Bay .\",\n \"The mouth was nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 2 km ) wide , providing up to 85 % of the drinking water in San Francisco .\",\n \"Due to urban development , however , the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80 % from its historical extent .\",\n \"A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today , such as <unk> Heights , Hunters Point , <unk> Valley , parts of the Mission and <unk> Hill , was once covered by the extent of the creek .\",\n \"In 2007 , the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission , which manages the city 's water , began investigating the possibility of \\\" <unk> \\\" underground portions of the creek .\",\n \"As of 2009 , remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 6 km ) channel near Third Street where Islais Creek emptied into the bay .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century .\",\n \"The name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834 , named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area .\",\n \"By 1850 , water from the creek was used by farmers to <unk> crops .\",\n \"The Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers <unk> into the city .\",\n \"A railroad <unk> was built over the creek and <unk> flats in the 1860s and in a lawsuit that went up to the California Supreme Court called The People of the State of California ex <unk> The Board of State Harbor Commissioners <unk> .\",\n \"The <unk> And Bay View Railroad Company , Islais Creek was declared a non @-@ navigable waterway in 1883 .\",\n \"In 1871 , the area along the creek became known as the city ’ s \\\" New <unk> \\\" when more than 100 <unk> opened .\",\n \"Since then , the condition of the creek deteriorated , literally becoming a dumping place of garbage , sewage , animal waste , and <unk> meat products .\",\n \"The condition became so bad that the creek was commonly referred to as \\\" <unk> Creek \\\" by San Franciscans , according to historian Karl <unk> .\",\n \"After the 1906 earthquake , San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris , reducing the creek to its present size .\",\n \"During World War II , it served as <unk> areas for large ocean @-@ going <unk> .\",\n \"The area also located the largest <unk> <unk> processing plant in the United States West Coast .\",\n \"In fact , the abandoned five @-@ story high <unk> crane , used to transport large amount of <unk> from ships to the plant as late as 1974 , still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark .\",\n \"In the 1950s , Islais Creek was home to the largest <unk> <unk> industry in the world .\",\n \"The deteriorated condition of the creek gradually improved after the construction of a water treatment plant in 1970 .\",\n \"Today , the majority of the creek is covered and transformed into a culvert with its remnants flowing at Glen Canyon and near the bay .\",\n \"Many local community organizations were set up to improve the condition of the creek and nearby areas .\",\n \"Friends of Islais Creek , established back in 1984 , and David <unk> , a local community figure , were committed to build a waterfront park in Islais Creek .\",\n \"The initial plan for a park was finally launched in 1988 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from the State Department of Water Resources as well as community groups in The <unk> .\",\n \"With an additional of $ 100 @,@ 000 federal and local grants as well as supports from non @-@ profit organizations and governmental agencies , namely the Sierra Club , San Francisco Municipal Railway ( <unk> ) , Department of Public Works , Public Utilities Commission , Port of San Francisco , and Caltrans , the park was finished in 1998 .\",\n \"Located adjacent to Pier 80 on the shores of the creek , the Muwekma Ohlone Park or the Muwekma Ohlone <unk> is named after the native inhabitants and has since became an important habitat for a wide array of wildlife , including the Pacific Chorus Frog and Mission blue butterfly .\",\n \"On November 19 , 2001 , construction crews , while preparing to drill an electrical conduit ( consisting of six large <unk> electrical cables ) across the creek for the <unk> Metro T Third Street light rail line , cracked the concrete sewer underground which carries more than 80 million gallons of sewage a day .\",\n \"The incident flooded the creek and its adjacent Muwekma Ohlone Park with sewage .\",\n \"The park had to be excavated to make way for the repairing of the sewer pipe .\",\n \"It was estimated that it would take more than $ 101 @,@ 660 to repair and $ 65 @,@ 000 for wildlife habitat restoration .\",\n \"= = = Health hazard = = = \\n \\n Since Islais Creek is a culvert that carries storm water , domestic sewage , and industrial wastewater , it is possible for the sewage to overflow .\",\n \"Such overflow can cause a public health hazard as Islais Creek displays higher level of heavy metals , <unk> , bacteria , as well as <unk> than other parts of the San Francisco Bay .\",\n \"= = Transportation = = \\n \\n The Third Street Bridge is the major crossing of the creek , carrying T Third Street light rail line and Third Street .\",\n \"It is a bascule @-@ type drawbridge .\",\n \"The Port of San Francisco extended Illinois Street across Islais Creek in 2006 to relieve traffic for Third Street .\",\n \"This crossing also uses a bascule bridge .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["In fact , the abandoned five @-@ story high <unk> crane , used to transport large amount of <unk> from ships to the plant as late as 1974 , still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark ."],"string":"[\n \"In fact , the abandoned five @-@ story high <unk> crane , used to transport large amount of <unk> from ships to the plant as late as 1974 , still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Islais Creek = \n \n Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du <unk> Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California .","The name of the creek is derived from a <unk> Native American word \" <unk> \" or \" <unk> \" , the name for the <unk> <unk> wild cherries .","Around the time of the Gold Rush , the area became an industrial hub , and the condition of the creek worsened .","After the devastating earthquake in 1906 , the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris , reducing the <unk> to its present size .","Though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert , remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street .","Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants , as they are important wildlife habitats .","= = Course = = \n \n The historic Islais Creek , the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @.","@ <unk> sq mi ; 20 @.","@ 234 km2 ) , had two main branches .","One originated near the southern slope of Twin <unk> , slightly north of <unk> Drive .","It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park <unk> Bosworth Street and eventually reaching the bottom of the Mission Street viaduct at I @-@ 280 .","The other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street .","It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I @-@ 280 viaduct .","Together , as a wider creek , it ran parallel to <unk> Boulevard and I @-@ 280 and emptied into the Islais Creek estuary , near Industrial Street and <unk> Avenue .","<unk> Creek , a nearby creek that originated from <unk> Valley , also joined Islais Creek at the César <unk> Boulevard and Evans Avenue intersection .","From its sources in the Glen Canyon , the entire creek stretched about 3 @.","@ 5 miles ( 5 @.","@ 6 km ) to the San Francisco Bay .","The mouth was nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.","@ 2 km ) wide , providing up to 85 % of the drinking water in San Francisco .","Due to urban development , however , the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80 % from its historical extent .","A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today , such as <unk> Heights , Hunters Point , <unk> Valley , parts of the Mission and <unk> Hill , was once covered by the extent of the creek .","In 2007 , the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission , which manages the city 's water , began investigating the possibility of \" <unk> \" underground portions of the creek .","As of 2009 , remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.","@ 6 km ) channel near Third Street where Islais Creek emptied into the bay .","= = History = = \n \n The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century .","The name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834 , named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area .","By 1850 , water from the creek was used by farmers to <unk> crops .","The Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers <unk> into the city .","A railroad <unk> was built over the creek and <unk> flats in the 1860s and in a lawsuit that went up to the California Supreme Court called The People of the State of California ex <unk> The Board of State Harbor Commissioners <unk> .","The <unk> And Bay View Railroad Company , Islais Creek was declared a non @-@ navigable waterway in 1883 .","In 1871 , the area along the creek became known as the city ’ s \" New <unk> \" when more than 100 <unk> opened .","Since then , the condition of the creek deteriorated , literally becoming a dumping place of garbage , sewage , animal waste , and <unk> meat products .","The condition became so bad that the creek was commonly referred to as \" <unk> Creek \" by San Franciscans , according to historian Karl <unk> .","After the 1906 earthquake , San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris , reducing the creek to its present size .","During World War II , it served as <unk> areas for large ocean @-@ going <unk> .","The area also located the largest <unk> <unk> processing plant in the United States West Coast .","In the 1950s , Islais Creek was home to the largest <unk> <unk> industry in the world .","The deteriorated condition of the creek gradually improved after the construction of a water treatment plant in 1970 .","Today , the majority of the creek is covered and transformed into a culvert with its remnants flowing at Glen Canyon and near the bay .","Many local community organizations were set up to improve the condition of the creek and nearby areas .","Friends of Islais Creek , established back in 1984 , and David <unk> , a local community figure , were committed to build a waterfront park in Islais Creek .","The initial plan for a park was finally launched in 1988 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from the State Department of Water Resources as well as community groups in The <unk> .","With an additional of $ 100 @,@ 000 federal and local grants as well as supports from non @-@ profit organizations and governmental agencies , namely the Sierra Club , San Francisco Municipal Railway ( <unk> ) , Department of Public Works , Public Utilities Commission , Port of San Francisco , and Caltrans , the park was finished in 1998 .","Located adjacent to Pier 80 on the shores of the creek , the Muwekma Ohlone Park or the Muwekma Ohlone <unk> is named after the native inhabitants and has since became an important habitat for a wide array of wildlife , including the Pacific Chorus Frog and Mission blue butterfly .","On November 19 , 2001 , construction crews , while preparing to drill an electrical conduit ( consisting of six large <unk> electrical cables ) across the creek for the <unk> Metro T Third Street light rail line , cracked the concrete sewer underground which carries more than 80 million gallons of sewage a day .","The incident flooded the creek and its adjacent Muwekma Ohlone Park with sewage .","The park had to be excavated to make way for the repairing of the sewer pipe .","It was estimated that it would take more than $ 101 @,@ 660 to repair and $ 65 @,@ 000 for wildlife habitat restoration .","= = = Health hazard = = = \n \n Since Islais Creek is a culvert that carries storm water , domestic sewage , and industrial wastewater , it is possible for the sewage to overflow .","Such overflow can cause a public health hazard as Islais Creek displays higher level of heavy metals , <unk> , bacteria , as well as <unk> than other parts of the San Francisco Bay .","= = Transportation = = \n \n The Third Street Bridge is the major crossing of the creek , carrying T Third Street light rail line and Third Street .","It is a bascule @-@ type drawbridge .","The Port of San Francisco extended Illinois Street across Islais Creek in 2006 to relieve traffic for Third Street .","This crossing also uses a bascule bridge ."],"string":"[\n \" = Islais Creek = \\n \\n Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du <unk> Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California .\",\n \"The name of the creek is derived from a <unk> Native American word \\\" <unk> \\\" or \\\" <unk> \\\" , the name for the <unk> <unk> wild cherries .\",\n \"Around the time of the Gold Rush , the area became an industrial hub , and the condition of the creek worsened .\",\n \"After the devastating earthquake in 1906 , the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris , reducing the <unk> to its present size .\",\n \"Though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert , remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street .\",\n \"Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants , as they are important wildlife habitats .\",\n \"= = Course = = \\n \\n The historic Islais Creek , the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @.\",\n \"@ <unk> sq mi ; 20 @.\",\n \"@ 234 km2 ) , had two main branches .\",\n \"One originated near the southern slope of Twin <unk> , slightly north of <unk> Drive .\",\n \"It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park <unk> Bosworth Street and eventually reaching the bottom of the Mission Street viaduct at I @-@ 280 .\",\n \"The other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street .\",\n \"It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I @-@ 280 viaduct .\",\n \"Together , as a wider creek , it ran parallel to <unk> Boulevard and I @-@ 280 and emptied into the Islais Creek estuary , near Industrial Street and <unk> Avenue .\",\n \"<unk> Creek , a nearby creek that originated from <unk> Valley , also joined Islais Creek at the César <unk> Boulevard and Evans Avenue intersection .\",\n \"From its sources in the Glen Canyon , the entire creek stretched about 3 @.\",\n \"@ 5 miles ( 5 @.\",\n \"@ 6 km ) to the San Francisco Bay .\",\n \"The mouth was nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 2 km ) wide , providing up to 85 % of the drinking water in San Francisco .\",\n \"Due to urban development , however , the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80 % from its historical extent .\",\n \"A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today , such as <unk> Heights , Hunters Point , <unk> Valley , parts of the Mission and <unk> Hill , was once covered by the extent of the creek .\",\n \"In 2007 , the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission , which manages the city 's water , began investigating the possibility of \\\" <unk> \\\" underground portions of the creek .\",\n \"As of 2009 , remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.\",\n \"@ 6 km ) channel near Third Street where Islais Creek emptied into the bay .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century .\",\n \"The name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834 , named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area .\",\n \"By 1850 , water from the creek was used by farmers to <unk> crops .\",\n \"The Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers <unk> into the city .\",\n \"A railroad <unk> was built over the creek and <unk> flats in the 1860s and in a lawsuit that went up to the California Supreme Court called The People of the State of California ex <unk> The Board of State Harbor Commissioners <unk> .\",\n \"The <unk> And Bay View Railroad Company , Islais Creek was declared a non @-@ navigable waterway in 1883 .\",\n \"In 1871 , the area along the creek became known as the city ’ s \\\" New <unk> \\\" when more than 100 <unk> opened .\",\n \"Since then , the condition of the creek deteriorated , literally becoming a dumping place of garbage , sewage , animal waste , and <unk> meat products .\",\n \"The condition became so bad that the creek was commonly referred to as \\\" <unk> Creek \\\" by San Franciscans , according to historian Karl <unk> .\",\n \"After the 1906 earthquake , San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris , reducing the creek to its present size .\",\n \"During World War II , it served as <unk> areas for large ocean @-@ going <unk> .\",\n \"The area also located the largest <unk> <unk> processing plant in the United States West Coast .\",\n \"In the 1950s , Islais Creek was home to the largest <unk> <unk> industry in the world .\",\n \"The deteriorated condition of the creek gradually improved after the construction of a water treatment plant in 1970 .\",\n \"Today , the majority of the creek is covered and transformed into a culvert with its remnants flowing at Glen Canyon and near the bay .\",\n \"Many local community organizations were set up to improve the condition of the creek and nearby areas .\",\n \"Friends of Islais Creek , established back in 1984 , and David <unk> , a local community figure , were committed to build a waterfront park in Islais Creek .\",\n \"The initial plan for a park was finally launched in 1988 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from the State Department of Water Resources as well as community groups in The <unk> .\",\n \"With an additional of $ 100 @,@ 000 federal and local grants as well as supports from non @-@ profit organizations and governmental agencies , namely the Sierra Club , San Francisco Municipal Railway ( <unk> ) , Department of Public Works , Public Utilities Commission , Port of San Francisco , and Caltrans , the park was finished in 1998 .\",\n \"Located adjacent to Pier 80 on the shores of the creek , the Muwekma Ohlone Park or the Muwekma Ohlone <unk> is named after the native inhabitants and has since became an important habitat for a wide array of wildlife , including the Pacific Chorus Frog and Mission blue butterfly .\",\n \"On November 19 , 2001 , construction crews , while preparing to drill an electrical conduit ( consisting of six large <unk> electrical cables ) across the creek for the <unk> Metro T Third Street light rail line , cracked the concrete sewer underground which carries more than 80 million gallons of sewage a day .\",\n \"The incident flooded the creek and its adjacent Muwekma Ohlone Park with sewage .\",\n \"The park had to be excavated to make way for the repairing of the sewer pipe .\",\n \"It was estimated that it would take more than $ 101 @,@ 660 to repair and $ 65 @,@ 000 for wildlife habitat restoration .\",\n \"= = = Health hazard = = = \\n \\n Since Islais Creek is a culvert that carries storm water , domestic sewage , and industrial wastewater , it is possible for the sewage to overflow .\",\n \"Such overflow can cause a public health hazard as Islais Creek displays higher level of heavy metals , <unk> , bacteria , as well as <unk> than other parts of the San Francisco Bay .\",\n \"= = Transportation = = \\n \\n The Third Street Bridge is the major crossing of the creek , carrying T Third Street light rail line and Third Street .\",\n \"It is a bascule @-@ type drawbridge .\",\n \"The Port of San Francisco extended Illinois Street across Islais Creek in 2006 to relieve traffic for Third Street .\",\n \"This crossing also uses a bascule bridge .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":95,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) = \n \n Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 .","It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolinas .","The storm turned southwestward due to a building ridge , and concurrently it intensified to become Subtropical Storm Alpha .","It later moved ashore near Savannah , and it finally dissipated in the northeast Gulf of Mexico on May 29 .","It produced wave action and moderate rainfall along the coast .","Damage totaled over $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) , and there were two associated deaths .","= = Meteorological history = = \n \n Throughout May 1972 , a series of weak troughs moved across the eastern United States .","In the third week of the month , an upper @-@ level <unk> low developed along one of these troughs , located southeast of the United States and removed from the <unk> .","The origins of Alpha were from a surface low northeast of Florida , associated with the larger @-@ scale , cold core upper low .","It organized , and late on May 23 it could be classified as a subtropical depression , east of the Georgia / South Carolina border .","While southeast of Hatteras , North Carolina , a developing ridge blocked its northeast motion , and so it slowed to turn to the southeast .","On May 25 , a small , intense low @-@ level center organized rapidly , and by the next day it attained gale force winds , by which time the storm turned southwestward .","At 1600 UTC on May 26 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Subtropical Cyclone Alpha , when the storm was about 225 miles south of Cape Hatteras .","Around that time , it reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .","On its first advisory , there was disagreement among forecast models regarding its eventual track , with projected tracks <unk> from a Georgia landfall to a track northeastward out to sea .","Alpha was also a <unk> <unk> at the time ; the NHC <unk> model , which was based on previous storms with similar characteristics , found no <unk> for the storm .","Subtropical Storm Alpha was initially well @-@ defined as it moved southwestward .","The very small center was located along the eastern edge of the convection , while low @-@ level cloud bands formed east of the center .","At the time , the temperature structure was more typical of a winter storm , although it was expected to become more like a subtropical storm typical during the summer months .","The winds decreased steadily as it turned more westward on May 27 , and the heavy rainfall persisted mostly to the north and west of the center .","The National Hurricane Center initially thought the center might not have been at the surface , and the agency indicated low forecasting confidence , as they could not determine a circulation center .","The difficulty arose from the large , sprawling nature of the storm , and by later on May 27 a new center formed , as confirmed by radar imagery and the Hurricane Hunters .","That night , the extremely small center made landfall just south of Savannah , Georgia , affecting a very small area with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.","@ 26 inHg ) .","Around the time of landfall , Alpha developed a warm core , indicating some tropical characteristics .","The storm weakened quickly over land , although it did not dissipate until two days later over the northeast Gulf of Mexico .","= = Preparations and impact = = \n \n At the time of the first advisory on Alpha , there were small craft warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Cape May , New Jersey .","Gale warnings were posted from Cape Fear , North Carolina to <unk> , Virginia .","The interaction between Alpha and the high pressure system to its northeast caused cooler temperatures and gusty winds from Delaware southward .","Wave heights reached up to 20 feet ( 6 @.","@ 1 m ) along the Virginia <unk> .","The storm dropped rainfall along the coast of North Carolina and Virginia , with a maximum of 6 @.","@ 97 inches ( 177 mm ) reported in <unk> , North Carolina .","While moving slowly off the North Carolina coast , Alpha caused heavy beach erosion , destroyed one house , and threatened the foundation of several other homes in the Outer Banks .","Damage totaled over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .","While the storm was traveling over the western Atlantic Ocean , the storm produced a large area of rough seas , which was considered the greatest threat from the storm .","In northeastern Florida , police officers were stationed to ensure people did not swim in the dangerous seas .","The high waves also halted work to <unk> a harbor at the <unk> Naval Station .","Two people drowned after the storm dissipated , when surf was still turbulent .","Tides along the Georgia coast reached 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.","@ 61 to 0 @.","@ 91 m ) above normal , which caused some flooding and beach erosion .","Wind gusts reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on Saint <unk> Island .","The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving some people without power in eastern Georgia .","Damage was minor but widespread in the state , estimated at over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .","Moderate rains spread in coastal areas from South Carolina through southern Florida .","The 1972 hurricane season was the first year in which quasi @-@ tropical cyclones were named , by using the NATO phonetic alphabet .","At the time , the names were applied to large subtropical cyclones and small <unk> , both of which were later combined into one category ."],"string":"[\n \" = Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) = \\n \\n Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 .\",\n \"It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolinas .\",\n \"The storm turned southwestward due to a building ridge , and concurrently it intensified to become Subtropical Storm Alpha .\",\n \"It later moved ashore near Savannah , and it finally dissipated in the northeast Gulf of Mexico on May 29 .\",\n \"It produced wave action and moderate rainfall along the coast .\",\n \"Damage totaled over $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) , and there were two associated deaths .\",\n \"= = Meteorological history = = \\n \\n Throughout May 1972 , a series of weak troughs moved across the eastern United States .\",\n \"In the third week of the month , an upper @-@ level <unk> low developed along one of these troughs , located southeast of the United States and removed from the <unk> .\",\n \"The origins of Alpha were from a surface low northeast of Florida , associated with the larger @-@ scale , cold core upper low .\",\n \"It organized , and late on May 23 it could be classified as a subtropical depression , east of the Georgia / South Carolina border .\",\n \"While southeast of Hatteras , North Carolina , a developing ridge blocked its northeast motion , and so it slowed to turn to the southeast .\",\n \"On May 25 , a small , intense low @-@ level center organized rapidly , and by the next day it attained gale force winds , by which time the storm turned southwestward .\",\n \"At 1600 UTC on May 26 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Subtropical Cyclone Alpha , when the storm was about 225 miles south of Cape Hatteras .\",\n \"Around that time , it reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .\",\n \"On its first advisory , there was disagreement among forecast models regarding its eventual track , with projected tracks <unk> from a Georgia landfall to a track northeastward out to sea .\",\n \"Alpha was also a <unk> <unk> at the time ; the NHC <unk> model , which was based on previous storms with similar characteristics , found no <unk> for the storm .\",\n \"Subtropical Storm Alpha was initially well @-@ defined as it moved southwestward .\",\n \"The very small center was located along the eastern edge of the convection , while low @-@ level cloud bands formed east of the center .\",\n \"At the time , the temperature structure was more typical of a winter storm , although it was expected to become more like a subtropical storm typical during the summer months .\",\n \"The winds decreased steadily as it turned more westward on May 27 , and the heavy rainfall persisted mostly to the north and west of the center .\",\n \"The National Hurricane Center initially thought the center might not have been at the surface , and the agency indicated low forecasting confidence , as they could not determine a circulation center .\",\n \"The difficulty arose from the large , sprawling nature of the storm , and by later on May 27 a new center formed , as confirmed by radar imagery and the Hurricane Hunters .\",\n \"That night , the extremely small center made landfall just south of Savannah , Georgia , affecting a very small area with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.\",\n \"@ 26 inHg ) .\",\n \"Around the time of landfall , Alpha developed a warm core , indicating some tropical characteristics .\",\n \"The storm weakened quickly over land , although it did not dissipate until two days later over the northeast Gulf of Mexico .\",\n \"= = Preparations and impact = = \\n \\n At the time of the first advisory on Alpha , there were small craft warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Cape May , New Jersey .\",\n \"Gale warnings were posted from Cape Fear , North Carolina to <unk> , Virginia .\",\n \"The interaction between Alpha and the high pressure system to its northeast caused cooler temperatures and gusty winds from Delaware southward .\",\n \"Wave heights reached up to 20 feet ( 6 @.\",\n \"@ 1 m ) along the Virginia <unk> .\",\n \"The storm dropped rainfall along the coast of North Carolina and Virginia , with a maximum of 6 @.\",\n \"@ 97 inches ( 177 mm ) reported in <unk> , North Carolina .\",\n \"While moving slowly off the North Carolina coast , Alpha caused heavy beach erosion , destroyed one house , and threatened the foundation of several other homes in the Outer Banks .\",\n \"Damage totaled over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .\",\n \"While the storm was traveling over the western Atlantic Ocean , the storm produced a large area of rough seas , which was considered the greatest threat from the storm .\",\n \"In northeastern Florida , police officers were stationed to ensure people did not swim in the dangerous seas .\",\n \"The high waves also halted work to <unk> a harbor at the <unk> Naval Station .\",\n \"Two people drowned after the storm dissipated , when surf was still turbulent .\",\n \"Tides along the Georgia coast reached 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 61 to 0 @.\",\n \"@ 91 m ) above normal , which caused some flooding and beach erosion .\",\n \"Wind gusts reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on Saint <unk> Island .\",\n \"The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving some people without power in eastern Georgia .\",\n \"Damage was minor but widespread in the state , estimated at over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .\",\n \"Moderate rains spread in coastal areas from South Carolina through southern Florida .\",\n \"The 1972 hurricane season was the first year in which quasi @-@ tropical cyclones were named , by using the NATO phonetic alphabet .\",\n \"At the time , the names were applied to large subtropical cyclones and small <unk> , both of which were later combined into one category .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["While moving slowly off the North Carolina coast , Alpha caused heavy beach erosion , destroyed one house , and threatened the foundation of several other homes in the Outer Banks ."],"string":"[\n \"While moving slowly off the North Carolina coast , Alpha caused heavy beach erosion , destroyed one house , and threatened the foundation of several other homes in the Outer Banks .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) = \n \n Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 .","It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolinas .","The storm turned southwestward due to a building ridge , and concurrently it intensified to become Subtropical Storm Alpha .","It later moved ashore near Savannah , and it finally dissipated in the northeast Gulf of Mexico on May 29 .","It produced wave action and moderate rainfall along the coast .","Damage totaled over $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) , and there were two associated deaths .","= = Meteorological history = = \n \n Throughout May 1972 , a series of weak troughs moved across the eastern United States .","In the third week of the month , an upper @-@ level <unk> low developed along one of these troughs , located southeast of the United States and removed from the <unk> .","The origins of Alpha were from a surface low northeast of Florida , associated with the larger @-@ scale , cold core upper low .","It organized , and late on May 23 it could be classified as a subtropical depression , east of the Georgia / South Carolina border .","While southeast of Hatteras , North Carolina , a developing ridge blocked its northeast motion , and so it slowed to turn to the southeast .","On May 25 , a small , intense low @-@ level center organized rapidly , and by the next day it attained gale force winds , by which time the storm turned southwestward .","At 1600 UTC on May 26 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Subtropical Cyclone Alpha , when the storm was about 225 miles south of Cape Hatteras .","Around that time , it reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .","On its first advisory , there was disagreement among forecast models regarding its eventual track , with projected tracks <unk> from a Georgia landfall to a track northeastward out to sea .","Alpha was also a <unk> <unk> at the time ; the NHC <unk> model , which was based on previous storms with similar characteristics , found no <unk> for the storm .","Subtropical Storm Alpha was initially well @-@ defined as it moved southwestward .","The very small center was located along the eastern edge of the convection , while low @-@ level cloud bands formed east of the center .","At the time , the temperature structure was more typical of a winter storm , although it was expected to become more like a subtropical storm typical during the summer months .","The winds decreased steadily as it turned more westward on May 27 , and the heavy rainfall persisted mostly to the north and west of the center .","The National Hurricane Center initially thought the center might not have been at the surface , and the agency indicated low forecasting confidence , as they could not determine a circulation center .","The difficulty arose from the large , sprawling nature of the storm , and by later on May 27 a new center formed , as confirmed by radar imagery and the Hurricane Hunters .","That night , the extremely small center made landfall just south of Savannah , Georgia , affecting a very small area with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.","@ 26 inHg ) .","Around the time of landfall , Alpha developed a warm core , indicating some tropical characteristics .","The storm weakened quickly over land , although it did not dissipate until two days later over the northeast Gulf of Mexico .","= = Preparations and impact = = \n \n At the time of the first advisory on Alpha , there were small craft warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Cape May , New Jersey .","Gale warnings were posted from Cape Fear , North Carolina to <unk> , Virginia .","The interaction between Alpha and the high pressure system to its northeast caused cooler temperatures and gusty winds from Delaware southward .","Wave heights reached up to 20 feet ( 6 @.","@ 1 m ) along the Virginia <unk> .","The storm dropped rainfall along the coast of North Carolina and Virginia , with a maximum of 6 @.","@ 97 inches ( 177 mm ) reported in <unk> , North Carolina .","Damage totaled over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .","While the storm was traveling over the western Atlantic Ocean , the storm produced a large area of rough seas , which was considered the greatest threat from the storm .","In northeastern Florida , police officers were stationed to ensure people did not swim in the dangerous seas .","The high waves also halted work to <unk> a harbor at the <unk> Naval Station .","Two people drowned after the storm dissipated , when surf was still turbulent .","Tides along the Georgia coast reached 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.","@ 61 to 0 @.","@ 91 m ) above normal , which caused some flooding and beach erosion .","Wind gusts reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on Saint <unk> Island .","The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving some people without power in eastern Georgia .","Damage was minor but widespread in the state , estimated at over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .","Moderate rains spread in coastal areas from South Carolina through southern Florida .","The 1972 hurricane season was the first year in which quasi @-@ tropical cyclones were named , by using the NATO phonetic alphabet .","At the time , the names were applied to large subtropical cyclones and small <unk> , both of which were later combined into one category ."],"string":"[\n \" = Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) = \\n \\n Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 .\",\n \"It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolinas .\",\n \"The storm turned southwestward due to a building ridge , and concurrently it intensified to become Subtropical Storm Alpha .\",\n \"It later moved ashore near Savannah , and it finally dissipated in the northeast Gulf of Mexico on May 29 .\",\n \"It produced wave action and moderate rainfall along the coast .\",\n \"Damage totaled over $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) , and there were two associated deaths .\",\n \"= = Meteorological history = = \\n \\n Throughout May 1972 , a series of weak troughs moved across the eastern United States .\",\n \"In the third week of the month , an upper @-@ level <unk> low developed along one of these troughs , located southeast of the United States and removed from the <unk> .\",\n \"The origins of Alpha were from a surface low northeast of Florida , associated with the larger @-@ scale , cold core upper low .\",\n \"It organized , and late on May 23 it could be classified as a subtropical depression , east of the Georgia / South Carolina border .\",\n \"While southeast of Hatteras , North Carolina , a developing ridge blocked its northeast motion , and so it slowed to turn to the southeast .\",\n \"On May 25 , a small , intense low @-@ level center organized rapidly , and by the next day it attained gale force winds , by which time the storm turned southwestward .\",\n \"At 1600 UTC on May 26 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Subtropical Cyclone Alpha , when the storm was about 225 miles south of Cape Hatteras .\",\n \"Around that time , it reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .\",\n \"On its first advisory , there was disagreement among forecast models regarding its eventual track , with projected tracks <unk> from a Georgia landfall to a track northeastward out to sea .\",\n \"Alpha was also a <unk> <unk> at the time ; the NHC <unk> model , which was based on previous storms with similar characteristics , found no <unk> for the storm .\",\n \"Subtropical Storm Alpha was initially well @-@ defined as it moved southwestward .\",\n \"The very small center was located along the eastern edge of the convection , while low @-@ level cloud bands formed east of the center .\",\n \"At the time , the temperature structure was more typical of a winter storm , although it was expected to become more like a subtropical storm typical during the summer months .\",\n \"The winds decreased steadily as it turned more westward on May 27 , and the heavy rainfall persisted mostly to the north and west of the center .\",\n \"The National Hurricane Center initially thought the center might not have been at the surface , and the agency indicated low forecasting confidence , as they could not determine a circulation center .\",\n \"The difficulty arose from the large , sprawling nature of the storm , and by later on May 27 a new center formed , as confirmed by radar imagery and the Hurricane Hunters .\",\n \"That night , the extremely small center made landfall just south of Savannah , Georgia , affecting a very small area with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.\",\n \"@ 26 inHg ) .\",\n \"Around the time of landfall , Alpha developed a warm core , indicating some tropical characteristics .\",\n \"The storm weakened quickly over land , although it did not dissipate until two days later over the northeast Gulf of Mexico .\",\n \"= = Preparations and impact = = \\n \\n At the time of the first advisory on Alpha , there were small craft warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Cape May , New Jersey .\",\n \"Gale warnings were posted from Cape Fear , North Carolina to <unk> , Virginia .\",\n \"The interaction between Alpha and the high pressure system to its northeast caused cooler temperatures and gusty winds from Delaware southward .\",\n \"Wave heights reached up to 20 feet ( 6 @.\",\n \"@ 1 m ) along the Virginia <unk> .\",\n \"The storm dropped rainfall along the coast of North Carolina and Virginia , with a maximum of 6 @.\",\n \"@ 97 inches ( 177 mm ) reported in <unk> , North Carolina .\",\n \"Damage totaled over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .\",\n \"While the storm was traveling over the western Atlantic Ocean , the storm produced a large area of rough seas , which was considered the greatest threat from the storm .\",\n \"In northeastern Florida , police officers were stationed to ensure people did not swim in the dangerous seas .\",\n \"The high waves also halted work to <unk> a harbor at the <unk> Naval Station .\",\n \"Two people drowned after the storm dissipated , when surf was still turbulent .\",\n \"Tides along the Georgia coast reached 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 61 to 0 @.\",\n \"@ 91 m ) above normal , which caused some flooding and beach erosion .\",\n \"Wind gusts reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on Saint <unk> Island .\",\n \"The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving some people without power in eastern Georgia .\",\n \"Damage was minor but widespread in the state , estimated at over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .\",\n \"Moderate rains spread in coastal areas from South Carolina through southern Florida .\",\n \"The 1972 hurricane season was the first year in which quasi @-@ tropical cyclones were named , by using the NATO phonetic alphabet .\",\n \"At the time , the names were applied to large subtropical cyclones and small <unk> , both of which were later combined into one category .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":96,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Max Mosley = \n \n Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of <unk> organisations and car users worldwide .","The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and other international <unk> .","A qualified barrister and former amateur racing driver , Mosley was a founder and co @-@ owner of March Engineering , a successful racing car <unk> and Formula One racing team .","He dealt with legal and commercial matters for the company between 1969 and 1977 and became its representative at the Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) , the body that represents Formula One constructors .","Together with Bernie Ecclestone , he represented FOCA at the FIA and in its dealings with race organisers .","In 1978 , Mosley became the official legal adviser to FOCA .","In this role he and Marco <unk> negotiated the first version of the Concorde Agreement , which settled a long @-@ standing dispute between FOCA and the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , a commission of the FIA and the then governing body of Formula One .","Mosley was elected president of FISA in 1991 and became president of the FIA , FISA 's parent body , in 1993 .","Mosley identified his major achievement as FIA President as the promotion of the European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP or <unk> ) .","He has also promoted increased safety and the use of green technologies in motor racing .","In 2008 , stories about his sex life appeared in the British press , along with unfounded allegations regarding Nazi connotations .","Mosley successfully sued the newspaper that published the allegations and maintained his position as FIA president .","He stood down at the end of his term in 2009 and was replaced by his preferred successor , Jean Todt .","Mosley is the youngest son of Sir Oswald Mosley , former leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) , and Diana Mitford .","He was educated in France , Germany and Britain before going on to attend university at Christ Church , Oxford , where he graduated with a degree in physics .","He then changed to law and was called to the Bar in 1964 .","In his teens and early twenties Mosley was involved with his father 's post @-@ war political party , the Union Movement ( UM ) .","He has said that the association of his surname with fascism stopped him from developing his interest in politics further , although he briefly worked for the Conservative Party in the early 1980s .","= = Family and early life = = \n \n His father , Sir Oswald Mosley was a Labour minister , and a Member of Parliament for both the Conservative and Labour parties in the 1920s .","By the 1930s , he had left mainstream politics and become the leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) .","His first wife died in 1933 , and in 1936 Sir Oswald married Diana Mitford , in a ceremony in Germany attended by Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Hitler .","Max was born in London in April 1940 during the early days of the Second World War to Diana and Oswald .","In May , Sir Oswald , who had campaigned for a negotiated peace with Nazi Germany , was interned by the British Authorities under Defence Regulation <unk> , along with most other active fascists in Britain .","Lady Mosley was imprisoned a month later .","Max and his brother Alexander were not included in this internship and as a result were separated from their parents for the first few years of their lives .","In December 1940 , then @-@ prime minister Winston Churchill , asked Home Secretary Herbert Morrison to ensure Lady Mosley was able to see Max regularly .","Sir Oswald and Lady Mosley were released from detention at <unk> Holloway on 16 November 1943 , provoking widespread public protests .","Max ’ s elder brother was unhappy at his private school .","As a result , both children were <unk> at home until the age of 13 .","The family moved to a succession of country houses in England .","Mosley 's older half @-@ brother Nicholas describes the family , including Sir Oswald ’ s children from his first marriage , spending the summer of 1945 getting the harvest in and shooting at <unk> Farm .","In 1950 , the <unk> bought houses in Ireland , and in <unk> , near Paris .","They spent the year moving around Europe , spending the spring in France and the autumn and winter in Ireland , where Mosley was keen on riding and hunting .","His aunt Nancy Mitford , in letters to Evelyn <unk> , recalled Sir Oswald and his family cruising the Mediterranean Sea on the family yacht .","On one such trip they visited Spain and were entertained by Sir Oswald 's friend , General Franco .","At the age of 13 Mosley was sent to Stein an der <unk> in Germany for two years , where he learned to speak fluent German .","On his return to England he spent a year at <unk> , an independent boarding school in Somerset after which he continued his education in London for two years .","He attended Christ Church at Oxford University , graduating with a degree in physics in 1961 .","During his time there he was Secretary of the Oxford Union where his father spoke on two occasions , once with Jeremy Thorpe on the other side .","In 1960 Mosley introduced his father to Robert <unk> , one of Mosley 's contemporaries at the university , who later wrote Sir Oswald 's biography .","<unk> an early ambition to work as a physicist after \" establishing that there was no money in it \" , Mosley went on to study law at Gray 's Inn in London and qualified as a barrister in 1964 .","After a <unk> with Maurice Drake he specialised in patent and trademark law .","Northumbria University awarded Mosley an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law in 2005 .","From 1961 to 1964 Mosley was a member of the Territorial Army , Parachute Regiment ( 44th Independent Parachute Brigade Group ) .","Mosley , like many of Formula One 's drivers , lives in Monaco .","On 9 June 1960 he was married at the Chelsea Register Office to Jean Taylor , the daughter of James Taylor , a policeman from <unk> .","In 1970 their first son , Alexander , was born and in 1972 their second son , Patrick .","On 5 May 2009 , Alexander , a <unk> , was found dead at his home .","He was thirty @-@ nine .","At an <unk> on 10 June 2009 the Westminster <unk> declared that he had died due to heroin intoxication .","In addition to his full @-@ brother Alexander , Mosley has five older half @-@ siblings .","On his father 's side they are Vivien Mosley ( 1921 – 2002 ) , novelist Nicholas Mosley , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1923 ) , and Michael Mosley ( 1932 – 2014 ) .","On his mother 's side they are merchant banker Jonathan Guinness , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1930 ) , and Irish <unk> Desmond Guinness ( born 1931 ) .","He is a third cousin of the late Winston Churchill , the grandson of the former British prime minister .","= = Politics = = \n \n From their teens to early twenties , Mosley and his brother were involved with their father 's post @-@ war party , the Union Movement ( UM ) , which advocated a united Europe as its core issue .","Trevor <unk> , a central figure in the UM 's Youth Movement , writes of the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mosley painting the flash and circle symbol on walls in London on the night of the Soviet Union 's invasion of Hungary ( 4 November 1956 ) .","The flash and circle was used by both the UM and the pre @-@ war BUF .","He also says Mosley organised a couple of large parties as a way \" to get in with lively , ordinary , normal young people , girls as well as boys , and attract them to the Movement by showing that we were like them and didn 't go on about Hitler and <unk> , Franco and British <unk> all the time . \"","Mosley met his future wife Jean at such a party .","Mosley and Alexander were photographed posing as Teddy Boys in Notting Hill during the 1958 race riots between Afro @-@ <unk> and local white gangs of Teddy Boys .","The following year , they <unk> for their father when he ran as a Union Movement candidate for the nearby Kensington North seat in the 1959 General Election .","Mosley has rarely discussed his early political involvement with his father .","When his father Oswald died , the London Daily Mail described him as a \" much maligned and much misunderstood political giant of his era . \"","Certainly , his father 's political presence affected his early years but Mosley reflected on this time , \" I was born into this rather strange family and then at a certain point you get away from that . \"","Whilst he has distanced himself from this period of his life , the \" misunderstanding has remained and today ... he carries that weight on his shoulders . \"","In 1961 Mosley was an election agent for the Union Movement , supporting Walter Hesketh as parliamentary candidate for Moss Side .","The motor racing journalist Alan Henry describes him as one of his father 's \" right @-@ hand men \" at the time of a violent incident in 1962 , in which Sir Oswald was knocked down by a mob in London and saved from serious injury by his son 's intervention .","As a result of his involvement in this <unk> , Mosley was arrested and charged with threatening behaviour .","He was later cleared at Old Street <unk> ' Court on the grounds that he was trying to protect his father .","By 1964 , when he began work as a barrister , Mosley was no longer involved in politics .","In the early 1980s , Mosley attempted a political career , working for the UK Conservative Party and hoping to become a parliamentary candidate .","Bernie Ecclestone 's biographer , Terry Lovell , writes that he gave up this aspiration after being unimpressed by \" the calibre of senior party officials \" .","He also felt his name would be a handicap and has since said \" If I had a completely open choice in my life , I would have chosen party politics , but because of my name , that 's impossible . \"","By the late 1990s he had become a supporter of the UK Labour Party , following a meeting with then Labour Leader John Smith .","= = Racing career = = \n \n While Mosley was at University , his wife was given tickets to a motor race at the Silverstone Circuit .","The circuit is not far from Oxford , and the couple went out of curiosity .","Mosley was attracted by the sport , and when his career as a barrister was bringing in sufficient money , he started racing cars himself .","The sport 's indifference to his background appealed to Mosley : \n There was always a certain amount of trouble [ being the son of Sir Oswald ] until I came into motor racing .","And in one of the first races I ever took part in there was a list of people when they put the practice times [ ... ] and I heard somebody say , ' Mosley , Max Mosley , he must be some relation of <unk> <unk> [ e ] <unk> , the <unk> . '","And I thought to myself , ' I 've found a world where they don 't know about Oswald Mosley . '","And it has always been a bit like that in motor racing : nobody gives a damn .","At national level in the UK , Mosley competed in over 40 races in 1966 and 1967 ; he won 12 and set several class lap records .","In 1968 , he formed the London Racing Team in partnership with driver Chris Lambert to compete in European Formula Two , which at that time was the level of racing just below Formula One .","Their cars were prepared by Frank Williams , later a Formula One team owner .","It was a dangerous time to race .","Mosley 's first Formula Two race was the 1968 <unk> <unk> , at <unk> in which double world champion Jim Clark was killed , and within two years both of Mosley 's 1968 team mates , Piers Courage and Chris Lambert were dead in racing accidents .","Mosley 's best result that year was an eighth place at a non @-@ championship race at <unk> .","Engine builder Brian Hart says that as a driver , Mosley \" might not have been particularly quick , but he was a thinking driver .","He kept out of trouble and generally used his head . \"","[ a ] \n \n = = March Engineering = = \n \n In 1969 , after two large accidents due to <unk> on his Lotus car , Mosley decided that \" it was evident that I wasn 't going to be World Champion \" and retired from driving .","He was already working with Robin Herd , Alan Rees and Graham <unk> to establish the racing car manufacturer March Engineering where he handled legal and commercial matters .","The name March is an acronym based on the initials of the founders ; the ' M ' stands for Mosley .","Like the other founders , Mosley put in £ 2 @,@ 500 of capital .","His father told him that the company \" would certainly go bankrupt , but it would be good training for something serious later on . \"","Mosley played a key role in <unk> the new outfit .","Although March had few resources and limited experience , the firm announced ambitious plans to enter Formula One , the pinnacle of single @-@ seater racing , in 1970 .","The team had initially intended to enter a single car , but by the beginning of the season ( partly due to deals made by Mosley ) , the number of March cars entered for their first Formula One race had risen to five .","Two of these were run by March 's own in @-@ house works team and the rest by customer teams .","Mosley also negotiated sponsorship from tyre maker <unk> and oil <unk> manufacturer <unk> .","The new operation was initially successful .","In Formula One , March cars won three of their first four races .","One of these was a world championship race , the 1970 Spanish Grand Prix , won by reigning world champion Jackie Stewart in a customer car run by Tyrrell Racing .","As a result , March finished third in the 1970 Constructors ' Championship .","The factory also sold 40 cars to customers in various lower formulae .","Despite these successes , the organisation got into financial difficulty almost immediately .","The Formula One operation was costing more than the customer car business was making .","The March works team 's contract with its lead driver , Chris <unk> , was expensive , and Mosley , in his own words , \" tried at every opportunity to get rid of him \" .","He reasoned that Stewart 's highly competitive customer car was enough to show March in a good light .","<unk> stayed to the end of the year , but Mosley succeeded in \" restructuring \" his contract , saving the company some much @-@ needed money .","At the end of the season , Mosley successfully demanded full control of the finances , including the factory run by <unk> , who left shortly afterwards .","Mosley and Herd borrowed £ 20 @,@ 000 from relatives and friends to support the company into its second year .","According to Lovell the money came from Mosley 's half @-@ brother , Jonathan Guinness .","Tyrrell started making its own cars towards the end of 1970 , and March 's 1971 program in Formula One was much reduced , with no recognised front @-@ running driver .","The <unk> and <unk> sponsorship was insufficient and Mosley failed to attract a large <unk> for 1971 .","<unk> author Mike Lawrence has suggested that the shortfall forced him into short @-@ term deals , which maintained <unk> , but were not in the best long @-@ term interests of the company .","Mosley negotiated a deal for the team to use Alfa Romeo engines in a third car , bringing much needed funding .","The engines proved <unk> , and his hopes of an ongoing partnership with the Italian automobile manufacturer were not met .","Nonetheless , March again finished third in the constructors championship , and works driver Ronnie Peterson , in a <unk> <unk> @-@ powered car , was second in the Drivers ' Championship .","March 's financial <unk> continued : the company had lost £ 71 @,@ 000 at the end of 1971 .","Mosley and Rees disagreed over how to rectify the situation and Rees left March early in 1972 .","March was more successful in selling large numbers of customer cars in the lower formulae .","Mosley organised extensive test sessions for the 1971 cars for journalists and drivers , and arranged a successful scheme for drivers to rent cars and engines for the season , rather than buying them outright .","<unk> money on a deal to supply <unk> <unk> , then motorsport manager at Ford , with a Formula Two car paid off when <unk> moved to BMW and offered March an exclusive deal in 1972 to use BMW 's Formula Two engine .","March cars powered by BMW engines won five of the next 11 European Formula Two championships .","However , BMW also put pressure on Herd to concentrate on the Formula Two programme .","As a result , he spent less time with the Formula One team , where Mosley started to act as a race engineer .","Although March considered quitting Formula One on several occasions , money was always found to support at least one car .","<unk> historian Mike Lawrence credits Mosley with pressing for a six @-@ wheeled March to be built as a draw for sponsors , having seen the popularity with fans of Tyrrell 's six @-@ wheeled <unk> .","The resulting March 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 never competed in Formula One , but generated the required publicity and a <unk> <unk> model was profitable .","Mosley spent much of his time negotiating deals for drivers with sponsorship and was also successful in selling Marches to other Formula One teams , such as Williams and <unk> .","The cars were rarely frontrunners , although the works team won a single race in both 1975 and 1976 .","By the end of 1977 , Mosley was fed up with the struggle to compete in Formula One with no resources and left to work for FOCA full @-@ time , selling his shares in the company to Herd but remaining as a director .","March 's involvement in Formula One ended the same year .","[ b ] \n \n = = Formula One Constructors ' Association = = \n \n From 1969 , Mosley was invited to represent March at the Grand Prix Constructors ' Association ( GPCA ) , which negotiated joint deals on behalf of its member teams .","Although the new March organisation was not popular with the established teams , Mosley has said that \" when they went along to meetings to discuss things such as prize money , they felt they ought to take me along because I was a lawyer \" .","He was unimpressed with the standard of negotiations : \" our side all went in a group because no @-@ one trusted anyone else and all were afraid that someone would break ranks and make a private deal . \"","In 1971 , British businessman Bernie Ecclestone bought the <unk> team , and Mosley recalls that : \n Within about 20 minutes of [ Ecclestone ] turning up at the [ GPCA ] meeting , it was apparent that here was someone who knew how many beans made five and after about half an hour he moved round the table to sit next to me , and from then on he and I started operating as a team .","Within a very short time , the two of us were doing everything for the GPCA , instead of everyone moving around in a block , and from that developed FOCA .","The Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) was created in 1974 by Ecclestone , Colin Chapman , Teddy Mayer , Mosley , Ken Tyrrell and Frank Williams .","FOCA would represent the commercial interests of the teams at meetings with the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , motorsport 's world governing body .","After leaving March at the end of 1977 , Mosley officially became legal advisor to FOCA , which was led by Ecclestone .","In his biography of Ecclestone , Terry Lovell suggests that he appointed Mosley to this role not only because of his legal ability , but also because he \" saw in Mosley the necessary diplomatic and political skills that made him perfectly suited to the establishment of the FIA \" .","The Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) was FISA 's parent body , representing car users worldwide .","In the same year , Mosley was nominated for a role at the FIA Bureau Internationale de <unk> d 'Automobile .","His nomination was blocked by French , Italian and German manufacturers .","In the early 1980s , Mosley represented FOCA in the \" FISA @-@ FOCA War \" , a conflict between FOCA , representing the mainly UK @-@ based independent teams , and FISA , which was supported by the \" <unk> \" constructors owned by road car manufacturers ( primarily Alfa Romeo , Ferrari and Renault ) .","In 1981 , FOCA announced its own World Federation of Motor Sport and ran the non @-@ championship 1981 South African Grand Prix .","The staging of this event , with worldwide television coverage , helped persuade Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , the FISA president , that FISA would have to negotiate a settlement with FOCA .","As Mosley has since commented : \" We were absolutely <unk> .","If Balestre could have held the manufacturer 's support for a little bit longer , the constructors would have been on their knees .","The outcome would then have been very different . \"","Mosley helped draw up the Concorde Agreement , a document which resolved the dispute by essentially giving FISA control of the rules and FOCA control of promotion and television rights .","The most recent version of the Concorde Agreement expired on 31 December 2007 , and a new one was being discussed , as of 2008 .","In 1982 , the year after the first Concorde Agreement was signed , Mosley left his role at FOCA , and Formula One , to work for the Conservative Party .","= = FISA presidency = = \n \n Mosley returned to motorsport in 1986 , with the support of Ecclestone and Balestre , to become president of the FISA Manufacturers ' Commission , the successor to the Bureau Internationale de <unk> d 'Automobile .","That same year , he established Simtek Research , a racing technical consultancy firm , with Nick Wirth , a former March employee .","He sold his share of Simtek in 1991 , when elected president of the FISA .","According to Lovell , in 1987 Mosley suggested to Balestre that he could deal with his problems with Ecclestone by \" <unk> [ ing ] him a member of the establishment \" .","Later that year Ecclestone was appointed vice @-@ president of the FIA 's promotional affairs , with authority over Formula One and the other motor sports authorised by the FIA .","In 1991 , Mosley challenged Balestre for the presidency of FISA .","Mosley said that his decision to challenge the Frenchman was prompted by Balestre 's reported intervention on behalf of his <unk> Alain <unk> to ensure that race stewards disqualified Brazilian driver <unk> Senna from the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix .","Mosley campaigned on the basis that Balestre , who was also president of the FIA and of the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile , could not effectively manage all these roles together .","He also said that no @-@ one challenged Balestre because they were afraid of the consequences and suggested that the FISA President should not interfere with F1 , which could be left to run itself .","Mosley won the FISA presidency by 43 votes to 29 ; Balestre remained as FIA president .","Mosley resigned a year later , fulfilling a promise made during his election campaign to seek a re @-@ affirmation of his mandate . \"","I wanted to show people that I do what I say \" , he said . \"","Now they can judge me in a year 's time . \"","FISA immediately re @-@ elected him .","= = FIA presidency = = \n \n \n = = = 1993 – 1997 = = = \n \n In 1993 , Mosley agreed with Balestre that the Frenchman would stand down as president of the FIA in Mosley 's favour , in return for the new role of President of the FIA Senate , to be created after Mosley 's election .","As well as motorsport , the FIA 's remit includes the interests of motorists worldwide , an area in which Mosley wanted to involve himself : \" That is what really interested me : [ in F1 ] you maybe save one life every five years , whereas [ in ] road safety you are talking about thousands of lives \" .","A challenge to Mosley 's election by Jeffrey Rose , chairman of the British Royal Automobile Club , was withdrawn when it became clear that the majority of voters were already committed to Mosley .","The FISA was then merged into the FIA as its sporting arm .","After the deaths of drivers <unk> Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , worldwide media attention focused on the charismatic triple @-@ world champion Senna , rather than Ratzenberger , a virtual unknown driving for the minor Simtek team .","Mosley did not go to Senna 's funeral , but attended that of Ratzenberger .","In a press conference 10 years later Mosley said , \" I went to his funeral because everyone went to Senna 's .","I thought it was important that somebody went to his . \"","In the aftermath of the deaths , and a number of other serious accidents , Mosley announced the formation of the Advisory Expert Group chaired by Professor Sid Watkins , to research and improve safety in motor racing .","Watkins , who learned of his new role by hearing Mosley announce it on the radio , has called it a \" novel and revolutionary approach \" .","The resulting changes have included reducing the capacity and power of engines , the use of grooved tyres to reduce <unk> speeds , the introduction of the <unk> device to protect drivers ' necks in accidents , circuit re @-@ design and greatly increased requirements for crash testing of chassis .","Mosley was criticised for some of the very rapid changes announced in the immediate aftermath of the deaths at the San Marino race .","In 1995 , a deal was signed between Ecclestone and the FIA that passed all of the commercial rights to Formula One to him for 15 years , on the condition that they would return to the FIA at the end of that period .","Ecclestone had been building up Formula One as a television package since the early 1990s , investing heavily in new digital television technology .","For the duration of the deal , the FIA would receive an index @-@ linked annual fixed royalty , estimated by Lovell at around 15 % .","Mosley said \" My belief is that I got a better deal than anyone else could have because it was more difficult for Ecclestone to take a hard line with me as we had worked together for so long . \"","The following year the FIA also passed the rights to all its other directly sanctioned championships and events to Ecclestone , also for 15 years , An attempt to add a 10 @-@ year extension to the F1 contract in return for a share in Ecclestone 's proposed flotation of Formula One was later vetoed by the European Commission .","Mosley 's agreement with Ecclestone on TV rights for F1 angered three of the team principals in particular : Ron Dennis ( McLaren ) , Frank Williams ( Williams ) and Ken Tyrrell ( Tyrrell ) , who felt that neither Ecclestone nor the FIA had the right to make such an agreement without the teams .","They refused to sign the 1997 Concorde Agreement without increased financial returns and threatened to make a complaint under European Union competition rules .","The European Commission was already investigating the FIA ’ s agreement with Ecclestone in what Lovell calls a \" highly personal and bitter battle between Max Mosley and [ EU commissioner Karel ] van <unk> \" .","= = = 1997 – 2001 = = = \n \n Mosley was elected to his second term as president of the FIA in October 1997 .","Later that year , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition made a preliminary decision against Ecclestone and the FIA .","The resulting warning letters from van <unk> to the FIA and Ecclestone were leaked and ended the attempt to float F1 ; the FIA won a case against the Commission for the leakage in 1998 .","At the same time , a local court in Germany ruled that the television rights to the FIA European Truck Racing Cup ( passed to Ecclestone by the FIA the previous year , along with all other FIA authorised championships ) should be returned to the series organiser , following a complaint from German television company <unk> TV @-@ <unk> .","The TV Company argued that Ecclestone and Mosley were in breach of commercial clauses in the Treaty of Rome ; following the court 's decision Mosley appealed the judgement and cancelled the series until further notice .","On appeal , the court ruled that the series organiser should be able to sell the television rights to whoever they felt was the best option for coverage and the FIA reinstated the European Truck Racing Cup .","Between 1997 and 2000 Mosley repeatedly warned that if any EU decision went against the FIA , the marketing organisations and F1 itself would be moved out of Europe .","In 1999 , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition issued a Statement of <unk> , listing a number of grievances surrounding the FIA 's dealings with Ecclestone and Formula One .","The FIA released the Statement to the media and held a press conference in Brussels <unk> the Commission ’ s case .","The Commission argued that a number of commercial agreements could be viewed as anti @-@ competition and invited the FIA and Ecclestone 's companies , <unk> and <unk> , to submit proposals to modify these arrangements .","In 2001 , nine months after settlement talks had begun , the parties reached an agreement to amend existing contracts , which included Ecclestone stepping down as the FIA 's vice @-@ president of promotional affairs and the FIA ending all involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One .","Mosley came up with an innovative way to dispose of the FIA 's involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One .","In order to maintain Ecclestone 's investment to deliver digital television , he proposed extending Ecclestone 's rights for F1 coverage to 100 years from the initial 15 , arguing that a deal of such length could not be anti @-@ competition as it was effectively the same as an outright sale .","The Commission agreed with his assessment and in the interest of impartiality , Mosley removed himself from the negotiations , which eventually returned around $ 300 million ( £ 150 million ) .","The FIA planned to \" put almost all of it into a charitable foundation which will then have the resources to undertake important work on improving safety in motor sport and in road safety \" , and thus the FIA Foundation was created in 2001 .","In addition , the FIA continued to receive an annual <unk> from the deal , Mosley stated : \" Over the <unk> of the contract , and on an annual basis , the sum we have accepted represents billions of dollars .","<unk> at from that point of view , it is a huge amount of money . \"","Lovell compares the figure to extend the rights to 100 years to the £ 600 million <unk> paid for the rights to the 2002 Football World Cup and the £ 1 @.","@ 1 billion British Sky Broadcasting paid for a three @-@ year package of English Premier League football .","The figure was not entirely comparable however due to the dispute over who actually owned Formula One .","Before the settlement with the EU Commission was reached , Mosley feared that the FIA was losing control over the sport following a heated argument with Ecclestone in Paris .","Ecclestone argued that he had built Formula One into the entity that it was and the FIA only had rights to designate the event as official .","Ecclestone threatened to \" do a <unk> earth \" if another party were to gain control of the commercial side of Formula One .","Mosley came up with the solution in order for the FIA to retain its sporting management role and Ecclestone to retain his commercial role .","Over the same period , Mosley was attempting to delay European legislation banning tobacco advertising .","At this time all leading Formula One teams carried significant branding from tobacco brands such as <unk> , West , <unk> and <unk> Seven .","The Labour party had pledged to ban tobacco advertising in its manifesto ahead of its 1997 General Election victory , supporting a proposed European Union Directive .","The Labour Party 's stance on banning tobacco advertising was reinforced following the election by forceful statements from the Health Secretary Frank <unk> and Minister for Public Health Tessa Jowell .","Ecclestone appealed \" over Jowell 's head \" to Jonathan Powell , Tony Blair 's chief of staff , who arranged a meeting with Blair .","Ecclestone and Mosley , both Labour Party donors , met Blair on 16 October 1997 .","Mosley argued that the proposed legislation was illegal by EU rules , that Formula One needed more time to find alternative sources of funding and that the prompt introduction of a ban would lead to races being held outside Europe , while the coverage , including tobacco <unk> , would still be broadcast into the EU .","He also argued that : \n Motor racing was a world class industry which put Britain at the hi @-@ tech edge .","<unk> of tobacco money , Formula One would move abroad at the loss of 50 @,@ 000 jobs , 150 @,@ 000 part @-@ time jobs and £ 900 million of exports .","On 4 November the \" fiercely anti @-@ tobacco Jowell \" argued in Brussels for an exemption for Formula One .","Media attention initially focused on Labour <unk> its principles for a \" glamour sport \" and on the \" false trail \" of Jowell 's husband 's links to the <unk> Formula One team .","On 6 November <unk> from three newspapers <unk> whether Labour had received any donations from Ecclestone ; he had donated £ 1 million in January 1997 .","On 11 November Labour promised to return the money on the advice of Sir Patrick <unk> .","On 17 November Blair apologised for his government 's mishandling of the affair and stated \" the decision to exempt Formula One from tobacco sponsorship was taken two weeks later .","It was in response to fears that Britain might lose the industry overseas to Asian countries who were bidding for it . \"","The revised directive went into force in June 1998 , and banned sponsorship from 2003 , with a further three @-@ year extension for \" global sports such as Formula One \" .","On 5 October 2000 , the directive was successfully overturned in the European Court of Justice on the grounds that it was unlawful .","A new Tobacco Advertising Directive took effect in July 2005 ; the Financial Times described Mosley as \" furious \" that this was a year earlier than provided for under the 1998 directive .","As of 2009 , Ferrari is the only F1 team to retain tobacco sponsorship , although the team carries no explicit branding in races because of the European legislation .","Although the FIA moved its headquarters out of the EU in 1999 , it returned in 2001 ; all of the F1 teams remain in Europe , and six are in the UK , compared to seven of eleven at the end of 1997 .","Asked in a 2003 interview about his most enduring achievement as president of the FIA , Mosley replied : \" I think using Formula One to push <unk> Crash @-@ Testing . \"","The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) is a European car safety performance assessment programme that originated with work done by the Transport Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport .","The FIA became involved in the programme in 1996 , taking a lead in promoting it , and Mosley chaired the body from its launch as Euro NCAP in 1997 to 2004 .","Despite what NCAP describes as a \" strong negative response \" from car manufacturers at first , the initiative has expanded , and NCAP says that there has been a clear increase in the safety of modern cars as a result .","The EU commission in 2000 stated that \" <unk> had become the single most important mechanism for achieving advances in vehicle safety \" and \" the most cost effective road safety action available to the EU . \"","Mosley has continued to promote the matter through his membership of initiatives such as <unk> 21 , the European Commission ’ s policy group aimed at improving the worldwide competitiveness of the European automotive industry .","In February 2001 , Mosley announced his intention to stand again for the presidency in October of that year , saying that if successful this third term would be his last .","= = = 2001 – 2005 = = = \n \n Mosley was elected to his third term as president of the FIA in 2001 .","From 2000 , Formula One saw the return of teams partly or wholly owned and operated by major motor manufacturers , who feared that under Ecclestone 's management F1 coverage would go to pay television , reducing the value of their investment .","In 2001 , the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( <unk> ) announced an alternative world championship , the Grand Prix World Championship to start by 2008 .","The <unk> stipulated that the championship should not be regulated by the FIA , which Lovell believes was because the organisation believed Mosley was too close to Ecclestone .","In June 2004 , Mosley announced that he would step down from his position in October of that year , one year early , saying \" I no longer find it either satisfying or interesting to sit in long meetings [ ... ] I have achieved in this job everything I set out to [ ... ] \" .","One month later , he rescinded his decision after the FIA Senate called for him to stay on .","According to a BBC Sport profile , many <unk> considered that the announcement , and Mosley 's public disagreements with Ecclestone , were \" just part of a well crafted plan to strengthen their control over the sport \" ; Ron Dennis , the McLaren team principal , suggested that it arose because Mosley 's proposals for Formula One met opposition .","In 2004 , Mosley said he felt Ferrari 's then team principal Jean Todt should succeed him as president of the FIA when he stepped down .","The 2005 United States Grand Prix was run with only six cars , after the Michelin tyres used by the other 14 cars proved unsafe for the circuit .","A proposal involving the addition of a temporary <unk> to slow cars through the fastest corner of the circuit was suggested but rejected by Mosley .","He stated his reasons for not agreeing to the <unk> : \" Formula One is a dangerous activity and it would be most <unk> to make fundamental changes to a circuit without following tried and tested procedures .","What happened was bad but can be put right .","This is not true of a fatality . \"","He continued , \" Formula One is a sport which <unk> .","It is not entertainment disguised as sport . \"","Mosley gave three possible solutions for the Michelin runners : to use qualifying tyres but change them whenever necessary on safety grounds , to use a different tyre to be provided by Michelin or to run at reduced speed .","These were all rejected by the Michelin @-@ <unk> teams .","Paul <unk> , the then @-@ owner of the <unk> team who ran on Bridgestone tyres , was prepared to compromise to accommodate Michelin teams — even though a reduced field would guarantee his team much needed points — and was particularly vocal in his criticism and renewed his calls for Mosley to resign .","= = = 2005 – 2009 = = = \n \n Mosley was elected unopposed to his fourth term as president of the FIA in 2005 .","In recognition of his contribution to road safety and motorsport , Mosley was made a Chevalier dans l ’ <unk> de la Légion d ’ <unk> in 2006 .","The Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour ) is France 's highest decoration for outstanding achievements in military or civil life ; a Chevalier ( Knight ) is the fifth class .","Continuing a theme of his presidency , in 2006 Mosley called for Formula One manufacturers to develop technology relevant to road cars .","In recent years , a large proportion of the enormous budget of Formula One has been spent on the development of very powerful , very high @-@ <unk> engines , which some say have little <unk> to road cars .","Mosley has announced a 10 @-@ year freeze on the development of engines , which would allow manufacturers to spend more of their budgets on environmentally friendly technology such as the <unk> Energy Recovery System ( <unk> ) introduced in 2009 .","In July 2008 , he sent a letter to the Formula One teams , in which he called for the teams to propose future sporting regulations to address specific issues including reduced fuel consumption .","The 2007 Formula One season was dominated by Ferrari 's accusations that the McLaren team had made illegal use of their intellectual property , leading to legal cases in the United Kingdom and Italy .","Unlike previous cases , such as the Toyota team 's illegal use of Ferrari intellectual property in 2004 that had been handled by German police , the FIA investigated .","They initially found McLaren innocent ; unable to find enough evidence to suggest that anyone other than designer Mike <unk> had seen the information or that the team had used it .","Ron Dennis , team principal of McLaren , was unaware at this point that Mosley had been sent personal e @-@ <unk> from Fernando Alonso , stating that the data had been used and seen by others in the team .","When Italian police uncovered a series of text messages between McLaren and their spy at Ferrari , the team was hauled in front of the World Motor Sports Council ( WMSC ) once more .","This time they were found guilty and eventually fined a gross $ <unk> and excluded from the 2007 constructors ' championship .","Later in the year , the Renault team was found guilty by the FIA of possessing McLaren 's intellectual property , but was not punished , as the \" FIA 's WMSC decided there was not enough evidence to show the championship had been affected . \"","In relation to McLaren , triple world champion Jackie Stewart criticised Mosley and stated that other teams did not back McLaren for \" fear of repercussions \" .","TV commentator and newspaper columnist Martin Brundle , a former driver , was among those who criticised the FIA and Mosley for inconsistency and questioned the \" energetic manner \" in which he felt McLaren was being pursued , suggesting that there was a \" witch hunt \" against the team .","Brundle and The Sunday Times subsequently received a writ for libel before the paper printed a correction .","Mosley went on to defend himself of the charges made by Brundle , highlighting that the WMSC originally acquitted McLaren of any wrongdoing , stating : \" Concrete evidence of use by McLaren of the Ferrari information was simply not there . \"","It was only later in the year when \" e @-@ <unk> emerged which showed others inside McLaren were indeed aware of the Ferrari information \" , that the FIA found the team guilty .","At the start of 2008 , Mosley said that he wanted to see through reforms such as budget capping and new technologies like <unk> successfully introduced into Formula One before retiring .","In March of that year the News of the World released video footage of Mosley engaged in acts with five <unk> women in a scenario that the paper alleged involved Nazi role @-@ playing ( an allegation that , though dismissed in court as \" no genuine basis \" , allegedly \" ruined \" Mosley 's reputation ) .","The situation was made more controversial by his father 's association with the Nazis .","Mosley admitted \" the embarrassment the revelations caused \" , but said that there was no Nazi theme involved .","He was strongly criticised by former drivers , motor manufacturers and several of the national <unk> bodies who form the FIA .","His involvement in several high level motor sport events was cancelled .","Public expressions of support were limited .","Mosley says that he received much supportive correspondence , and said that he would continue to the end of his current term , which he said would be his last .","Mosley 's longtime ally Ecclestone eventually appeared to support Mosley 's removal .","Mosley won a vote of confidence at an <unk> General Meeting of the FIA on 3 June 2008 , with 103 votes in support and 55 against , with seven <unk> and four invalid votes .","Several clubs , including the <unk> , AAA and <unk> considered withdrawal from the FIA after the decision .","Other formerly critical organisations have since said that they will accept the outcome of the vote and now wish to move on .","In July 2008 , Mosley won a High Court legal case against the News of the World for invasion of privacy .","The presiding judge , Mr Justice <unk> , said : \" I see no genuine basis at all for the suggestion that the participants mocked the victims of the Holocaust . \"","In December 2008 , Mosley said that he still intended to stand down when his term ran out in October 2009 , but would take the final decision in June of that year .","Mosley 's close relationship with Ecclestone , the sport 's promoter , was criticised in early 2009 by Sir Jackie Stewart , who suggested that Mosley should resign in favour of a CEO from outside motorsport .","In mid @-@ 2009 , the FIA and the newly formed Formula One Teams Association disagreed over the format of rules for the following season .","When the entry list for the 2010 championship was announced on 12 June 2009 , the entries of five of the eight FOTA teams remained provisional on their acceptance of the new rules .","The next day , the European Automobile Manufacturers Association announced its support for FOTA 's request for \" stability , clear rules , a clear and transparent system of governance \" and their threat to form a <unk> series from Formula One .","The BBC Sport website reported this as an attack on Mosley 's authority and noted that Mosley was expected to stand again for the presidency in 2009 .","On 23 June , Mosley said he was considering running for a fifth term as FIA president in October \" in light of the attack on my mandate \" .","However , the following day FOTA and the FIA reached an agreement with Mosley agreeing not to stand for re @-@ election as part of the deal : ' now there is peace ' .","Luca di <unk> welcomed Mosley 's decision to stand down and called Mosley a ' dictator ' .","Mosley responded by saying that he was still considering his ' options ' and might well stand for re @-@ election in October after all .","He later said that he was \" under pressure from all over the world \" to stand for re @-@ election .","On 15 July , Mosley confirmed that he would after all stand down , and again endorsed former Ferrari Executive Director Jean Todt as his successor .","Todt went on to win the presidency .","= = Honours = = \n \n Grande <unk> <unk> ' <unk> al <unk> ( Italy ) 1994 \n <unk> Gold Medal from the Institute of Motor Industry in the year 2000 .","Order of <unk> <unk> , 1st degree ( Bulgaria ) , 2000 \n <unk> <unk> <unk> per la <unk> <unk> ( Italy ) , 2001 \n The <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , 2001 \n Order of Merit ( Romania ) , 2004 \n <unk> <unk> do Quito ( Ecuador ) , 2005 .","National Road Safety Council <unk> , Armenia , 2005 .","France : Chevalier of the Légion d 'honneur ( 2006 ) \n Monaco : Commander of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( 27 May 2006 ) \n \n = = <unk> = = \n \n Secretary , Oxford Union Society , 1961 .","1964 , Called to the Bar , Gray ’ s Inn .","Director of March Cars , 1969 @-@ 79 \n Member of High Level <unk> , <unk> ( Competitive Automotive <unk> System for the 21st century ) 21 , 2005 @-@ 09 \n <unk> at <unk> Aware , 2006 @-@ 2009 \n Member of the Board of Trustees , 2001 @-@ 2014 , Chairman of the Programmes Committee , 2001 @-@ 2012 , FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society \n <unk> of Euro NCAP , Global NCAP , <unk> \n Honorary President of European Parliament Automobile <unk> ' <unk> \n \n = = Sex scandal = = \n \n In 2008 , Mosley won a court case ( Mosley v News Group Newspapers ) against the News of the World newspaper which had reported his involvement in a sex act involving five <unk> women on the grounds that it had breached his privacy .","Justice <unk> ruled that despite some of the attendees wearing German World War 2 uniforms there were no Nazi connotations to the <unk> , a false statement that had been printed by the newspaper .","As a result , in 2009 Mosley brought a case ( Mosley v United Kingdom ) against the UK 's privacy laws in the European Court of Human Rights , in a bid to force newspapers to warn people before exposing their private lives so they could have the opportunity to seek a court injunction .","The case was rejected by the court on 10 May 2011 as they argued that a \" pre @-@ <unk> requirement would inevitably affect political reporting and serious journalism . \"","In July 2011 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Mosley was financially <unk> the court costs of claimants who may have been subjected to phone hacking by the News of the World .","Mosley refused to comment at the time , but he later gave a TV interview to the BBC and telephone interview to Reuters where he confirmed the story .","Mosley launched legal action against Google , in an attempt to stop searches from returning web pages which use the photographs from the video used for the News of the World story .","On 6 November 2013 in Mosley v <unk> Google a French court sided with Mosley and ordered Google to prevent its search engine from providing links to images of Mosley engaging in sexual activities from the video .","The Register suggested the ruling would lead to a Streisand effect , increasing interest in the images , which are still <unk> through other search engines .","At the <unk> <unk> , Mosley stated his reasons for pursuing Google : \n \" the fundamental point is that Google could stop this material appearing but they don 't , or they won 't as a matter of principle .","My position is that if the search engines - if somebody were to stop the search engines producing the material , the actual sites don 't really matter because without a search engine , nobody will find it , it would just be a few friends of the person who posts it .","The really dangerous things are the search engines . \"","Mosley launched similar legal action against Google in Germany .","In January 2014 , the German court also ruled against the American company .","In giving its verdict , the court stated , \" that the banned pictures of the <unk> severely violate his private sphere . \"","In an interview with Der <unk> following the judgement , Mosley said : \" <unk> speaking Google has got to obey German courts in Germany and French courts in France .","But in the end it has to decide whether it wants to live in a democracy .","Google behaves like an adolescent <unk> against the establishment .","The company has to recognise that it is a part of society and it must accept the responsibility which comes with that . \"","= = Ancestry = ="],"string":"[\n \" = Max Mosley = \\n \\n Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of <unk> organisations and car users worldwide .\",\n \"The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and other international <unk> .\",\n \"A qualified barrister and former amateur racing driver , Mosley was a founder and co @-@ owner of March Engineering , a successful racing car <unk> and Formula One racing team .\",\n \"He dealt with legal and commercial matters for the company between 1969 and 1977 and became its representative at the Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) , the body that represents Formula One constructors .\",\n \"Together with Bernie Ecclestone , he represented FOCA at the FIA and in its dealings with race organisers .\",\n \"In 1978 , Mosley became the official legal adviser to FOCA .\",\n \"In this role he and Marco <unk> negotiated the first version of the Concorde Agreement , which settled a long @-@ standing dispute between FOCA and the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , a commission of the FIA and the then governing body of Formula One .\",\n \"Mosley was elected president of FISA in 1991 and became president of the FIA , FISA 's parent body , in 1993 .\",\n \"Mosley identified his major achievement as FIA President as the promotion of the European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP or <unk> ) .\",\n \"He has also promoted increased safety and the use of green technologies in motor racing .\",\n \"In 2008 , stories about his sex life appeared in the British press , along with unfounded allegations regarding Nazi connotations .\",\n \"Mosley successfully sued the newspaper that published the allegations and maintained his position as FIA president .\",\n \"He stood down at the end of his term in 2009 and was replaced by his preferred successor , Jean Todt .\",\n \"Mosley is the youngest son of Sir Oswald Mosley , former leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) , and Diana Mitford .\",\n \"He was educated in France , Germany and Britain before going on to attend university at Christ Church , Oxford , where he graduated with a degree in physics .\",\n \"He then changed to law and was called to the Bar in 1964 .\",\n \"In his teens and early twenties Mosley was involved with his father 's post @-@ war political party , the Union Movement ( UM ) .\",\n \"He has said that the association of his surname with fascism stopped him from developing his interest in politics further , although he briefly worked for the Conservative Party in the early 1980s .\",\n \"= = Family and early life = = \\n \\n His father , Sir Oswald Mosley was a Labour minister , and a Member of Parliament for both the Conservative and Labour parties in the 1920s .\",\n \"By the 1930s , he had left mainstream politics and become the leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) .\",\n \"His first wife died in 1933 , and in 1936 Sir Oswald married Diana Mitford , in a ceremony in Germany attended by Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Hitler .\",\n \"Max was born in London in April 1940 during the early days of the Second World War to Diana and Oswald .\",\n \"In May , Sir Oswald , who had campaigned for a negotiated peace with Nazi Germany , was interned by the British Authorities under Defence Regulation <unk> , along with most other active fascists in Britain .\",\n \"Lady Mosley was imprisoned a month later .\",\n \"Max and his brother Alexander were not included in this internship and as a result were separated from their parents for the first few years of their lives .\",\n \"In December 1940 , then @-@ prime minister Winston Churchill , asked Home Secretary Herbert Morrison to ensure Lady Mosley was able to see Max regularly .\",\n \"Sir Oswald and Lady Mosley were released from detention at <unk> Holloway on 16 November 1943 , provoking widespread public protests .\",\n \"Max ’ s elder brother was unhappy at his private school .\",\n \"As a result , both children were <unk> at home until the age of 13 .\",\n \"The family moved to a succession of country houses in England .\",\n \"Mosley 's older half @-@ brother Nicholas describes the family , including Sir Oswald ’ s children from his first marriage , spending the summer of 1945 getting the harvest in and shooting at <unk> Farm .\",\n \"In 1950 , the <unk> bought houses in Ireland , and in <unk> , near Paris .\",\n \"They spent the year moving around Europe , spending the spring in France and the autumn and winter in Ireland , where Mosley was keen on riding and hunting .\",\n \"His aunt Nancy Mitford , in letters to Evelyn <unk> , recalled Sir Oswald and his family cruising the Mediterranean Sea on the family yacht .\",\n \"On one such trip they visited Spain and were entertained by Sir Oswald 's friend , General Franco .\",\n \"At the age of 13 Mosley was sent to Stein an der <unk> in Germany for two years , where he learned to speak fluent German .\",\n \"On his return to England he spent a year at <unk> , an independent boarding school in Somerset after which he continued his education in London for two years .\",\n \"He attended Christ Church at Oxford University , graduating with a degree in physics in 1961 .\",\n \"During his time there he was Secretary of the Oxford Union where his father spoke on two occasions , once with Jeremy Thorpe on the other side .\",\n \"In 1960 Mosley introduced his father to Robert <unk> , one of Mosley 's contemporaries at the university , who later wrote Sir Oswald 's biography .\",\n \"<unk> an early ambition to work as a physicist after \\\" establishing that there was no money in it \\\" , Mosley went on to study law at Gray 's Inn in London and qualified as a barrister in 1964 .\",\n \"After a <unk> with Maurice Drake he specialised in patent and trademark law .\",\n \"Northumbria University awarded Mosley an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law in 2005 .\",\n \"From 1961 to 1964 Mosley was a member of the Territorial Army , Parachute Regiment ( 44th Independent Parachute Brigade Group ) .\",\n \"Mosley , like many of Formula One 's drivers , lives in Monaco .\",\n \"On 9 June 1960 he was married at the Chelsea Register Office to Jean Taylor , the daughter of James Taylor , a policeman from <unk> .\",\n \"In 1970 their first son , Alexander , was born and in 1972 their second son , Patrick .\",\n \"On 5 May 2009 , Alexander , a <unk> , was found dead at his home .\",\n \"He was thirty @-@ nine .\",\n \"At an <unk> on 10 June 2009 the Westminster <unk> declared that he had died due to heroin intoxication .\",\n \"In addition to his full @-@ brother Alexander , Mosley has five older half @-@ siblings .\",\n \"On his father 's side they are Vivien Mosley ( 1921 – 2002 ) , novelist Nicholas Mosley , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1923 ) , and Michael Mosley ( 1932 – 2014 ) .\",\n \"On his mother 's side they are merchant banker Jonathan Guinness , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1930 ) , and Irish <unk> Desmond Guinness ( born 1931 ) .\",\n \"He is a third cousin of the late Winston Churchill , the grandson of the former British prime minister .\",\n \"= = Politics = = \\n \\n From their teens to early twenties , Mosley and his brother were involved with their father 's post @-@ war party , the Union Movement ( UM ) , which advocated a united Europe as its core issue .\",\n \"Trevor <unk> , a central figure in the UM 's Youth Movement , writes of the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mosley painting the flash and circle symbol on walls in London on the night of the Soviet Union 's invasion of Hungary ( 4 November 1956 ) .\",\n \"The flash and circle was used by both the UM and the pre @-@ war BUF .\",\n \"He also says Mosley organised a couple of large parties as a way \\\" to get in with lively , ordinary , normal young people , girls as well as boys , and attract them to the Movement by showing that we were like them and didn 't go on about Hitler and <unk> , Franco and British <unk> all the time . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley met his future wife Jean at such a party .\",\n \"Mosley and Alexander were photographed posing as Teddy Boys in Notting Hill during the 1958 race riots between Afro @-@ <unk> and local white gangs of Teddy Boys .\",\n \"The following year , they <unk> for their father when he ran as a Union Movement candidate for the nearby Kensington North seat in the 1959 General Election .\",\n \"Mosley has rarely discussed his early political involvement with his father .\",\n \"When his father Oswald died , the London Daily Mail described him as a \\\" much maligned and much misunderstood political giant of his era . \\\"\",\n \"Certainly , his father 's political presence affected his early years but Mosley reflected on this time , \\\" I was born into this rather strange family and then at a certain point you get away from that . \\\"\",\n \"Whilst he has distanced himself from this period of his life , the \\\" misunderstanding has remained and today ... he carries that weight on his shoulders . \\\"\",\n \"In 1961 Mosley was an election agent for the Union Movement , supporting Walter Hesketh as parliamentary candidate for Moss Side .\",\n \"The motor racing journalist Alan Henry describes him as one of his father 's \\\" right @-@ hand men \\\" at the time of a violent incident in 1962 , in which Sir Oswald was knocked down by a mob in London and saved from serious injury by his son 's intervention .\",\n \"As a result of his involvement in this <unk> , Mosley was arrested and charged with threatening behaviour .\",\n \"He was later cleared at Old Street <unk> ' Court on the grounds that he was trying to protect his father .\",\n \"By 1964 , when he began work as a barrister , Mosley was no longer involved in politics .\",\n \"In the early 1980s , Mosley attempted a political career , working for the UK Conservative Party and hoping to become a parliamentary candidate .\",\n \"Bernie Ecclestone 's biographer , Terry Lovell , writes that he gave up this aspiration after being unimpressed by \\\" the calibre of senior party officials \\\" .\",\n \"He also felt his name would be a handicap and has since said \\\" If I had a completely open choice in my life , I would have chosen party politics , but because of my name , that 's impossible . \\\"\",\n \"By the late 1990s he had become a supporter of the UK Labour Party , following a meeting with then Labour Leader John Smith .\",\n \"= = Racing career = = \\n \\n While Mosley was at University , his wife was given tickets to a motor race at the Silverstone Circuit .\",\n \"The circuit is not far from Oxford , and the couple went out of curiosity .\",\n \"Mosley was attracted by the sport , and when his career as a barrister was bringing in sufficient money , he started racing cars himself .\",\n \"The sport 's indifference to his background appealed to Mosley : \\n There was always a certain amount of trouble [ being the son of Sir Oswald ] until I came into motor racing .\",\n \"And in one of the first races I ever took part in there was a list of people when they put the practice times [ ... ] and I heard somebody say , ' Mosley , Max Mosley , he must be some relation of <unk> <unk> [ e ] <unk> , the <unk> . '\",\n \"And I thought to myself , ' I 've found a world where they don 't know about Oswald Mosley . '\",\n \"And it has always been a bit like that in motor racing : nobody gives a damn .\",\n \"At national level in the UK , Mosley competed in over 40 races in 1966 and 1967 ; he won 12 and set several class lap records .\",\n \"In 1968 , he formed the London Racing Team in partnership with driver Chris Lambert to compete in European Formula Two , which at that time was the level of racing just below Formula One .\",\n \"Their cars were prepared by Frank Williams , later a Formula One team owner .\",\n \"It was a dangerous time to race .\",\n \"Mosley 's first Formula Two race was the 1968 <unk> <unk> , at <unk> in which double world champion Jim Clark was killed , and within two years both of Mosley 's 1968 team mates , Piers Courage and Chris Lambert were dead in racing accidents .\",\n \"Mosley 's best result that year was an eighth place at a non @-@ championship race at <unk> .\",\n \"Engine builder Brian Hart says that as a driver , Mosley \\\" might not have been particularly quick , but he was a thinking driver .\",\n \"He kept out of trouble and generally used his head . \\\"\",\n \"[ a ] \\n \\n = = March Engineering = = \\n \\n In 1969 , after two large accidents due to <unk> on his Lotus car , Mosley decided that \\\" it was evident that I wasn 't going to be World Champion \\\" and retired from driving .\",\n \"He was already working with Robin Herd , Alan Rees and Graham <unk> to establish the racing car manufacturer March Engineering where he handled legal and commercial matters .\",\n \"The name March is an acronym based on the initials of the founders ; the ' M ' stands for Mosley .\",\n \"Like the other founders , Mosley put in £ 2 @,@ 500 of capital .\",\n \"His father told him that the company \\\" would certainly go bankrupt , but it would be good training for something serious later on . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley played a key role in <unk> the new outfit .\",\n \"Although March had few resources and limited experience , the firm announced ambitious plans to enter Formula One , the pinnacle of single @-@ seater racing , in 1970 .\",\n \"The team had initially intended to enter a single car , but by the beginning of the season ( partly due to deals made by Mosley ) , the number of March cars entered for their first Formula One race had risen to five .\",\n \"Two of these were run by March 's own in @-@ house works team and the rest by customer teams .\",\n \"Mosley also negotiated sponsorship from tyre maker <unk> and oil <unk> manufacturer <unk> .\",\n \"The new operation was initially successful .\",\n \"In Formula One , March cars won three of their first four races .\",\n \"One of these was a world championship race , the 1970 Spanish Grand Prix , won by reigning world champion Jackie Stewart in a customer car run by Tyrrell Racing .\",\n \"As a result , March finished third in the 1970 Constructors ' Championship .\",\n \"The factory also sold 40 cars to customers in various lower formulae .\",\n \"Despite these successes , the organisation got into financial difficulty almost immediately .\",\n \"The Formula One operation was costing more than the customer car business was making .\",\n \"The March works team 's contract with its lead driver , Chris <unk> , was expensive , and Mosley , in his own words , \\\" tried at every opportunity to get rid of him \\\" .\",\n \"He reasoned that Stewart 's highly competitive customer car was enough to show March in a good light .\",\n \"<unk> stayed to the end of the year , but Mosley succeeded in \\\" restructuring \\\" his contract , saving the company some much @-@ needed money .\",\n \"At the end of the season , Mosley successfully demanded full control of the finances , including the factory run by <unk> , who left shortly afterwards .\",\n \"Mosley and Herd borrowed £ 20 @,@ 000 from relatives and friends to support the company into its second year .\",\n \"According to Lovell the money came from Mosley 's half @-@ brother , Jonathan Guinness .\",\n \"Tyrrell started making its own cars towards the end of 1970 , and March 's 1971 program in Formula One was much reduced , with no recognised front @-@ running driver .\",\n \"The <unk> and <unk> sponsorship was insufficient and Mosley failed to attract a large <unk> for 1971 .\",\n \"<unk> author Mike Lawrence has suggested that the shortfall forced him into short @-@ term deals , which maintained <unk> , but were not in the best long @-@ term interests of the company .\",\n \"Mosley negotiated a deal for the team to use Alfa Romeo engines in a third car , bringing much needed funding .\",\n \"The engines proved <unk> , and his hopes of an ongoing partnership with the Italian automobile manufacturer were not met .\",\n \"Nonetheless , March again finished third in the constructors championship , and works driver Ronnie Peterson , in a <unk> <unk> @-@ powered car , was second in the Drivers ' Championship .\",\n \"March 's financial <unk> continued : the company had lost £ 71 @,@ 000 at the end of 1971 .\",\n \"Mosley and Rees disagreed over how to rectify the situation and Rees left March early in 1972 .\",\n \"March was more successful in selling large numbers of customer cars in the lower formulae .\",\n \"Mosley organised extensive test sessions for the 1971 cars for journalists and drivers , and arranged a successful scheme for drivers to rent cars and engines for the season , rather than buying them outright .\",\n \"<unk> money on a deal to supply <unk> <unk> , then motorsport manager at Ford , with a Formula Two car paid off when <unk> moved to BMW and offered March an exclusive deal in 1972 to use BMW 's Formula Two engine .\",\n \"March cars powered by BMW engines won five of the next 11 European Formula Two championships .\",\n \"However , BMW also put pressure on Herd to concentrate on the Formula Two programme .\",\n \"As a result , he spent less time with the Formula One team , where Mosley started to act as a race engineer .\",\n \"Although March considered quitting Formula One on several occasions , money was always found to support at least one car .\",\n \"<unk> historian Mike Lawrence credits Mosley with pressing for a six @-@ wheeled March to be built as a draw for sponsors , having seen the popularity with fans of Tyrrell 's six @-@ wheeled <unk> .\",\n \"The resulting March 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 never competed in Formula One , but generated the required publicity and a <unk> <unk> model was profitable .\",\n \"Mosley spent much of his time negotiating deals for drivers with sponsorship and was also successful in selling Marches to other Formula One teams , such as Williams and <unk> .\",\n \"The cars were rarely frontrunners , although the works team won a single race in both 1975 and 1976 .\",\n \"By the end of 1977 , Mosley was fed up with the struggle to compete in Formula One with no resources and left to work for FOCA full @-@ time , selling his shares in the company to Herd but remaining as a director .\",\n \"March 's involvement in Formula One ended the same year .\",\n \"[ b ] \\n \\n = = Formula One Constructors ' Association = = \\n \\n From 1969 , Mosley was invited to represent March at the Grand Prix Constructors ' Association ( GPCA ) , which negotiated joint deals on behalf of its member teams .\",\n \"Although the new March organisation was not popular with the established teams , Mosley has said that \\\" when they went along to meetings to discuss things such as prize money , they felt they ought to take me along because I was a lawyer \\\" .\",\n \"He was unimpressed with the standard of negotiations : \\\" our side all went in a group because no @-@ one trusted anyone else and all were afraid that someone would break ranks and make a private deal . \\\"\",\n \"In 1971 , British businessman Bernie Ecclestone bought the <unk> team , and Mosley recalls that : \\n Within about 20 minutes of [ Ecclestone ] turning up at the [ GPCA ] meeting , it was apparent that here was someone who knew how many beans made five and after about half an hour he moved round the table to sit next to me , and from then on he and I started operating as a team .\",\n \"Within a very short time , the two of us were doing everything for the GPCA , instead of everyone moving around in a block , and from that developed FOCA .\",\n \"The Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) was created in 1974 by Ecclestone , Colin Chapman , Teddy Mayer , Mosley , Ken Tyrrell and Frank Williams .\",\n \"FOCA would represent the commercial interests of the teams at meetings with the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , motorsport 's world governing body .\",\n \"After leaving March at the end of 1977 , Mosley officially became legal advisor to FOCA , which was led by Ecclestone .\",\n \"In his biography of Ecclestone , Terry Lovell suggests that he appointed Mosley to this role not only because of his legal ability , but also because he \\\" saw in Mosley the necessary diplomatic and political skills that made him perfectly suited to the establishment of the FIA \\\" .\",\n \"The Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) was FISA 's parent body , representing car users worldwide .\",\n \"In the same year , Mosley was nominated for a role at the FIA Bureau Internationale de <unk> d 'Automobile .\",\n \"His nomination was blocked by French , Italian and German manufacturers .\",\n \"In the early 1980s , Mosley represented FOCA in the \\\" FISA @-@ FOCA War \\\" , a conflict between FOCA , representing the mainly UK @-@ based independent teams , and FISA , which was supported by the \\\" <unk> \\\" constructors owned by road car manufacturers ( primarily Alfa Romeo , Ferrari and Renault ) .\",\n \"In 1981 , FOCA announced its own World Federation of Motor Sport and ran the non @-@ championship 1981 South African Grand Prix .\",\n \"The staging of this event , with worldwide television coverage , helped persuade Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , the FISA president , that FISA would have to negotiate a settlement with FOCA .\",\n \"As Mosley has since commented : \\\" We were absolutely <unk> .\",\n \"If Balestre could have held the manufacturer 's support for a little bit longer , the constructors would have been on their knees .\",\n \"The outcome would then have been very different . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley helped draw up the Concorde Agreement , a document which resolved the dispute by essentially giving FISA control of the rules and FOCA control of promotion and television rights .\",\n \"The most recent version of the Concorde Agreement expired on 31 December 2007 , and a new one was being discussed , as of 2008 .\",\n \"In 1982 , the year after the first Concorde Agreement was signed , Mosley left his role at FOCA , and Formula One , to work for the Conservative Party .\",\n \"= = FISA presidency = = \\n \\n Mosley returned to motorsport in 1986 , with the support of Ecclestone and Balestre , to become president of the FISA Manufacturers ' Commission , the successor to the Bureau Internationale de <unk> d 'Automobile .\",\n \"That same year , he established Simtek Research , a racing technical consultancy firm , with Nick Wirth , a former March employee .\",\n \"He sold his share of Simtek in 1991 , when elected president of the FISA .\",\n \"According to Lovell , in 1987 Mosley suggested to Balestre that he could deal with his problems with Ecclestone by \\\" <unk> [ ing ] him a member of the establishment \\\" .\",\n \"Later that year Ecclestone was appointed vice @-@ president of the FIA 's promotional affairs , with authority over Formula One and the other motor sports authorised by the FIA .\",\n \"In 1991 , Mosley challenged Balestre for the presidency of FISA .\",\n \"Mosley said that his decision to challenge the Frenchman was prompted by Balestre 's reported intervention on behalf of his <unk> Alain <unk> to ensure that race stewards disqualified Brazilian driver <unk> Senna from the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix .\",\n \"Mosley campaigned on the basis that Balestre , who was also president of the FIA and of the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile , could not effectively manage all these roles together .\",\n \"He also said that no @-@ one challenged Balestre because they were afraid of the consequences and suggested that the FISA President should not interfere with F1 , which could be left to run itself .\",\n \"Mosley won the FISA presidency by 43 votes to 29 ; Balestre remained as FIA president .\",\n \"Mosley resigned a year later , fulfilling a promise made during his election campaign to seek a re @-@ affirmation of his mandate . \\\"\",\n \"I wanted to show people that I do what I say \\\" , he said . \\\"\",\n \"Now they can judge me in a year 's time . \\\"\",\n \"FISA immediately re @-@ elected him .\",\n \"= = FIA presidency = = \\n \\n \\n = = = 1993 – 1997 = = = \\n \\n In 1993 , Mosley agreed with Balestre that the Frenchman would stand down as president of the FIA in Mosley 's favour , in return for the new role of President of the FIA Senate , to be created after Mosley 's election .\",\n \"As well as motorsport , the FIA 's remit includes the interests of motorists worldwide , an area in which Mosley wanted to involve himself : \\\" That is what really interested me : [ in F1 ] you maybe save one life every five years , whereas [ in ] road safety you are talking about thousands of lives \\\" .\",\n \"A challenge to Mosley 's election by Jeffrey Rose , chairman of the British Royal Automobile Club , was withdrawn when it became clear that the majority of voters were already committed to Mosley .\",\n \"The FISA was then merged into the FIA as its sporting arm .\",\n \"After the deaths of drivers <unk> Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , worldwide media attention focused on the charismatic triple @-@ world champion Senna , rather than Ratzenberger , a virtual unknown driving for the minor Simtek team .\",\n \"Mosley did not go to Senna 's funeral , but attended that of Ratzenberger .\",\n \"In a press conference 10 years later Mosley said , \\\" I went to his funeral because everyone went to Senna 's .\",\n \"I thought it was important that somebody went to his . \\\"\",\n \"In the aftermath of the deaths , and a number of other serious accidents , Mosley announced the formation of the Advisory Expert Group chaired by Professor Sid Watkins , to research and improve safety in motor racing .\",\n \"Watkins , who learned of his new role by hearing Mosley announce it on the radio , has called it a \\\" novel and revolutionary approach \\\" .\",\n \"The resulting changes have included reducing the capacity and power of engines , the use of grooved tyres to reduce <unk> speeds , the introduction of the <unk> device to protect drivers ' necks in accidents , circuit re @-@ design and greatly increased requirements for crash testing of chassis .\",\n \"Mosley was criticised for some of the very rapid changes announced in the immediate aftermath of the deaths at the San Marino race .\",\n \"In 1995 , a deal was signed between Ecclestone and the FIA that passed all of the commercial rights to Formula One to him for 15 years , on the condition that they would return to the FIA at the end of that period .\",\n \"Ecclestone had been building up Formula One as a television package since the early 1990s , investing heavily in new digital television technology .\",\n \"For the duration of the deal , the FIA would receive an index @-@ linked annual fixed royalty , estimated by Lovell at around 15 % .\",\n \"Mosley said \\\" My belief is that I got a better deal than anyone else could have because it was more difficult for Ecclestone to take a hard line with me as we had worked together for so long . \\\"\",\n \"The following year the FIA also passed the rights to all its other directly sanctioned championships and events to Ecclestone , also for 15 years , An attempt to add a 10 @-@ year extension to the F1 contract in return for a share in Ecclestone 's proposed flotation of Formula One was later vetoed by the European Commission .\",\n \"Mosley 's agreement with Ecclestone on TV rights for F1 angered three of the team principals in particular : Ron Dennis ( McLaren ) , Frank Williams ( Williams ) and Ken Tyrrell ( Tyrrell ) , who felt that neither Ecclestone nor the FIA had the right to make such an agreement without the teams .\",\n \"They refused to sign the 1997 Concorde Agreement without increased financial returns and threatened to make a complaint under European Union competition rules .\",\n \"The European Commission was already investigating the FIA ’ s agreement with Ecclestone in what Lovell calls a \\\" highly personal and bitter battle between Max Mosley and [ EU commissioner Karel ] van <unk> \\\" .\",\n \"= = = 1997 – 2001 = = = \\n \\n Mosley was elected to his second term as president of the FIA in October 1997 .\",\n \"Later that year , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition made a preliminary decision against Ecclestone and the FIA .\",\n \"The resulting warning letters from van <unk> to the FIA and Ecclestone were leaked and ended the attempt to float F1 ; the FIA won a case against the Commission for the leakage in 1998 .\",\n \"At the same time , a local court in Germany ruled that the television rights to the FIA European Truck Racing Cup ( passed to Ecclestone by the FIA the previous year , along with all other FIA authorised championships ) should be returned to the series organiser , following a complaint from German television company <unk> TV @-@ <unk> .\",\n \"The TV Company argued that Ecclestone and Mosley were in breach of commercial clauses in the Treaty of Rome ; following the court 's decision Mosley appealed the judgement and cancelled the series until further notice .\",\n \"On appeal , the court ruled that the series organiser should be able to sell the television rights to whoever they felt was the best option for coverage and the FIA reinstated the European Truck Racing Cup .\",\n \"Between 1997 and 2000 Mosley repeatedly warned that if any EU decision went against the FIA , the marketing organisations and F1 itself would be moved out of Europe .\",\n \"In 1999 , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition issued a Statement of <unk> , listing a number of grievances surrounding the FIA 's dealings with Ecclestone and Formula One .\",\n \"The FIA released the Statement to the media and held a press conference in Brussels <unk> the Commission ’ s case .\",\n \"The Commission argued that a number of commercial agreements could be viewed as anti @-@ competition and invited the FIA and Ecclestone 's companies , <unk> and <unk> , to submit proposals to modify these arrangements .\",\n \"In 2001 , nine months after settlement talks had begun , the parties reached an agreement to amend existing contracts , which included Ecclestone stepping down as the FIA 's vice @-@ president of promotional affairs and the FIA ending all involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One .\",\n \"Mosley came up with an innovative way to dispose of the FIA 's involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One .\",\n \"In order to maintain Ecclestone 's investment to deliver digital television , he proposed extending Ecclestone 's rights for F1 coverage to 100 years from the initial 15 , arguing that a deal of such length could not be anti @-@ competition as it was effectively the same as an outright sale .\",\n \"The Commission agreed with his assessment and in the interest of impartiality , Mosley removed himself from the negotiations , which eventually returned around $ 300 million ( £ 150 million ) .\",\n \"The FIA planned to \\\" put almost all of it into a charitable foundation which will then have the resources to undertake important work on improving safety in motor sport and in road safety \\\" , and thus the FIA Foundation was created in 2001 .\",\n \"In addition , the FIA continued to receive an annual <unk> from the deal , Mosley stated : \\\" Over the <unk> of the contract , and on an annual basis , the sum we have accepted represents billions of dollars .\",\n \"<unk> at from that point of view , it is a huge amount of money . \\\"\",\n \"Lovell compares the figure to extend the rights to 100 years to the £ 600 million <unk> paid for the rights to the 2002 Football World Cup and the £ 1 @.\",\n \"@ 1 billion British Sky Broadcasting paid for a three @-@ year package of English Premier League football .\",\n \"The figure was not entirely comparable however due to the dispute over who actually owned Formula One .\",\n \"Before the settlement with the EU Commission was reached , Mosley feared that the FIA was losing control over the sport following a heated argument with Ecclestone in Paris .\",\n \"Ecclestone argued that he had built Formula One into the entity that it was and the FIA only had rights to designate the event as official .\",\n \"Ecclestone threatened to \\\" do a <unk> earth \\\" if another party were to gain control of the commercial side of Formula One .\",\n \"Mosley came up with the solution in order for the FIA to retain its sporting management role and Ecclestone to retain his commercial role .\",\n \"Over the same period , Mosley was attempting to delay European legislation banning tobacco advertising .\",\n \"At this time all leading Formula One teams carried significant branding from tobacco brands such as <unk> , West , <unk> and <unk> Seven .\",\n \"The Labour party had pledged to ban tobacco advertising in its manifesto ahead of its 1997 General Election victory , supporting a proposed European Union Directive .\",\n \"The Labour Party 's stance on banning tobacco advertising was reinforced following the election by forceful statements from the Health Secretary Frank <unk> and Minister for Public Health Tessa Jowell .\",\n \"Ecclestone appealed \\\" over Jowell 's head \\\" to Jonathan Powell , Tony Blair 's chief of staff , who arranged a meeting with Blair .\",\n \"Ecclestone and Mosley , both Labour Party donors , met Blair on 16 October 1997 .\",\n \"Mosley argued that the proposed legislation was illegal by EU rules , that Formula One needed more time to find alternative sources of funding and that the prompt introduction of a ban would lead to races being held outside Europe , while the coverage , including tobacco <unk> , would still be broadcast into the EU .\",\n \"He also argued that : \\n Motor racing was a world class industry which put Britain at the hi @-@ tech edge .\",\n \"<unk> of tobacco money , Formula One would move abroad at the loss of 50 @,@ 000 jobs , 150 @,@ 000 part @-@ time jobs and £ 900 million of exports .\",\n \"On 4 November the \\\" fiercely anti @-@ tobacco Jowell \\\" argued in Brussels for an exemption for Formula One .\",\n \"Media attention initially focused on Labour <unk> its principles for a \\\" glamour sport \\\" and on the \\\" false trail \\\" of Jowell 's husband 's links to the <unk> Formula One team .\",\n \"On 6 November <unk> from three newspapers <unk> whether Labour had received any donations from Ecclestone ; he had donated £ 1 million in January 1997 .\",\n \"On 11 November Labour promised to return the money on the advice of Sir Patrick <unk> .\",\n \"On 17 November Blair apologised for his government 's mishandling of the affair and stated \\\" the decision to exempt Formula One from tobacco sponsorship was taken two weeks later .\",\n \"It was in response to fears that Britain might lose the industry overseas to Asian countries who were bidding for it . \\\"\",\n \"The revised directive went into force in June 1998 , and banned sponsorship from 2003 , with a further three @-@ year extension for \\\" global sports such as Formula One \\\" .\",\n \"On 5 October 2000 , the directive was successfully overturned in the European Court of Justice on the grounds that it was unlawful .\",\n \"A new Tobacco Advertising Directive took effect in July 2005 ; the Financial Times described Mosley as \\\" furious \\\" that this was a year earlier than provided for under the 1998 directive .\",\n \"As of 2009 , Ferrari is the only F1 team to retain tobacco sponsorship , although the team carries no explicit branding in races because of the European legislation .\",\n \"Although the FIA moved its headquarters out of the EU in 1999 , it returned in 2001 ; all of the F1 teams remain in Europe , and six are in the UK , compared to seven of eleven at the end of 1997 .\",\n \"Asked in a 2003 interview about his most enduring achievement as president of the FIA , Mosley replied : \\\" I think using Formula One to push <unk> Crash @-@ Testing . \\\"\",\n \"The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) is a European car safety performance assessment programme that originated with work done by the Transport Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport .\",\n \"The FIA became involved in the programme in 1996 , taking a lead in promoting it , and Mosley chaired the body from its launch as Euro NCAP in 1997 to 2004 .\",\n \"Despite what NCAP describes as a \\\" strong negative response \\\" from car manufacturers at first , the initiative has expanded , and NCAP says that there has been a clear increase in the safety of modern cars as a result .\",\n \"The EU commission in 2000 stated that \\\" <unk> had become the single most important mechanism for achieving advances in vehicle safety \\\" and \\\" the most cost effective road safety action available to the EU . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley has continued to promote the matter through his membership of initiatives such as <unk> 21 , the European Commission ’ s policy group aimed at improving the worldwide competitiveness of the European automotive industry .\",\n \"In February 2001 , Mosley announced his intention to stand again for the presidency in October of that year , saying that if successful this third term would be his last .\",\n \"= = = 2001 – 2005 = = = \\n \\n Mosley was elected to his third term as president of the FIA in 2001 .\",\n \"From 2000 , Formula One saw the return of teams partly or wholly owned and operated by major motor manufacturers , who feared that under Ecclestone 's management F1 coverage would go to pay television , reducing the value of their investment .\",\n \"In 2001 , the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( <unk> ) announced an alternative world championship , the Grand Prix World Championship to start by 2008 .\",\n \"The <unk> stipulated that the championship should not be regulated by the FIA , which Lovell believes was because the organisation believed Mosley was too close to Ecclestone .\",\n \"In June 2004 , Mosley announced that he would step down from his position in October of that year , one year early , saying \\\" I no longer find it either satisfying or interesting to sit in long meetings [ ... ] I have achieved in this job everything I set out to [ ... ] \\\" .\",\n \"One month later , he rescinded his decision after the FIA Senate called for him to stay on .\",\n \"According to a BBC Sport profile , many <unk> considered that the announcement , and Mosley 's public disagreements with Ecclestone , were \\\" just part of a well crafted plan to strengthen their control over the sport \\\" ; Ron Dennis , the McLaren team principal , suggested that it arose because Mosley 's proposals for Formula One met opposition .\",\n \"In 2004 , Mosley said he felt Ferrari 's then team principal Jean Todt should succeed him as president of the FIA when he stepped down .\",\n \"The 2005 United States Grand Prix was run with only six cars , after the Michelin tyres used by the other 14 cars proved unsafe for the circuit .\",\n \"A proposal involving the addition of a temporary <unk> to slow cars through the fastest corner of the circuit was suggested but rejected by Mosley .\",\n \"He stated his reasons for not agreeing to the <unk> : \\\" Formula One is a dangerous activity and it would be most <unk> to make fundamental changes to a circuit without following tried and tested procedures .\",\n \"What happened was bad but can be put right .\",\n \"This is not true of a fatality . \\\"\",\n \"He continued , \\\" Formula One is a sport which <unk> .\",\n \"It is not entertainment disguised as sport . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley gave three possible solutions for the Michelin runners : to use qualifying tyres but change them whenever necessary on safety grounds , to use a different tyre to be provided by Michelin or to run at reduced speed .\",\n \"These were all rejected by the Michelin @-@ <unk> teams .\",\n \"Paul <unk> , the then @-@ owner of the <unk> team who ran on Bridgestone tyres , was prepared to compromise to accommodate Michelin teams — even though a reduced field would guarantee his team much needed points — and was particularly vocal in his criticism and renewed his calls for Mosley to resign .\",\n \"= = = 2005 – 2009 = = = \\n \\n Mosley was elected unopposed to his fourth term as president of the FIA in 2005 .\",\n \"In recognition of his contribution to road safety and motorsport , Mosley was made a Chevalier dans l ’ <unk> de la Légion d ’ <unk> in 2006 .\",\n \"The Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour ) is France 's highest decoration for outstanding achievements in military or civil life ; a Chevalier ( Knight ) is the fifth class .\",\n \"Continuing a theme of his presidency , in 2006 Mosley called for Formula One manufacturers to develop technology relevant to road cars .\",\n \"In recent years , a large proportion of the enormous budget of Formula One has been spent on the development of very powerful , very high @-@ <unk> engines , which some say have little <unk> to road cars .\",\n \"Mosley has announced a 10 @-@ year freeze on the development of engines , which would allow manufacturers to spend more of their budgets on environmentally friendly technology such as the <unk> Energy Recovery System ( <unk> ) introduced in 2009 .\",\n \"In July 2008 , he sent a letter to the Formula One teams , in which he called for the teams to propose future sporting regulations to address specific issues including reduced fuel consumption .\",\n \"The 2007 Formula One season was dominated by Ferrari 's accusations that the McLaren team had made illegal use of their intellectual property , leading to legal cases in the United Kingdom and Italy .\",\n \"Unlike previous cases , such as the Toyota team 's illegal use of Ferrari intellectual property in 2004 that had been handled by German police , the FIA investigated .\",\n \"They initially found McLaren innocent ; unable to find enough evidence to suggest that anyone other than designer Mike <unk> had seen the information or that the team had used it .\",\n \"Ron Dennis , team principal of McLaren , was unaware at this point that Mosley had been sent personal e @-@ <unk> from Fernando Alonso , stating that the data had been used and seen by others in the team .\",\n \"When Italian police uncovered a series of text messages between McLaren and their spy at Ferrari , the team was hauled in front of the World Motor Sports Council ( WMSC ) once more .\",\n \"This time they were found guilty and eventually fined a gross $ <unk> and excluded from the 2007 constructors ' championship .\",\n \"Later in the year , the Renault team was found guilty by the FIA of possessing McLaren 's intellectual property , but was not punished , as the \\\" FIA 's WMSC decided there was not enough evidence to show the championship had been affected . \\\"\",\n \"In relation to McLaren , triple world champion Jackie Stewart criticised Mosley and stated that other teams did not back McLaren for \\\" fear of repercussions \\\" .\",\n \"TV commentator and newspaper columnist Martin Brundle , a former driver , was among those who criticised the FIA and Mosley for inconsistency and questioned the \\\" energetic manner \\\" in which he felt McLaren was being pursued , suggesting that there was a \\\" witch hunt \\\" against the team .\",\n \"Brundle and The Sunday Times subsequently received a writ for libel before the paper printed a correction .\",\n \"Mosley went on to defend himself of the charges made by Brundle , highlighting that the WMSC originally acquitted McLaren of any wrongdoing , stating : \\\" Concrete evidence of use by McLaren of the Ferrari information was simply not there . \\\"\",\n \"It was only later in the year when \\\" e @-@ <unk> emerged which showed others inside McLaren were indeed aware of the Ferrari information \\\" , that the FIA found the team guilty .\",\n \"At the start of 2008 , Mosley said that he wanted to see through reforms such as budget capping and new technologies like <unk> successfully introduced into Formula One before retiring .\",\n \"In March of that year the News of the World released video footage of Mosley engaged in acts with five <unk> women in a scenario that the paper alleged involved Nazi role @-@ playing ( an allegation that , though dismissed in court as \\\" no genuine basis \\\" , allegedly \\\" ruined \\\" Mosley 's reputation ) .\",\n \"The situation was made more controversial by his father 's association with the Nazis .\",\n \"Mosley admitted \\\" the embarrassment the revelations caused \\\" , but said that there was no Nazi theme involved .\",\n \"He was strongly criticised by former drivers , motor manufacturers and several of the national <unk> bodies who form the FIA .\",\n \"His involvement in several high level motor sport events was cancelled .\",\n \"Public expressions of support were limited .\",\n \"Mosley says that he received much supportive correspondence , and said that he would continue to the end of his current term , which he said would be his last .\",\n \"Mosley 's longtime ally Ecclestone eventually appeared to support Mosley 's removal .\",\n \"Mosley won a vote of confidence at an <unk> General Meeting of the FIA on 3 June 2008 , with 103 votes in support and 55 against , with seven <unk> and four invalid votes .\",\n \"Several clubs , including the <unk> , AAA and <unk> considered withdrawal from the FIA after the decision .\",\n \"Other formerly critical organisations have since said that they will accept the outcome of the vote and now wish to move on .\",\n \"In July 2008 , Mosley won a High Court legal case against the News of the World for invasion of privacy .\",\n \"The presiding judge , Mr Justice <unk> , said : \\\" I see no genuine basis at all for the suggestion that the participants mocked the victims of the Holocaust . \\\"\",\n \"In December 2008 , Mosley said that he still intended to stand down when his term ran out in October 2009 , but would take the final decision in June of that year .\",\n \"Mosley 's close relationship with Ecclestone , the sport 's promoter , was criticised in early 2009 by Sir Jackie Stewart , who suggested that Mosley should resign in favour of a CEO from outside motorsport .\",\n \"In mid @-@ 2009 , the FIA and the newly formed Formula One Teams Association disagreed over the format of rules for the following season .\",\n \"When the entry list for the 2010 championship was announced on 12 June 2009 , the entries of five of the eight FOTA teams remained provisional on their acceptance of the new rules .\",\n \"The next day , the European Automobile Manufacturers Association announced its support for FOTA 's request for \\\" stability , clear rules , a clear and transparent system of governance \\\" and their threat to form a <unk> series from Formula One .\",\n \"The BBC Sport website reported this as an attack on Mosley 's authority and noted that Mosley was expected to stand again for the presidency in 2009 .\",\n \"On 23 June , Mosley said he was considering running for a fifth term as FIA president in October \\\" in light of the attack on my mandate \\\" .\",\n \"However , the following day FOTA and the FIA reached an agreement with Mosley agreeing not to stand for re @-@ election as part of the deal : ' now there is peace ' .\",\n \"Luca di <unk> welcomed Mosley 's decision to stand down and called Mosley a ' dictator ' .\",\n \"Mosley responded by saying that he was still considering his ' options ' and might well stand for re @-@ election in October after all .\",\n \"He later said that he was \\\" under pressure from all over the world \\\" to stand for re @-@ election .\",\n \"On 15 July , Mosley confirmed that he would after all stand down , and again endorsed former Ferrari Executive Director Jean Todt as his successor .\",\n \"Todt went on to win the presidency .\",\n \"= = Honours = = \\n \\n Grande <unk> <unk> ' <unk> al <unk> ( Italy ) 1994 \\n <unk> Gold Medal from the Institute of Motor Industry in the year 2000 .\",\n \"Order of <unk> <unk> , 1st degree ( Bulgaria ) , 2000 \\n <unk> <unk> <unk> per la <unk> <unk> ( Italy ) , 2001 \\n The <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , 2001 \\n Order of Merit ( Romania ) , 2004 \\n <unk> <unk> do Quito ( Ecuador ) , 2005 .\",\n \"National Road Safety Council <unk> , Armenia , 2005 .\",\n \"France : Chevalier of the Légion d 'honneur ( 2006 ) \\n Monaco : Commander of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( 27 May 2006 ) \\n \\n = = <unk> = = \\n \\n Secretary , Oxford Union Society , 1961 .\",\n \"1964 , Called to the Bar , Gray ’ s Inn .\",\n \"Director of March Cars , 1969 @-@ 79 \\n Member of High Level <unk> , <unk> ( Competitive Automotive <unk> System for the 21st century ) 21 , 2005 @-@ 09 \\n <unk> at <unk> Aware , 2006 @-@ 2009 \\n Member of the Board of Trustees , 2001 @-@ 2014 , Chairman of the Programmes Committee , 2001 @-@ 2012 , FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society \\n <unk> of Euro NCAP , Global NCAP , <unk> \\n Honorary President of European Parliament Automobile <unk> ' <unk> \\n \\n = = Sex scandal = = \\n \\n In 2008 , Mosley won a court case ( Mosley v News Group Newspapers ) against the News of the World newspaper which had reported his involvement in a sex act involving five <unk> women on the grounds that it had breached his privacy .\",\n \"Justice <unk> ruled that despite some of the attendees wearing German World War 2 uniforms there were no Nazi connotations to the <unk> , a false statement that had been printed by the newspaper .\",\n \"As a result , in 2009 Mosley brought a case ( Mosley v United Kingdom ) against the UK 's privacy laws in the European Court of Human Rights , in a bid to force newspapers to warn people before exposing their private lives so they could have the opportunity to seek a court injunction .\",\n \"The case was rejected by the court on 10 May 2011 as they argued that a \\\" pre @-@ <unk> requirement would inevitably affect political reporting and serious journalism . \\\"\",\n \"In July 2011 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Mosley was financially <unk> the court costs of claimants who may have been subjected to phone hacking by the News of the World .\",\n \"Mosley refused to comment at the time , but he later gave a TV interview to the BBC and telephone interview to Reuters where he confirmed the story .\",\n \"Mosley launched legal action against Google , in an attempt to stop searches from returning web pages which use the photographs from the video used for the News of the World story .\",\n \"On 6 November 2013 in Mosley v <unk> Google a French court sided with Mosley and ordered Google to prevent its search engine from providing links to images of Mosley engaging in sexual activities from the video .\",\n \"The Register suggested the ruling would lead to a Streisand effect , increasing interest in the images , which are still <unk> through other search engines .\",\n \"At the <unk> <unk> , Mosley stated his reasons for pursuing Google : \\n \\\" the fundamental point is that Google could stop this material appearing but they don 't , or they won 't as a matter of principle .\",\n \"My position is that if the search engines - if somebody were to stop the search engines producing the material , the actual sites don 't really matter because without a search engine , nobody will find it , it would just be a few friends of the person who posts it .\",\n \"The really dangerous things are the search engines . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley launched similar legal action against Google in Germany .\",\n \"In January 2014 , the German court also ruled against the American company .\",\n \"In giving its verdict , the court stated , \\\" that the banned pictures of the <unk> severely violate his private sphere . \\\"\",\n \"In an interview with Der <unk> following the judgement , Mosley said : \\\" <unk> speaking Google has got to obey German courts in Germany and French courts in France .\",\n \"But in the end it has to decide whether it wants to live in a democracy .\",\n \"Google behaves like an adolescent <unk> against the establishment .\",\n \"The company has to recognise that it is a part of society and it must accept the responsibility which comes with that . \\\"\",\n \"= = Ancestry = =\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["On his mother 's side they are merchant banker Jonathan Guinness , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1930 ) , and Irish <unk> Desmond Guinness ( born 1931 ) .","His father told him that the company \" would certainly go bankrupt , but it would be good training for something serious later on . \""],"string":"[\n \"On his mother 's side they are merchant banker Jonathan Guinness , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1930 ) , and Irish <unk> Desmond Guinness ( born 1931 ) .\",\n \"His father told him that the company \\\" would certainly go bankrupt , but it would be good training for something serious later on . \\\"\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Max Mosley = \n \n Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of <unk> organisations and car users worldwide .","The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and other international <unk> .","A qualified barrister and former amateur racing driver , Mosley was a founder and co @-@ owner of March Engineering , a successful racing car <unk> and Formula One racing team .","He dealt with legal and commercial matters for the company between 1969 and 1977 and became its representative at the Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) , the body that represents Formula One constructors .","Together with Bernie Ecclestone , he represented FOCA at the FIA and in its dealings with race organisers .","In 1978 , Mosley became the official legal adviser to FOCA .","In this role he and Marco <unk> negotiated the first version of the Concorde Agreement , which settled a long @-@ standing dispute between FOCA and the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , a commission of the FIA and the then governing body of Formula One .","Mosley was elected president of FISA in 1991 and became president of the FIA , FISA 's parent body , in 1993 .","Mosley identified his major achievement as FIA President as the promotion of the European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP or <unk> ) .","He has also promoted increased safety and the use of green technologies in motor racing .","In 2008 , stories about his sex life appeared in the British press , along with unfounded allegations regarding Nazi connotations .","Mosley successfully sued the newspaper that published the allegations and maintained his position as FIA president .","He stood down at the end of his term in 2009 and was replaced by his preferred successor , Jean Todt .","Mosley is the youngest son of Sir Oswald Mosley , former leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) , and Diana Mitford .","He was educated in France , Germany and Britain before going on to attend university at Christ Church , Oxford , where he graduated with a degree in physics .","He then changed to law and was called to the Bar in 1964 .","In his teens and early twenties Mosley was involved with his father 's post @-@ war political party , the Union Movement ( UM ) .","He has said that the association of his surname with fascism stopped him from developing his interest in politics further , although he briefly worked for the Conservative Party in the early 1980s .","= = Family and early life = = \n \n His father , Sir Oswald Mosley was a Labour minister , and a Member of Parliament for both the Conservative and Labour parties in the 1920s .","By the 1930s , he had left mainstream politics and become the leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) .","His first wife died in 1933 , and in 1936 Sir Oswald married Diana Mitford , in a ceremony in Germany attended by Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Hitler .","Max was born in London in April 1940 during the early days of the Second World War to Diana and Oswald .","In May , Sir Oswald , who had campaigned for a negotiated peace with Nazi Germany , was interned by the British Authorities under Defence Regulation <unk> , along with most other active fascists in Britain .","Lady Mosley was imprisoned a month later .","Max and his brother Alexander were not included in this internship and as a result were separated from their parents for the first few years of their lives .","In December 1940 , then @-@ prime minister Winston Churchill , asked Home Secretary Herbert Morrison to ensure Lady Mosley was able to see Max regularly .","Sir Oswald and Lady Mosley were released from detention at <unk> Holloway on 16 November 1943 , provoking widespread public protests .","Max ’ s elder brother was unhappy at his private school .","As a result , both children were <unk> at home until the age of 13 .","The family moved to a succession of country houses in England .","Mosley 's older half @-@ brother Nicholas describes the family , including Sir Oswald ’ s children from his first marriage , spending the summer of 1945 getting the harvest in and shooting at <unk> Farm .","In 1950 , the <unk> bought houses in Ireland , and in <unk> , near Paris .","They spent the year moving around Europe , spending the spring in France and the autumn and winter in Ireland , where Mosley was keen on riding and hunting .","His aunt Nancy Mitford , in letters to Evelyn <unk> , recalled Sir Oswald and his family cruising the Mediterranean Sea on the family yacht .","On one such trip they visited Spain and were entertained by Sir Oswald 's friend , General Franco .","At the age of 13 Mosley was sent to Stein an der <unk> in Germany for two years , where he learned to speak fluent German .","On his return to England he spent a year at <unk> , an independent boarding school in Somerset after which he continued his education in London for two years .","He attended Christ Church at Oxford University , graduating with a degree in physics in 1961 .","During his time there he was Secretary of the Oxford Union where his father spoke on two occasions , once with Jeremy Thorpe on the other side .","In 1960 Mosley introduced his father to Robert <unk> , one of Mosley 's contemporaries at the university , who later wrote Sir Oswald 's biography .","<unk> an early ambition to work as a physicist after \" establishing that there was no money in it \" , Mosley went on to study law at Gray 's Inn in London and qualified as a barrister in 1964 .","After a <unk> with Maurice Drake he specialised in patent and trademark law .","Northumbria University awarded Mosley an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law in 2005 .","From 1961 to 1964 Mosley was a member of the Territorial Army , Parachute Regiment ( 44th Independent Parachute Brigade Group ) .","Mosley , like many of Formula One 's drivers , lives in Monaco .","On 9 June 1960 he was married at the Chelsea Register Office to Jean Taylor , the daughter of James Taylor , a policeman from <unk> .","In 1970 their first son , Alexander , was born and in 1972 their second son , Patrick .","On 5 May 2009 , Alexander , a <unk> , was found dead at his home .","He was thirty @-@ nine .","At an <unk> on 10 June 2009 the Westminster <unk> declared that he had died due to heroin intoxication .","In addition to his full @-@ brother Alexander , Mosley has five older half @-@ siblings .","On his father 's side they are Vivien Mosley ( 1921 – 2002 ) , novelist Nicholas Mosley , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1923 ) , and Michael Mosley ( 1932 – 2014 ) .","He is a third cousin of the late Winston Churchill , the grandson of the former British prime minister .","= = Politics = = \n \n From their teens to early twenties , Mosley and his brother were involved with their father 's post @-@ war party , the Union Movement ( UM ) , which advocated a united Europe as its core issue .","Trevor <unk> , a central figure in the UM 's Youth Movement , writes of the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mosley painting the flash and circle symbol on walls in London on the night of the Soviet Union 's invasion of Hungary ( 4 November 1956 ) .","The flash and circle was used by both the UM and the pre @-@ war BUF .","He also says Mosley organised a couple of large parties as a way \" to get in with lively , ordinary , normal young people , girls as well as boys , and attract them to the Movement by showing that we were like them and didn 't go on about Hitler and <unk> , Franco and British <unk> all the time . \"","Mosley met his future wife Jean at such a party .","Mosley and Alexander were photographed posing as Teddy Boys in Notting Hill during the 1958 race riots between Afro @-@ <unk> and local white gangs of Teddy Boys .","The following year , they <unk> for their father when he ran as a Union Movement candidate for the nearby Kensington North seat in the 1959 General Election .","Mosley has rarely discussed his early political involvement with his father .","When his father Oswald died , the London Daily Mail described him as a \" much maligned and much misunderstood political giant of his era . \"","Certainly , his father 's political presence affected his early years but Mosley reflected on this time , \" I was born into this rather strange family and then at a certain point you get away from that . \"","Whilst he has distanced himself from this period of his life , the \" misunderstanding has remained and today ... he carries that weight on his shoulders . \"","In 1961 Mosley was an election agent for the Union Movement , supporting Walter Hesketh as parliamentary candidate for Moss Side .","The motor racing journalist Alan Henry describes him as one of his father 's \" right @-@ hand men \" at the time of a violent incident in 1962 , in which Sir Oswald was knocked down by a mob in London and saved from serious injury by his son 's intervention .","As a result of his involvement in this <unk> , Mosley was arrested and charged with threatening behaviour .","He was later cleared at Old Street <unk> ' Court on the grounds that he was trying to protect his father .","By 1964 , when he began work as a barrister , Mosley was no longer involved in politics .","In the early 1980s , Mosley attempted a political career , working for the UK Conservative Party and hoping to become a parliamentary candidate .","Bernie Ecclestone 's biographer , Terry Lovell , writes that he gave up this aspiration after being unimpressed by \" the calibre of senior party officials \" .","He also felt his name would be a handicap and has since said \" If I had a completely open choice in my life , I would have chosen party politics , but because of my name , that 's impossible . \"","By the late 1990s he had become a supporter of the UK Labour Party , following a meeting with then Labour Leader John Smith .","= = Racing career = = \n \n While Mosley was at University , his wife was given tickets to a motor race at the Silverstone Circuit .","The circuit is not far from Oxford , and the couple went out of curiosity .","Mosley was attracted by the sport , and when his career as a barrister was bringing in sufficient money , he started racing cars himself .","The sport 's indifference to his background appealed to Mosley : \n There was always a certain amount of trouble [ being the son of Sir Oswald ] until I came into motor racing .","And in one of the first races I ever took part in there was a list of people when they put the practice times [ ... ] and I heard somebody say , ' Mosley , Max Mosley , he must be some relation of <unk> <unk> [ e ] <unk> , the <unk> . '","And I thought to myself , ' I 've found a world where they don 't know about Oswald Mosley . '","And it has always been a bit like that in motor racing : nobody gives a damn .","At national level in the UK , Mosley competed in over 40 races in 1966 and 1967 ; he won 12 and set several class lap records .","In 1968 , he formed the London Racing Team in partnership with driver Chris Lambert to compete in European Formula Two , which at that time was the level of racing just below Formula One .","Their cars were prepared by Frank Williams , later a Formula One team owner .","It was a dangerous time to race .","Mosley 's first Formula Two race was the 1968 <unk> <unk> , at <unk> in which double world champion Jim Clark was killed , and within two years both of Mosley 's 1968 team mates , Piers Courage and Chris Lambert were dead in racing accidents .","Mosley 's best result that year was an eighth place at a non @-@ championship race at <unk> .","Engine builder Brian Hart says that as a driver , Mosley \" might not have been particularly quick , but he was a thinking driver .","He kept out of trouble and generally used his head . \"","[ a ] \n \n = = March Engineering = = \n \n In 1969 , after two large accidents due to <unk> on his Lotus car , Mosley decided that \" it was evident that I wasn 't going to be World Champion \" and retired from driving .","He was already working with Robin Herd , Alan Rees and Graham <unk> to establish the racing car manufacturer March Engineering where he handled legal and commercial matters .","The name March is an acronym based on the initials of the founders ; the ' M ' stands for Mosley .","Like the other founders , Mosley put in £ 2 @,@ 500 of capital .","Mosley played a key role in <unk> the new outfit .","Although March had few resources and limited experience , the firm announced ambitious plans to enter Formula One , the pinnacle of single @-@ seater racing , in 1970 .","The team had initially intended to enter a single car , but by the beginning of the season ( partly due to deals made by Mosley ) , the number of March cars entered for their first Formula One race had risen to five .","Two of these were run by March 's own in @-@ house works team and the rest by customer teams .","Mosley also negotiated sponsorship from tyre maker <unk> and oil <unk> manufacturer <unk> .","The new operation was initially successful .","In Formula One , March cars won three of their first four races .","One of these was a world championship race , the 1970 Spanish Grand Prix , won by reigning world champion Jackie Stewart in a customer car run by Tyrrell Racing .","As a result , March finished third in the 1970 Constructors ' Championship .","The factory also sold 40 cars to customers in various lower formulae .","Despite these successes , the organisation got into financial difficulty almost immediately .","The Formula One operation was costing more than the customer car business was making .","The March works team 's contract with its lead driver , Chris <unk> , was expensive , and Mosley , in his own words , \" tried at every opportunity to get rid of him \" .","He reasoned that Stewart 's highly competitive customer car was enough to show March in a good light .","<unk> stayed to the end of the year , but Mosley succeeded in \" restructuring \" his contract , saving the company some much @-@ needed money .","At the end of the season , Mosley successfully demanded full control of the finances , including the factory run by <unk> , who left shortly afterwards .","Mosley and Herd borrowed £ 20 @,@ 000 from relatives and friends to support the company into its second year .","According to Lovell the money came from Mosley 's half @-@ brother , Jonathan Guinness .","Tyrrell started making its own cars towards the end of 1970 , and March 's 1971 program in Formula One was much reduced , with no recognised front @-@ running driver .","The <unk> and <unk> sponsorship was insufficient and Mosley failed to attract a large <unk> for 1971 .","<unk> author Mike Lawrence has suggested that the shortfall forced him into short @-@ term deals , which maintained <unk> , but were not in the best long @-@ term interests of the company .","Mosley negotiated a deal for the team to use Alfa Romeo engines in a third car , bringing much needed funding .","The engines proved <unk> , and his hopes of an ongoing partnership with the Italian automobile manufacturer were not met .","Nonetheless , March again finished third in the constructors championship , and works driver Ronnie Peterson , in a <unk> <unk> @-@ powered car , was second in the Drivers ' Championship .","March 's financial <unk> continued : the company had lost £ 71 @,@ 000 at the end of 1971 .","Mosley and Rees disagreed over how to rectify the situation and Rees left March early in 1972 .","March was more successful in selling large numbers of customer cars in the lower formulae .","Mosley organised extensive test sessions for the 1971 cars for journalists and drivers , and arranged a successful scheme for drivers to rent cars and engines for the season , rather than buying them outright .","<unk> money on a deal to supply <unk> <unk> , then motorsport manager at Ford , with a Formula Two car paid off when <unk> moved to BMW and offered March an exclusive deal in 1972 to use BMW 's Formula Two engine .","March cars powered by BMW engines won five of the next 11 European Formula Two championships .","However , BMW also put pressure on Herd to concentrate on the Formula Two programme .","As a result , he spent less time with the Formula One team , where Mosley started to act as a race engineer .","Although March considered quitting Formula One on several occasions , money was always found to support at least one car .","<unk> historian Mike Lawrence credits Mosley with pressing for a six @-@ wheeled March to be built as a draw for sponsors , having seen the popularity with fans of Tyrrell 's six @-@ wheeled <unk> .","The resulting March 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 never competed in Formula One , but generated the required publicity and a <unk> <unk> model was profitable .","Mosley spent much of his time negotiating deals for drivers with sponsorship and was also successful in selling Marches to other Formula One teams , such as Williams and <unk> .","The cars were rarely frontrunners , although the works team won a single race in both 1975 and 1976 .","By the end of 1977 , Mosley was fed up with the struggle to compete in Formula One with no resources and left to work for FOCA full @-@ time , selling his shares in the company to Herd but remaining as a director .","March 's involvement in Formula One ended the same year .","[ b ] \n \n = = Formula One Constructors ' Association = = \n \n From 1969 , Mosley was invited to represent March at the Grand Prix Constructors ' Association ( GPCA ) , which negotiated joint deals on behalf of its member teams .","Although the new March organisation was not popular with the established teams , Mosley has said that \" when they went along to meetings to discuss things such as prize money , they felt they ought to take me along because I was a lawyer \" .","He was unimpressed with the standard of negotiations : \" our side all went in a group because no @-@ one trusted anyone else and all were afraid that someone would break ranks and make a private deal . \"","In 1971 , British businessman Bernie Ecclestone bought the <unk> team , and Mosley recalls that : \n Within about 20 minutes of [ Ecclestone ] turning up at the [ GPCA ] meeting , it was apparent that here was someone who knew how many beans made five and after about half an hour he moved round the table to sit next to me , and from then on he and I started operating as a team .","Within a very short time , the two of us were doing everything for the GPCA , instead of everyone moving around in a block , and from that developed FOCA .","The Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) was created in 1974 by Ecclestone , Colin Chapman , Teddy Mayer , Mosley , Ken Tyrrell and Frank Williams .","FOCA would represent the commercial interests of the teams at meetings with the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , motorsport 's world governing body .","After leaving March at the end of 1977 , Mosley officially became legal advisor to FOCA , which was led by Ecclestone .","In his biography of Ecclestone , Terry Lovell suggests that he appointed Mosley to this role not only because of his legal ability , but also because he \" saw in Mosley the necessary diplomatic and political skills that made him perfectly suited to the establishment of the FIA \" .","The Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) was FISA 's parent body , representing car users worldwide .","In the same year , Mosley was nominated for a role at the FIA Bureau Internationale de <unk> d 'Automobile .","His nomination was blocked by French , Italian and German manufacturers .","In the early 1980s , Mosley represented FOCA in the \" FISA @-@ FOCA War \" , a conflict between FOCA , representing the mainly UK @-@ based independent teams , and FISA , which was supported by the \" <unk> \" constructors owned by road car manufacturers ( primarily Alfa Romeo , Ferrari and Renault ) .","In 1981 , FOCA announced its own World Federation of Motor Sport and ran the non @-@ championship 1981 South African Grand Prix .","The staging of this event , with worldwide television coverage , helped persuade Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , the FISA president , that FISA would have to negotiate a settlement with FOCA .","As Mosley has since commented : \" We were absolutely <unk> .","If Balestre could have held the manufacturer 's support for a little bit longer , the constructors would have been on their knees .","The outcome would then have been very different . \"","Mosley helped draw up the Concorde Agreement , a document which resolved the dispute by essentially giving FISA control of the rules and FOCA control of promotion and television rights .","The most recent version of the Concorde Agreement expired on 31 December 2007 , and a new one was being discussed , as of 2008 .","In 1982 , the year after the first Concorde Agreement was signed , Mosley left his role at FOCA , and Formula One , to work for the Conservative Party .","= = FISA presidency = = \n \n Mosley returned to motorsport in 1986 , with the support of Ecclestone and Balestre , to become president of the FISA Manufacturers ' Commission , the successor to the Bureau Internationale de <unk> d 'Automobile .","That same year , he established Simtek Research , a racing technical consultancy firm , with Nick Wirth , a former March employee .","He sold his share of Simtek in 1991 , when elected president of the FISA .","According to Lovell , in 1987 Mosley suggested to Balestre that he could deal with his problems with Ecclestone by \" <unk> [ ing ] him a member of the establishment \" .","Later that year Ecclestone was appointed vice @-@ president of the FIA 's promotional affairs , with authority over Formula One and the other motor sports authorised by the FIA .","In 1991 , Mosley challenged Balestre for the presidency of FISA .","Mosley said that his decision to challenge the Frenchman was prompted by Balestre 's reported intervention on behalf of his <unk> Alain <unk> to ensure that race stewards disqualified Brazilian driver <unk> Senna from the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix .","Mosley campaigned on the basis that Balestre , who was also president of the FIA and of the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile , could not effectively manage all these roles together .","He also said that no @-@ one challenged Balestre because they were afraid of the consequences and suggested that the FISA President should not interfere with F1 , which could be left to run itself .","Mosley won the FISA presidency by 43 votes to 29 ; Balestre remained as FIA president .","Mosley resigned a year later , fulfilling a promise made during his election campaign to seek a re @-@ affirmation of his mandate . \"","I wanted to show people that I do what I say \" , he said . \"","Now they can judge me in a year 's time . \"","FISA immediately re @-@ elected him .","= = FIA presidency = = \n \n \n = = = 1993 – 1997 = = = \n \n In 1993 , Mosley agreed with Balestre that the Frenchman would stand down as president of the FIA in Mosley 's favour , in return for the new role of President of the FIA Senate , to be created after Mosley 's election .","As well as motorsport , the FIA 's remit includes the interests of motorists worldwide , an area in which Mosley wanted to involve himself : \" That is what really interested me : [ in F1 ] you maybe save one life every five years , whereas [ in ] road safety you are talking about thousands of lives \" .","A challenge to Mosley 's election by Jeffrey Rose , chairman of the British Royal Automobile Club , was withdrawn when it became clear that the majority of voters were already committed to Mosley .","The FISA was then merged into the FIA as its sporting arm .","After the deaths of drivers <unk> Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , worldwide media attention focused on the charismatic triple @-@ world champion Senna , rather than Ratzenberger , a virtual unknown driving for the minor Simtek team .","Mosley did not go to Senna 's funeral , but attended that of Ratzenberger .","In a press conference 10 years later Mosley said , \" I went to his funeral because everyone went to Senna 's .","I thought it was important that somebody went to his . \"","In the aftermath of the deaths , and a number of other serious accidents , Mosley announced the formation of the Advisory Expert Group chaired by Professor Sid Watkins , to research and improve safety in motor racing .","Watkins , who learned of his new role by hearing Mosley announce it on the radio , has called it a \" novel and revolutionary approach \" .","The resulting changes have included reducing the capacity and power of engines , the use of grooved tyres to reduce <unk> speeds , the introduction of the <unk> device to protect drivers ' necks in accidents , circuit re @-@ design and greatly increased requirements for crash testing of chassis .","Mosley was criticised for some of the very rapid changes announced in the immediate aftermath of the deaths at the San Marino race .","In 1995 , a deal was signed between Ecclestone and the FIA that passed all of the commercial rights to Formula One to him for 15 years , on the condition that they would return to the FIA at the end of that period .","Ecclestone had been building up Formula One as a television package since the early 1990s , investing heavily in new digital television technology .","For the duration of the deal , the FIA would receive an index @-@ linked annual fixed royalty , estimated by Lovell at around 15 % .","Mosley said \" My belief is that I got a better deal than anyone else could have because it was more difficult for Ecclestone to take a hard line with me as we had worked together for so long . \"","The following year the FIA also passed the rights to all its other directly sanctioned championships and events to Ecclestone , also for 15 years , An attempt to add a 10 @-@ year extension to the F1 contract in return for a share in Ecclestone 's proposed flotation of Formula One was later vetoed by the European Commission .","Mosley 's agreement with Ecclestone on TV rights for F1 angered three of the team principals in particular : Ron Dennis ( McLaren ) , Frank Williams ( Williams ) and Ken Tyrrell ( Tyrrell ) , who felt that neither Ecclestone nor the FIA had the right to make such an agreement without the teams .","They refused to sign the 1997 Concorde Agreement without increased financial returns and threatened to make a complaint under European Union competition rules .","The European Commission was already investigating the FIA ’ s agreement with Ecclestone in what Lovell calls a \" highly personal and bitter battle between Max Mosley and [ EU commissioner Karel ] van <unk> \" .","= = = 1997 – 2001 = = = \n \n Mosley was elected to his second term as president of the FIA in October 1997 .","Later that year , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition made a preliminary decision against Ecclestone and the FIA .","The resulting warning letters from van <unk> to the FIA and Ecclestone were leaked and ended the attempt to float F1 ; the FIA won a case against the Commission for the leakage in 1998 .","At the same time , a local court in Germany ruled that the television rights to the FIA European Truck Racing Cup ( passed to Ecclestone by the FIA the previous year , along with all other FIA authorised championships ) should be returned to the series organiser , following a complaint from German television company <unk> TV @-@ <unk> .","The TV Company argued that Ecclestone and Mosley were in breach of commercial clauses in the Treaty of Rome ; following the court 's decision Mosley appealed the judgement and cancelled the series until further notice .","On appeal , the court ruled that the series organiser should be able to sell the television rights to whoever they felt was the best option for coverage and the FIA reinstated the European Truck Racing Cup .","Between 1997 and 2000 Mosley repeatedly warned that if any EU decision went against the FIA , the marketing organisations and F1 itself would be moved out of Europe .","In 1999 , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition issued a Statement of <unk> , listing a number of grievances surrounding the FIA 's dealings with Ecclestone and Formula One .","The FIA released the Statement to the media and held a press conference in Brussels <unk> the Commission ’ s case .","The Commission argued that a number of commercial agreements could be viewed as anti @-@ competition and invited the FIA and Ecclestone 's companies , <unk> and <unk> , to submit proposals to modify these arrangements .","In 2001 , nine months after settlement talks had begun , the parties reached an agreement to amend existing contracts , which included Ecclestone stepping down as the FIA 's vice @-@ president of promotional affairs and the FIA ending all involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One .","Mosley came up with an innovative way to dispose of the FIA 's involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One .","In order to maintain Ecclestone 's investment to deliver digital television , he proposed extending Ecclestone 's rights for F1 coverage to 100 years from the initial 15 , arguing that a deal of such length could not be anti @-@ competition as it was effectively the same as an outright sale .","The Commission agreed with his assessment and in the interest of impartiality , Mosley removed himself from the negotiations , which eventually returned around $ 300 million ( £ 150 million ) .","The FIA planned to \" put almost all of it into a charitable foundation which will then have the resources to undertake important work on improving safety in motor sport and in road safety \" , and thus the FIA Foundation was created in 2001 .","In addition , the FIA continued to receive an annual <unk> from the deal , Mosley stated : \" Over the <unk> of the contract , and on an annual basis , the sum we have accepted represents billions of dollars .","<unk> at from that point of view , it is a huge amount of money . \"","Lovell compares the figure to extend the rights to 100 years to the £ 600 million <unk> paid for the rights to the 2002 Football World Cup and the £ 1 @.","@ 1 billion British Sky Broadcasting paid for a three @-@ year package of English Premier League football .","The figure was not entirely comparable however due to the dispute over who actually owned Formula One .","Before the settlement with the EU Commission was reached , Mosley feared that the FIA was losing control over the sport following a heated argument with Ecclestone in Paris .","Ecclestone argued that he had built Formula One into the entity that it was and the FIA only had rights to designate the event as official .","Ecclestone threatened to \" do a <unk> earth \" if another party were to gain control of the commercial side of Formula One .","Mosley came up with the solution in order for the FIA to retain its sporting management role and Ecclestone to retain his commercial role .","Over the same period , Mosley was attempting to delay European legislation banning tobacco advertising .","At this time all leading Formula One teams carried significant branding from tobacco brands such as <unk> , West , <unk> and <unk> Seven .","The Labour party had pledged to ban tobacco advertising in its manifesto ahead of its 1997 General Election victory , supporting a proposed European Union Directive .","The Labour Party 's stance on banning tobacco advertising was reinforced following the election by forceful statements from the Health Secretary Frank <unk> and Minister for Public Health Tessa Jowell .","Ecclestone appealed \" over Jowell 's head \" to Jonathan Powell , Tony Blair 's chief of staff , who arranged a meeting with Blair .","Ecclestone and Mosley , both Labour Party donors , met Blair on 16 October 1997 .","Mosley argued that the proposed legislation was illegal by EU rules , that Formula One needed more time to find alternative sources of funding and that the prompt introduction of a ban would lead to races being held outside Europe , while the coverage , including tobacco <unk> , would still be broadcast into the EU .","He also argued that : \n Motor racing was a world class industry which put Britain at the hi @-@ tech edge .","<unk> of tobacco money , Formula One would move abroad at the loss of 50 @,@ 000 jobs , 150 @,@ 000 part @-@ time jobs and £ 900 million of exports .","On 4 November the \" fiercely anti @-@ tobacco Jowell \" argued in Brussels for an exemption for Formula One .","Media attention initially focused on Labour <unk> its principles for a \" glamour sport \" and on the \" false trail \" of Jowell 's husband 's links to the <unk> Formula One team .","On 6 November <unk> from three newspapers <unk> whether Labour had received any donations from Ecclestone ; he had donated £ 1 million in January 1997 .","On 11 November Labour promised to return the money on the advice of Sir Patrick <unk> .","On 17 November Blair apologised for his government 's mishandling of the affair and stated \" the decision to exempt Formula One from tobacco sponsorship was taken two weeks later .","It was in response to fears that Britain might lose the industry overseas to Asian countries who were bidding for it . \"","The revised directive went into force in June 1998 , and banned sponsorship from 2003 , with a further three @-@ year extension for \" global sports such as Formula One \" .","On 5 October 2000 , the directive was successfully overturned in the European Court of Justice on the grounds that it was unlawful .","A new Tobacco Advertising Directive took effect in July 2005 ; the Financial Times described Mosley as \" furious \" that this was a year earlier than provided for under the 1998 directive .","As of 2009 , Ferrari is the only F1 team to retain tobacco sponsorship , although the team carries no explicit branding in races because of the European legislation .","Although the FIA moved its headquarters out of the EU in 1999 , it returned in 2001 ; all of the F1 teams remain in Europe , and six are in the UK , compared to seven of eleven at the end of 1997 .","Asked in a 2003 interview about his most enduring achievement as president of the FIA , Mosley replied : \" I think using Formula One to push <unk> Crash @-@ Testing . \"","The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) is a European car safety performance assessment programme that originated with work done by the Transport Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport .","The FIA became involved in the programme in 1996 , taking a lead in promoting it , and Mosley chaired the body from its launch as Euro NCAP in 1997 to 2004 .","Despite what NCAP describes as a \" strong negative response \" from car manufacturers at first , the initiative has expanded , and NCAP says that there has been a clear increase in the safety of modern cars as a result .","The EU commission in 2000 stated that \" <unk> had become the single most important mechanism for achieving advances in vehicle safety \" and \" the most cost effective road safety action available to the EU . \"","Mosley has continued to promote the matter through his membership of initiatives such as <unk> 21 , the European Commission ’ s policy group aimed at improving the worldwide competitiveness of the European automotive industry .","In February 2001 , Mosley announced his intention to stand again for the presidency in October of that year , saying that if successful this third term would be his last .","= = = 2001 – 2005 = = = \n \n Mosley was elected to his third term as president of the FIA in 2001 .","From 2000 , Formula One saw the return of teams partly or wholly owned and operated by major motor manufacturers , who feared that under Ecclestone 's management F1 coverage would go to pay television , reducing the value of their investment .","In 2001 , the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( <unk> ) announced an alternative world championship , the Grand Prix World Championship to start by 2008 .","The <unk> stipulated that the championship should not be regulated by the FIA , which Lovell believes was because the organisation believed Mosley was too close to Ecclestone .","In June 2004 , Mosley announced that he would step down from his position in October of that year , one year early , saying \" I no longer find it either satisfying or interesting to sit in long meetings [ ... ] I have achieved in this job everything I set out to [ ... ] \" .","One month later , he rescinded his decision after the FIA Senate called for him to stay on .","According to a BBC Sport profile , many <unk> considered that the announcement , and Mosley 's public disagreements with Ecclestone , were \" just part of a well crafted plan to strengthen their control over the sport \" ; Ron Dennis , the McLaren team principal , suggested that it arose because Mosley 's proposals for Formula One met opposition .","In 2004 , Mosley said he felt Ferrari 's then team principal Jean Todt should succeed him as president of the FIA when he stepped down .","The 2005 United States Grand Prix was run with only six cars , after the Michelin tyres used by the other 14 cars proved unsafe for the circuit .","A proposal involving the addition of a temporary <unk> to slow cars through the fastest corner of the circuit was suggested but rejected by Mosley .","He stated his reasons for not agreeing to the <unk> : \" Formula One is a dangerous activity and it would be most <unk> to make fundamental changes to a circuit without following tried and tested procedures .","What happened was bad but can be put right .","This is not true of a fatality . \"","He continued , \" Formula One is a sport which <unk> .","It is not entertainment disguised as sport . \"","Mosley gave three possible solutions for the Michelin runners : to use qualifying tyres but change them whenever necessary on safety grounds , to use a different tyre to be provided by Michelin or to run at reduced speed .","These were all rejected by the Michelin @-@ <unk> teams .","Paul <unk> , the then @-@ owner of the <unk> team who ran on Bridgestone tyres , was prepared to compromise to accommodate Michelin teams — even though a reduced field would guarantee his team much needed points — and was particularly vocal in his criticism and renewed his calls for Mosley to resign .","= = = 2005 – 2009 = = = \n \n Mosley was elected unopposed to his fourth term as president of the FIA in 2005 .","In recognition of his contribution to road safety and motorsport , Mosley was made a Chevalier dans l ’ <unk> de la Légion d ’ <unk> in 2006 .","The Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour ) is France 's highest decoration for outstanding achievements in military or civil life ; a Chevalier ( Knight ) is the fifth class .","Continuing a theme of his presidency , in 2006 Mosley called for Formula One manufacturers to develop technology relevant to road cars .","In recent years , a large proportion of the enormous budget of Formula One has been spent on the development of very powerful , very high @-@ <unk> engines , which some say have little <unk> to road cars .","Mosley has announced a 10 @-@ year freeze on the development of engines , which would allow manufacturers to spend more of their budgets on environmentally friendly technology such as the <unk> Energy Recovery System ( <unk> ) introduced in 2009 .","In July 2008 , he sent a letter to the Formula One teams , in which he called for the teams to propose future sporting regulations to address specific issues including reduced fuel consumption .","The 2007 Formula One season was dominated by Ferrari 's accusations that the McLaren team had made illegal use of their intellectual property , leading to legal cases in the United Kingdom and Italy .","Unlike previous cases , such as the Toyota team 's illegal use of Ferrari intellectual property in 2004 that had been handled by German police , the FIA investigated .","They initially found McLaren innocent ; unable to find enough evidence to suggest that anyone other than designer Mike <unk> had seen the information or that the team had used it .","Ron Dennis , team principal of McLaren , was unaware at this point that Mosley had been sent personal e @-@ <unk> from Fernando Alonso , stating that the data had been used and seen by others in the team .","When Italian police uncovered a series of text messages between McLaren and their spy at Ferrari , the team was hauled in front of the World Motor Sports Council ( WMSC ) once more .","This time they were found guilty and eventually fined a gross $ <unk> and excluded from the 2007 constructors ' championship .","Later in the year , the Renault team was found guilty by the FIA of possessing McLaren 's intellectual property , but was not punished , as the \" FIA 's WMSC decided there was not enough evidence to show the championship had been affected . \"","In relation to McLaren , triple world champion Jackie Stewart criticised Mosley and stated that other teams did not back McLaren for \" fear of repercussions \" .","TV commentator and newspaper columnist Martin Brundle , a former driver , was among those who criticised the FIA and Mosley for inconsistency and questioned the \" energetic manner \" in which he felt McLaren was being pursued , suggesting that there was a \" witch hunt \" against the team .","Brundle and The Sunday Times subsequently received a writ for libel before the paper printed a correction .","Mosley went on to defend himself of the charges made by Brundle , highlighting that the WMSC originally acquitted McLaren of any wrongdoing , stating : \" Concrete evidence of use by McLaren of the Ferrari information was simply not there . \"","It was only later in the year when \" e @-@ <unk> emerged which showed others inside McLaren were indeed aware of the Ferrari information \" , that the FIA found the team guilty .","At the start of 2008 , Mosley said that he wanted to see through reforms such as budget capping and new technologies like <unk> successfully introduced into Formula One before retiring .","In March of that year the News of the World released video footage of Mosley engaged in acts with five <unk> women in a scenario that the paper alleged involved Nazi role @-@ playing ( an allegation that , though dismissed in court as \" no genuine basis \" , allegedly \" ruined \" Mosley 's reputation ) .","The situation was made more controversial by his father 's association with the Nazis .","Mosley admitted \" the embarrassment the revelations caused \" , but said that there was no Nazi theme involved .","He was strongly criticised by former drivers , motor manufacturers and several of the national <unk> bodies who form the FIA .","His involvement in several high level motor sport events was cancelled .","Public expressions of support were limited .","Mosley says that he received much supportive correspondence , and said that he would continue to the end of his current term , which he said would be his last .","Mosley 's longtime ally Ecclestone eventually appeared to support Mosley 's removal .","Mosley won a vote of confidence at an <unk> General Meeting of the FIA on 3 June 2008 , with 103 votes in support and 55 against , with seven <unk> and four invalid votes .","Several clubs , including the <unk> , AAA and <unk> considered withdrawal from the FIA after the decision .","Other formerly critical organisations have since said that they will accept the outcome of the vote and now wish to move on .","In July 2008 , Mosley won a High Court legal case against the News of the World for invasion of privacy .","The presiding judge , Mr Justice <unk> , said : \" I see no genuine basis at all for the suggestion that the participants mocked the victims of the Holocaust . \"","In December 2008 , Mosley said that he still intended to stand down when his term ran out in October 2009 , but would take the final decision in June of that year .","Mosley 's close relationship with Ecclestone , the sport 's promoter , was criticised in early 2009 by Sir Jackie Stewart , who suggested that Mosley should resign in favour of a CEO from outside motorsport .","In mid @-@ 2009 , the FIA and the newly formed Formula One Teams Association disagreed over the format of rules for the following season .","When the entry list for the 2010 championship was announced on 12 June 2009 , the entries of five of the eight FOTA teams remained provisional on their acceptance of the new rules .","The next day , the European Automobile Manufacturers Association announced its support for FOTA 's request for \" stability , clear rules , a clear and transparent system of governance \" and their threat to form a <unk> series from Formula One .","The BBC Sport website reported this as an attack on Mosley 's authority and noted that Mosley was expected to stand again for the presidency in 2009 .","On 23 June , Mosley said he was considering running for a fifth term as FIA president in October \" in light of the attack on my mandate \" .","However , the following day FOTA and the FIA reached an agreement with Mosley agreeing not to stand for re @-@ election as part of the deal : ' now there is peace ' .","Luca di <unk> welcomed Mosley 's decision to stand down and called Mosley a ' dictator ' .","Mosley responded by saying that he was still considering his ' options ' and might well stand for re @-@ election in October after all .","He later said that he was \" under pressure from all over the world \" to stand for re @-@ election .","On 15 July , Mosley confirmed that he would after all stand down , and again endorsed former Ferrari Executive Director Jean Todt as his successor .","Todt went on to win the presidency .","= = Honours = = \n \n Grande <unk> <unk> ' <unk> al <unk> ( Italy ) 1994 \n <unk> Gold Medal from the Institute of Motor Industry in the year 2000 .","Order of <unk> <unk> , 1st degree ( Bulgaria ) , 2000 \n <unk> <unk> <unk> per la <unk> <unk> ( Italy ) , 2001 \n The <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , 2001 \n Order of Merit ( Romania ) , 2004 \n <unk> <unk> do Quito ( Ecuador ) , 2005 .","National Road Safety Council <unk> , Armenia , 2005 .","France : Chevalier of the Légion d 'honneur ( 2006 ) \n Monaco : Commander of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( 27 May 2006 ) \n \n = = <unk> = = \n \n Secretary , Oxford Union Society , 1961 .","1964 , Called to the Bar , Gray ’ s Inn .","Director of March Cars , 1969 @-@ 79 \n Member of High Level <unk> , <unk> ( Competitive Automotive <unk> System for the 21st century ) 21 , 2005 @-@ 09 \n <unk> at <unk> Aware , 2006 @-@ 2009 \n Member of the Board of Trustees , 2001 @-@ 2014 , Chairman of the Programmes Committee , 2001 @-@ 2012 , FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society \n <unk> of Euro NCAP , Global NCAP , <unk> \n Honorary President of European Parliament Automobile <unk> ' <unk> \n \n = = Sex scandal = = \n \n In 2008 , Mosley won a court case ( Mosley v News Group Newspapers ) against the News of the World newspaper which had reported his involvement in a sex act involving five <unk> women on the grounds that it had breached his privacy .","Justice <unk> ruled that despite some of the attendees wearing German World War 2 uniforms there were no Nazi connotations to the <unk> , a false statement that had been printed by the newspaper .","As a result , in 2009 Mosley brought a case ( Mosley v United Kingdom ) against the UK 's privacy laws in the European Court of Human Rights , in a bid to force newspapers to warn people before exposing their private lives so they could have the opportunity to seek a court injunction .","The case was rejected by the court on 10 May 2011 as they argued that a \" pre @-@ <unk> requirement would inevitably affect political reporting and serious journalism . \"","In July 2011 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Mosley was financially <unk> the court costs of claimants who may have been subjected to phone hacking by the News of the World .","Mosley refused to comment at the time , but he later gave a TV interview to the BBC and telephone interview to Reuters where he confirmed the story .","Mosley launched legal action against Google , in an attempt to stop searches from returning web pages which use the photographs from the video used for the News of the World story .","On 6 November 2013 in Mosley v <unk> Google a French court sided with Mosley and ordered Google to prevent its search engine from providing links to images of Mosley engaging in sexual activities from the video .","The Register suggested the ruling would lead to a Streisand effect , increasing interest in the images , which are still <unk> through other search engines .","At the <unk> <unk> , Mosley stated his reasons for pursuing Google : \n \" the fundamental point is that Google could stop this material appearing but they don 't , or they won 't as a matter of principle .","My position is that if the search engines - if somebody were to stop the search engines producing the material , the actual sites don 't really matter because without a search engine , nobody will find it , it would just be a few friends of the person who posts it .","The really dangerous things are the search engines . \"","Mosley launched similar legal action against Google in Germany .","In January 2014 , the German court also ruled against the American company .","In giving its verdict , the court stated , \" that the banned pictures of the <unk> severely violate his private sphere . \"","In an interview with Der <unk> following the judgement , Mosley said : \" <unk> speaking Google has got to obey German courts in Germany and French courts in France .","But in the end it has to decide whether it wants to live in a democracy .","Google behaves like an adolescent <unk> against the establishment .","The company has to recognise that it is a part of society and it must accept the responsibility which comes with that . \"","= = Ancestry = ="],"string":"[\n \" = Max Mosley = \\n \\n Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of <unk> organisations and car users worldwide .\",\n \"The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and other international <unk> .\",\n \"A qualified barrister and former amateur racing driver , Mosley was a founder and co @-@ owner of March Engineering , a successful racing car <unk> and Formula One racing team .\",\n \"He dealt with legal and commercial matters for the company between 1969 and 1977 and became its representative at the Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) , the body that represents Formula One constructors .\",\n \"Together with Bernie Ecclestone , he represented FOCA at the FIA and in its dealings with race organisers .\",\n \"In 1978 , Mosley became the official legal adviser to FOCA .\",\n \"In this role he and Marco <unk> negotiated the first version of the Concorde Agreement , which settled a long @-@ standing dispute between FOCA and the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , a commission of the FIA and the then governing body of Formula One .\",\n \"Mosley was elected president of FISA in 1991 and became president of the FIA , FISA 's parent body , in 1993 .\",\n \"Mosley identified his major achievement as FIA President as the promotion of the European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP or <unk> ) .\",\n \"He has also promoted increased safety and the use of green technologies in motor racing .\",\n \"In 2008 , stories about his sex life appeared in the British press , along with unfounded allegations regarding Nazi connotations .\",\n \"Mosley successfully sued the newspaper that published the allegations and maintained his position as FIA president .\",\n \"He stood down at the end of his term in 2009 and was replaced by his preferred successor , Jean Todt .\",\n \"Mosley is the youngest son of Sir Oswald Mosley , former leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) , and Diana Mitford .\",\n \"He was educated in France , Germany and Britain before going on to attend university at Christ Church , Oxford , where he graduated with a degree in physics .\",\n \"He then changed to law and was called to the Bar in 1964 .\",\n \"In his teens and early twenties Mosley was involved with his father 's post @-@ war political party , the Union Movement ( UM ) .\",\n \"He has said that the association of his surname with fascism stopped him from developing his interest in politics further , although he briefly worked for the Conservative Party in the early 1980s .\",\n \"= = Family and early life = = \\n \\n His father , Sir Oswald Mosley was a Labour minister , and a Member of Parliament for both the Conservative and Labour parties in the 1920s .\",\n \"By the 1930s , he had left mainstream politics and become the leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) .\",\n \"His first wife died in 1933 , and in 1936 Sir Oswald married Diana Mitford , in a ceremony in Germany attended by Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Hitler .\",\n \"Max was born in London in April 1940 during the early days of the Second World War to Diana and Oswald .\",\n \"In May , Sir Oswald , who had campaigned for a negotiated peace with Nazi Germany , was interned by the British Authorities under Defence Regulation <unk> , along with most other active fascists in Britain .\",\n \"Lady Mosley was imprisoned a month later .\",\n \"Max and his brother Alexander were not included in this internship and as a result were separated from their parents for the first few years of their lives .\",\n \"In December 1940 , then @-@ prime minister Winston Churchill , asked Home Secretary Herbert Morrison to ensure Lady Mosley was able to see Max regularly .\",\n \"Sir Oswald and Lady Mosley were released from detention at <unk> Holloway on 16 November 1943 , provoking widespread public protests .\",\n \"Max ’ s elder brother was unhappy at his private school .\",\n \"As a result , both children were <unk> at home until the age of 13 .\",\n \"The family moved to a succession of country houses in England .\",\n \"Mosley 's older half @-@ brother Nicholas describes the family , including Sir Oswald ’ s children from his first marriage , spending the summer of 1945 getting the harvest in and shooting at <unk> Farm .\",\n \"In 1950 , the <unk> bought houses in Ireland , and in <unk> , near Paris .\",\n \"They spent the year moving around Europe , spending the spring in France and the autumn and winter in Ireland , where Mosley was keen on riding and hunting .\",\n \"His aunt Nancy Mitford , in letters to Evelyn <unk> , recalled Sir Oswald and his family cruising the Mediterranean Sea on the family yacht .\",\n \"On one such trip they visited Spain and were entertained by Sir Oswald 's friend , General Franco .\",\n \"At the age of 13 Mosley was sent to Stein an der <unk> in Germany for two years , where he learned to speak fluent German .\",\n \"On his return to England he spent a year at <unk> , an independent boarding school in Somerset after which he continued his education in London for two years .\",\n \"He attended Christ Church at Oxford University , graduating with a degree in physics in 1961 .\",\n \"During his time there he was Secretary of the Oxford Union where his father spoke on two occasions , once with Jeremy Thorpe on the other side .\",\n \"In 1960 Mosley introduced his father to Robert <unk> , one of Mosley 's contemporaries at the university , who later wrote Sir Oswald 's biography .\",\n \"<unk> an early ambition to work as a physicist after \\\" establishing that there was no money in it \\\" , Mosley went on to study law at Gray 's Inn in London and qualified as a barrister in 1964 .\",\n \"After a <unk> with Maurice Drake he specialised in patent and trademark law .\",\n \"Northumbria University awarded Mosley an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law in 2005 .\",\n \"From 1961 to 1964 Mosley was a member of the Territorial Army , Parachute Regiment ( 44th Independent Parachute Brigade Group ) .\",\n \"Mosley , like many of Formula One 's drivers , lives in Monaco .\",\n \"On 9 June 1960 he was married at the Chelsea Register Office to Jean Taylor , the daughter of James Taylor , a policeman from <unk> .\",\n \"In 1970 their first son , Alexander , was born and in 1972 their second son , Patrick .\",\n \"On 5 May 2009 , Alexander , a <unk> , was found dead at his home .\",\n \"He was thirty @-@ nine .\",\n \"At an <unk> on 10 June 2009 the Westminster <unk> declared that he had died due to heroin intoxication .\",\n \"In addition to his full @-@ brother Alexander , Mosley has five older half @-@ siblings .\",\n \"On his father 's side they are Vivien Mosley ( 1921 – 2002 ) , novelist Nicholas Mosley , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1923 ) , and Michael Mosley ( 1932 – 2014 ) .\",\n \"He is a third cousin of the late Winston Churchill , the grandson of the former British prime minister .\",\n \"= = Politics = = \\n \\n From their teens to early twenties , Mosley and his brother were involved with their father 's post @-@ war party , the Union Movement ( UM ) , which advocated a united Europe as its core issue .\",\n \"Trevor <unk> , a central figure in the UM 's Youth Movement , writes of the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mosley painting the flash and circle symbol on walls in London on the night of the Soviet Union 's invasion of Hungary ( 4 November 1956 ) .\",\n \"The flash and circle was used by both the UM and the pre @-@ war BUF .\",\n \"He also says Mosley organised a couple of large parties as a way \\\" to get in with lively , ordinary , normal young people , girls as well as boys , and attract them to the Movement by showing that we were like them and didn 't go on about Hitler and <unk> , Franco and British <unk> all the time . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley met his future wife Jean at such a party .\",\n \"Mosley and Alexander were photographed posing as Teddy Boys in Notting Hill during the 1958 race riots between Afro @-@ <unk> and local white gangs of Teddy Boys .\",\n \"The following year , they <unk> for their father when he ran as a Union Movement candidate for the nearby Kensington North seat in the 1959 General Election .\",\n \"Mosley has rarely discussed his early political involvement with his father .\",\n \"When his father Oswald died , the London Daily Mail described him as a \\\" much maligned and much misunderstood political giant of his era . \\\"\",\n \"Certainly , his father 's political presence affected his early years but Mosley reflected on this time , \\\" I was born into this rather strange family and then at a certain point you get away from that . \\\"\",\n \"Whilst he has distanced himself from this period of his life , the \\\" misunderstanding has remained and today ... he carries that weight on his shoulders . \\\"\",\n \"In 1961 Mosley was an election agent for the Union Movement , supporting Walter Hesketh as parliamentary candidate for Moss Side .\",\n \"The motor racing journalist Alan Henry describes him as one of his father 's \\\" right @-@ hand men \\\" at the time of a violent incident in 1962 , in which Sir Oswald was knocked down by a mob in London and saved from serious injury by his son 's intervention .\",\n \"As a result of his involvement in this <unk> , Mosley was arrested and charged with threatening behaviour .\",\n \"He was later cleared at Old Street <unk> ' Court on the grounds that he was trying to protect his father .\",\n \"By 1964 , when he began work as a barrister , Mosley was no longer involved in politics .\",\n \"In the early 1980s , Mosley attempted a political career , working for the UK Conservative Party and hoping to become a parliamentary candidate .\",\n \"Bernie Ecclestone 's biographer , Terry Lovell , writes that he gave up this aspiration after being unimpressed by \\\" the calibre of senior party officials \\\" .\",\n \"He also felt his name would be a handicap and has since said \\\" If I had a completely open choice in my life , I would have chosen party politics , but because of my name , that 's impossible . \\\"\",\n \"By the late 1990s he had become a supporter of the UK Labour Party , following a meeting with then Labour Leader John Smith .\",\n \"= = Racing career = = \\n \\n While Mosley was at University , his wife was given tickets to a motor race at the Silverstone Circuit .\",\n \"The circuit is not far from Oxford , and the couple went out of curiosity .\",\n \"Mosley was attracted by the sport , and when his career as a barrister was bringing in sufficient money , he started racing cars himself .\",\n \"The sport 's indifference to his background appealed to Mosley : \\n There was always a certain amount of trouble [ being the son of Sir Oswald ] until I came into motor racing .\",\n \"And in one of the first races I ever took part in there was a list of people when they put the practice times [ ... ] and I heard somebody say , ' Mosley , Max Mosley , he must be some relation of <unk> <unk> [ e ] <unk> , the <unk> . '\",\n \"And I thought to myself , ' I 've found a world where they don 't know about Oswald Mosley . '\",\n \"And it has always been a bit like that in motor racing : nobody gives a damn .\",\n \"At national level in the UK , Mosley competed in over 40 races in 1966 and 1967 ; he won 12 and set several class lap records .\",\n \"In 1968 , he formed the London Racing Team in partnership with driver Chris Lambert to compete in European Formula Two , which at that time was the level of racing just below Formula One .\",\n \"Their cars were prepared by Frank Williams , later a Formula One team owner .\",\n \"It was a dangerous time to race .\",\n \"Mosley 's first Formula Two race was the 1968 <unk> <unk> , at <unk> in which double world champion Jim Clark was killed , and within two years both of Mosley 's 1968 team mates , Piers Courage and Chris Lambert were dead in racing accidents .\",\n \"Mosley 's best result that year was an eighth place at a non @-@ championship race at <unk> .\",\n \"Engine builder Brian Hart says that as a driver , Mosley \\\" might not have been particularly quick , but he was a thinking driver .\",\n \"He kept out of trouble and generally used his head . \\\"\",\n \"[ a ] \\n \\n = = March Engineering = = \\n \\n In 1969 , after two large accidents due to <unk> on his Lotus car , Mosley decided that \\\" it was evident that I wasn 't going to be World Champion \\\" and retired from driving .\",\n \"He was already working with Robin Herd , Alan Rees and Graham <unk> to establish the racing car manufacturer March Engineering where he handled legal and commercial matters .\",\n \"The name March is an acronym based on the initials of the founders ; the ' M ' stands for Mosley .\",\n \"Like the other founders , Mosley put in £ 2 @,@ 500 of capital .\",\n \"Mosley played a key role in <unk> the new outfit .\",\n \"Although March had few resources and limited experience , the firm announced ambitious plans to enter Formula One , the pinnacle of single @-@ seater racing , in 1970 .\",\n \"The team had initially intended to enter a single car , but by the beginning of the season ( partly due to deals made by Mosley ) , the number of March cars entered for their first Formula One race had risen to five .\",\n \"Two of these were run by March 's own in @-@ house works team and the rest by customer teams .\",\n \"Mosley also negotiated sponsorship from tyre maker <unk> and oil <unk> manufacturer <unk> .\",\n \"The new operation was initially successful .\",\n \"In Formula One , March cars won three of their first four races .\",\n \"One of these was a world championship race , the 1970 Spanish Grand Prix , won by reigning world champion Jackie Stewart in a customer car run by Tyrrell Racing .\",\n \"As a result , March finished third in the 1970 Constructors ' Championship .\",\n \"The factory also sold 40 cars to customers in various lower formulae .\",\n \"Despite these successes , the organisation got into financial difficulty almost immediately .\",\n \"The Formula One operation was costing more than the customer car business was making .\",\n \"The March works team 's contract with its lead driver , Chris <unk> , was expensive , and Mosley , in his own words , \\\" tried at every opportunity to get rid of him \\\" .\",\n \"He reasoned that Stewart 's highly competitive customer car was enough to show March in a good light .\",\n \"<unk> stayed to the end of the year , but Mosley succeeded in \\\" restructuring \\\" his contract , saving the company some much @-@ needed money .\",\n \"At the end of the season , Mosley successfully demanded full control of the finances , including the factory run by <unk> , who left shortly afterwards .\",\n \"Mosley and Herd borrowed £ 20 @,@ 000 from relatives and friends to support the company into its second year .\",\n \"According to Lovell the money came from Mosley 's half @-@ brother , Jonathan Guinness .\",\n \"Tyrrell started making its own cars towards the end of 1970 , and March 's 1971 program in Formula One was much reduced , with no recognised front @-@ running driver .\",\n \"The <unk> and <unk> sponsorship was insufficient and Mosley failed to attract a large <unk> for 1971 .\",\n \"<unk> author Mike Lawrence has suggested that the shortfall forced him into short @-@ term deals , which maintained <unk> , but were not in the best long @-@ term interests of the company .\",\n \"Mosley negotiated a deal for the team to use Alfa Romeo engines in a third car , bringing much needed funding .\",\n \"The engines proved <unk> , and his hopes of an ongoing partnership with the Italian automobile manufacturer were not met .\",\n \"Nonetheless , March again finished third in the constructors championship , and works driver Ronnie Peterson , in a <unk> <unk> @-@ powered car , was second in the Drivers ' Championship .\",\n \"March 's financial <unk> continued : the company had lost £ 71 @,@ 000 at the end of 1971 .\",\n \"Mosley and Rees disagreed over how to rectify the situation and Rees left March early in 1972 .\",\n \"March was more successful in selling large numbers of customer cars in the lower formulae .\",\n \"Mosley organised extensive test sessions for the 1971 cars for journalists and drivers , and arranged a successful scheme for drivers to rent cars and engines for the season , rather than buying them outright .\",\n \"<unk> money on a deal to supply <unk> <unk> , then motorsport manager at Ford , with a Formula Two car paid off when <unk> moved to BMW and offered March an exclusive deal in 1972 to use BMW 's Formula Two engine .\",\n \"March cars powered by BMW engines won five of the next 11 European Formula Two championships .\",\n \"However , BMW also put pressure on Herd to concentrate on the Formula Two programme .\",\n \"As a result , he spent less time with the Formula One team , where Mosley started to act as a race engineer .\",\n \"Although March considered quitting Formula One on several occasions , money was always found to support at least one car .\",\n \"<unk> historian Mike Lawrence credits Mosley with pressing for a six @-@ wheeled March to be built as a draw for sponsors , having seen the popularity with fans of Tyrrell 's six @-@ wheeled <unk> .\",\n \"The resulting March 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 never competed in Formula One , but generated the required publicity and a <unk> <unk> model was profitable .\",\n \"Mosley spent much of his time negotiating deals for drivers with sponsorship and was also successful in selling Marches to other Formula One teams , such as Williams and <unk> .\",\n \"The cars were rarely frontrunners , although the works team won a single race in both 1975 and 1976 .\",\n \"By the end of 1977 , Mosley was fed up with the struggle to compete in Formula One with no resources and left to work for FOCA full @-@ time , selling his shares in the company to Herd but remaining as a director .\",\n \"March 's involvement in Formula One ended the same year .\",\n \"[ b ] \\n \\n = = Formula One Constructors ' Association = = \\n \\n From 1969 , Mosley was invited to represent March at the Grand Prix Constructors ' Association ( GPCA ) , which negotiated joint deals on behalf of its member teams .\",\n \"Although the new March organisation was not popular with the established teams , Mosley has said that \\\" when they went along to meetings to discuss things such as prize money , they felt they ought to take me along because I was a lawyer \\\" .\",\n \"He was unimpressed with the standard of negotiations : \\\" our side all went in a group because no @-@ one trusted anyone else and all were afraid that someone would break ranks and make a private deal . \\\"\",\n \"In 1971 , British businessman Bernie Ecclestone bought the <unk> team , and Mosley recalls that : \\n Within about 20 minutes of [ Ecclestone ] turning up at the [ GPCA ] meeting , it was apparent that here was someone who knew how many beans made five and after about half an hour he moved round the table to sit next to me , and from then on he and I started operating as a team .\",\n \"Within a very short time , the two of us were doing everything for the GPCA , instead of everyone moving around in a block , and from that developed FOCA .\",\n \"The Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) was created in 1974 by Ecclestone , Colin Chapman , Teddy Mayer , Mosley , Ken Tyrrell and Frank Williams .\",\n \"FOCA would represent the commercial interests of the teams at meetings with the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , motorsport 's world governing body .\",\n \"After leaving March at the end of 1977 , Mosley officially became legal advisor to FOCA , which was led by Ecclestone .\",\n \"In his biography of Ecclestone , Terry Lovell suggests that he appointed Mosley to this role not only because of his legal ability , but also because he \\\" saw in Mosley the necessary diplomatic and political skills that made him perfectly suited to the establishment of the FIA \\\" .\",\n \"The Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) was FISA 's parent body , representing car users worldwide .\",\n \"In the same year , Mosley was nominated for a role at the FIA Bureau Internationale de <unk> d 'Automobile .\",\n \"His nomination was blocked by French , Italian and German manufacturers .\",\n \"In the early 1980s , Mosley represented FOCA in the \\\" FISA @-@ FOCA War \\\" , a conflict between FOCA , representing the mainly UK @-@ based independent teams , and FISA , which was supported by the \\\" <unk> \\\" constructors owned by road car manufacturers ( primarily Alfa Romeo , Ferrari and Renault ) .\",\n \"In 1981 , FOCA announced its own World Federation of Motor Sport and ran the non @-@ championship 1981 South African Grand Prix .\",\n \"The staging of this event , with worldwide television coverage , helped persuade Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , the FISA president , that FISA would have to negotiate a settlement with FOCA .\",\n \"As Mosley has since commented : \\\" We were absolutely <unk> .\",\n \"If Balestre could have held the manufacturer 's support for a little bit longer , the constructors would have been on their knees .\",\n \"The outcome would then have been very different . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley helped draw up the Concorde Agreement , a document which resolved the dispute by essentially giving FISA control of the rules and FOCA control of promotion and television rights .\",\n \"The most recent version of the Concorde Agreement expired on 31 December 2007 , and a new one was being discussed , as of 2008 .\",\n \"In 1982 , the year after the first Concorde Agreement was signed , Mosley left his role at FOCA , and Formula One , to work for the Conservative Party .\",\n \"= = FISA presidency = = \\n \\n Mosley returned to motorsport in 1986 , with the support of Ecclestone and Balestre , to become president of the FISA Manufacturers ' Commission , the successor to the Bureau Internationale de <unk> d 'Automobile .\",\n \"That same year , he established Simtek Research , a racing technical consultancy firm , with Nick Wirth , a former March employee .\",\n \"He sold his share of Simtek in 1991 , when elected president of the FISA .\",\n \"According to Lovell , in 1987 Mosley suggested to Balestre that he could deal with his problems with Ecclestone by \\\" <unk> [ ing ] him a member of the establishment \\\" .\",\n \"Later that year Ecclestone was appointed vice @-@ president of the FIA 's promotional affairs , with authority over Formula One and the other motor sports authorised by the FIA .\",\n \"In 1991 , Mosley challenged Balestre for the presidency of FISA .\",\n \"Mosley said that his decision to challenge the Frenchman was prompted by Balestre 's reported intervention on behalf of his <unk> Alain <unk> to ensure that race stewards disqualified Brazilian driver <unk> Senna from the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix .\",\n \"Mosley campaigned on the basis that Balestre , who was also president of the FIA and of the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile , could not effectively manage all these roles together .\",\n \"He also said that no @-@ one challenged Balestre because they were afraid of the consequences and suggested that the FISA President should not interfere with F1 , which could be left to run itself .\",\n \"Mosley won the FISA presidency by 43 votes to 29 ; Balestre remained as FIA president .\",\n \"Mosley resigned a year later , fulfilling a promise made during his election campaign to seek a re @-@ affirmation of his mandate . \\\"\",\n \"I wanted to show people that I do what I say \\\" , he said . \\\"\",\n \"Now they can judge me in a year 's time . \\\"\",\n \"FISA immediately re @-@ elected him .\",\n \"= = FIA presidency = = \\n \\n \\n = = = 1993 – 1997 = = = \\n \\n In 1993 , Mosley agreed with Balestre that the Frenchman would stand down as president of the FIA in Mosley 's favour , in return for the new role of President of the FIA Senate , to be created after Mosley 's election .\",\n \"As well as motorsport , the FIA 's remit includes the interests of motorists worldwide , an area in which Mosley wanted to involve himself : \\\" That is what really interested me : [ in F1 ] you maybe save one life every five years , whereas [ in ] road safety you are talking about thousands of lives \\\" .\",\n \"A challenge to Mosley 's election by Jeffrey Rose , chairman of the British Royal Automobile Club , was withdrawn when it became clear that the majority of voters were already committed to Mosley .\",\n \"The FISA was then merged into the FIA as its sporting arm .\",\n \"After the deaths of drivers <unk> Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , worldwide media attention focused on the charismatic triple @-@ world champion Senna , rather than Ratzenberger , a virtual unknown driving for the minor Simtek team .\",\n \"Mosley did not go to Senna 's funeral , but attended that of Ratzenberger .\",\n \"In a press conference 10 years later Mosley said , \\\" I went to his funeral because everyone went to Senna 's .\",\n \"I thought it was important that somebody went to his . \\\"\",\n \"In the aftermath of the deaths , and a number of other serious accidents , Mosley announced the formation of the Advisory Expert Group chaired by Professor Sid Watkins , to research and improve safety in motor racing .\",\n \"Watkins , who learned of his new role by hearing Mosley announce it on the radio , has called it a \\\" novel and revolutionary approach \\\" .\",\n \"The resulting changes have included reducing the capacity and power of engines , the use of grooved tyres to reduce <unk> speeds , the introduction of the <unk> device to protect drivers ' necks in accidents , circuit re @-@ design and greatly increased requirements for crash testing of chassis .\",\n \"Mosley was criticised for some of the very rapid changes announced in the immediate aftermath of the deaths at the San Marino race .\",\n \"In 1995 , a deal was signed between Ecclestone and the FIA that passed all of the commercial rights to Formula One to him for 15 years , on the condition that they would return to the FIA at the end of that period .\",\n \"Ecclestone had been building up Formula One as a television package since the early 1990s , investing heavily in new digital television technology .\",\n \"For the duration of the deal , the FIA would receive an index @-@ linked annual fixed royalty , estimated by Lovell at around 15 % .\",\n \"Mosley said \\\" My belief is that I got a better deal than anyone else could have because it was more difficult for Ecclestone to take a hard line with me as we had worked together for so long . \\\"\",\n \"The following year the FIA also passed the rights to all its other directly sanctioned championships and events to Ecclestone , also for 15 years , An attempt to add a 10 @-@ year extension to the F1 contract in return for a share in Ecclestone 's proposed flotation of Formula One was later vetoed by the European Commission .\",\n \"Mosley 's agreement with Ecclestone on TV rights for F1 angered three of the team principals in particular : Ron Dennis ( McLaren ) , Frank Williams ( Williams ) and Ken Tyrrell ( Tyrrell ) , who felt that neither Ecclestone nor the FIA had the right to make such an agreement without the teams .\",\n \"They refused to sign the 1997 Concorde Agreement without increased financial returns and threatened to make a complaint under European Union competition rules .\",\n \"The European Commission was already investigating the FIA ’ s agreement with Ecclestone in what Lovell calls a \\\" highly personal and bitter battle between Max Mosley and [ EU commissioner Karel ] van <unk> \\\" .\",\n \"= = = 1997 – 2001 = = = \\n \\n Mosley was elected to his second term as president of the FIA in October 1997 .\",\n \"Later that year , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition made a preliminary decision against Ecclestone and the FIA .\",\n \"The resulting warning letters from van <unk> to the FIA and Ecclestone were leaked and ended the attempt to float F1 ; the FIA won a case against the Commission for the leakage in 1998 .\",\n \"At the same time , a local court in Germany ruled that the television rights to the FIA European Truck Racing Cup ( passed to Ecclestone by the FIA the previous year , along with all other FIA authorised championships ) should be returned to the series organiser , following a complaint from German television company <unk> TV @-@ <unk> .\",\n \"The TV Company argued that Ecclestone and Mosley were in breach of commercial clauses in the Treaty of Rome ; following the court 's decision Mosley appealed the judgement and cancelled the series until further notice .\",\n \"On appeal , the court ruled that the series organiser should be able to sell the television rights to whoever they felt was the best option for coverage and the FIA reinstated the European Truck Racing Cup .\",\n \"Between 1997 and 2000 Mosley repeatedly warned that if any EU decision went against the FIA , the marketing organisations and F1 itself would be moved out of Europe .\",\n \"In 1999 , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition issued a Statement of <unk> , listing a number of grievances surrounding the FIA 's dealings with Ecclestone and Formula One .\",\n \"The FIA released the Statement to the media and held a press conference in Brussels <unk> the Commission ’ s case .\",\n \"The Commission argued that a number of commercial agreements could be viewed as anti @-@ competition and invited the FIA and Ecclestone 's companies , <unk> and <unk> , to submit proposals to modify these arrangements .\",\n \"In 2001 , nine months after settlement talks had begun , the parties reached an agreement to amend existing contracts , which included Ecclestone stepping down as the FIA 's vice @-@ president of promotional affairs and the FIA ending all involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One .\",\n \"Mosley came up with an innovative way to dispose of the FIA 's involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One .\",\n \"In order to maintain Ecclestone 's investment to deliver digital television , he proposed extending Ecclestone 's rights for F1 coverage to 100 years from the initial 15 , arguing that a deal of such length could not be anti @-@ competition as it was effectively the same as an outright sale .\",\n \"The Commission agreed with his assessment and in the interest of impartiality , Mosley removed himself from the negotiations , which eventually returned around $ 300 million ( £ 150 million ) .\",\n \"The FIA planned to \\\" put almost all of it into a charitable foundation which will then have the resources to undertake important work on improving safety in motor sport and in road safety \\\" , and thus the FIA Foundation was created in 2001 .\",\n \"In addition , the FIA continued to receive an annual <unk> from the deal , Mosley stated : \\\" Over the <unk> of the contract , and on an annual basis , the sum we have accepted represents billions of dollars .\",\n \"<unk> at from that point of view , it is a huge amount of money . \\\"\",\n \"Lovell compares the figure to extend the rights to 100 years to the £ 600 million <unk> paid for the rights to the 2002 Football World Cup and the £ 1 @.\",\n \"@ 1 billion British Sky Broadcasting paid for a three @-@ year package of English Premier League football .\",\n \"The figure was not entirely comparable however due to the dispute over who actually owned Formula One .\",\n \"Before the settlement with the EU Commission was reached , Mosley feared that the FIA was losing control over the sport following a heated argument with Ecclestone in Paris .\",\n \"Ecclestone argued that he had built Formula One into the entity that it was and the FIA only had rights to designate the event as official .\",\n \"Ecclestone threatened to \\\" do a <unk> earth \\\" if another party were to gain control of the commercial side of Formula One .\",\n \"Mosley came up with the solution in order for the FIA to retain its sporting management role and Ecclestone to retain his commercial role .\",\n \"Over the same period , Mosley was attempting to delay European legislation banning tobacco advertising .\",\n \"At this time all leading Formula One teams carried significant branding from tobacco brands such as <unk> , West , <unk> and <unk> Seven .\",\n \"The Labour party had pledged to ban tobacco advertising in its manifesto ahead of its 1997 General Election victory , supporting a proposed European Union Directive .\",\n \"The Labour Party 's stance on banning tobacco advertising was reinforced following the election by forceful statements from the Health Secretary Frank <unk> and Minister for Public Health Tessa Jowell .\",\n \"Ecclestone appealed \\\" over Jowell 's head \\\" to Jonathan Powell , Tony Blair 's chief of staff , who arranged a meeting with Blair .\",\n \"Ecclestone and Mosley , both Labour Party donors , met Blair on 16 October 1997 .\",\n \"Mosley argued that the proposed legislation was illegal by EU rules , that Formula One needed more time to find alternative sources of funding and that the prompt introduction of a ban would lead to races being held outside Europe , while the coverage , including tobacco <unk> , would still be broadcast into the EU .\",\n \"He also argued that : \\n Motor racing was a world class industry which put Britain at the hi @-@ tech edge .\",\n \"<unk> of tobacco money , Formula One would move abroad at the loss of 50 @,@ 000 jobs , 150 @,@ 000 part @-@ time jobs and £ 900 million of exports .\",\n \"On 4 November the \\\" fiercely anti @-@ tobacco Jowell \\\" argued in Brussels for an exemption for Formula One .\",\n \"Media attention initially focused on Labour <unk> its principles for a \\\" glamour sport \\\" and on the \\\" false trail \\\" of Jowell 's husband 's links to the <unk> Formula One team .\",\n \"On 6 November <unk> from three newspapers <unk> whether Labour had received any donations from Ecclestone ; he had donated £ 1 million in January 1997 .\",\n \"On 11 November Labour promised to return the money on the advice of Sir Patrick <unk> .\",\n \"On 17 November Blair apologised for his government 's mishandling of the affair and stated \\\" the decision to exempt Formula One from tobacco sponsorship was taken two weeks later .\",\n \"It was in response to fears that Britain might lose the industry overseas to Asian countries who were bidding for it . \\\"\",\n \"The revised directive went into force in June 1998 , and banned sponsorship from 2003 , with a further three @-@ year extension for \\\" global sports such as Formula One \\\" .\",\n \"On 5 October 2000 , the directive was successfully overturned in the European Court of Justice on the grounds that it was unlawful .\",\n \"A new Tobacco Advertising Directive took effect in July 2005 ; the Financial Times described Mosley as \\\" furious \\\" that this was a year earlier than provided for under the 1998 directive .\",\n \"As of 2009 , Ferrari is the only F1 team to retain tobacco sponsorship , although the team carries no explicit branding in races because of the European legislation .\",\n \"Although the FIA moved its headquarters out of the EU in 1999 , it returned in 2001 ; all of the F1 teams remain in Europe , and six are in the UK , compared to seven of eleven at the end of 1997 .\",\n \"Asked in a 2003 interview about his most enduring achievement as president of the FIA , Mosley replied : \\\" I think using Formula One to push <unk> Crash @-@ Testing . \\\"\",\n \"The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) is a European car safety performance assessment programme that originated with work done by the Transport Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport .\",\n \"The FIA became involved in the programme in 1996 , taking a lead in promoting it , and Mosley chaired the body from its launch as Euro NCAP in 1997 to 2004 .\",\n \"Despite what NCAP describes as a \\\" strong negative response \\\" from car manufacturers at first , the initiative has expanded , and NCAP says that there has been a clear increase in the safety of modern cars as a result .\",\n \"The EU commission in 2000 stated that \\\" <unk> had become the single most important mechanism for achieving advances in vehicle safety \\\" and \\\" the most cost effective road safety action available to the EU . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley has continued to promote the matter through his membership of initiatives such as <unk> 21 , the European Commission ’ s policy group aimed at improving the worldwide competitiveness of the European automotive industry .\",\n \"In February 2001 , Mosley announced his intention to stand again for the presidency in October of that year , saying that if successful this third term would be his last .\",\n \"= = = 2001 – 2005 = = = \\n \\n Mosley was elected to his third term as president of the FIA in 2001 .\",\n \"From 2000 , Formula One saw the return of teams partly or wholly owned and operated by major motor manufacturers , who feared that under Ecclestone 's management F1 coverage would go to pay television , reducing the value of their investment .\",\n \"In 2001 , the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( <unk> ) announced an alternative world championship , the Grand Prix World Championship to start by 2008 .\",\n \"The <unk> stipulated that the championship should not be regulated by the FIA , which Lovell believes was because the organisation believed Mosley was too close to Ecclestone .\",\n \"In June 2004 , Mosley announced that he would step down from his position in October of that year , one year early , saying \\\" I no longer find it either satisfying or interesting to sit in long meetings [ ... ] I have achieved in this job everything I set out to [ ... ] \\\" .\",\n \"One month later , he rescinded his decision after the FIA Senate called for him to stay on .\",\n \"According to a BBC Sport profile , many <unk> considered that the announcement , and Mosley 's public disagreements with Ecclestone , were \\\" just part of a well crafted plan to strengthen their control over the sport \\\" ; Ron Dennis , the McLaren team principal , suggested that it arose because Mosley 's proposals for Formula One met opposition .\",\n \"In 2004 , Mosley said he felt Ferrari 's then team principal Jean Todt should succeed him as president of the FIA when he stepped down .\",\n \"The 2005 United States Grand Prix was run with only six cars , after the Michelin tyres used by the other 14 cars proved unsafe for the circuit .\",\n \"A proposal involving the addition of a temporary <unk> to slow cars through the fastest corner of the circuit was suggested but rejected by Mosley .\",\n \"He stated his reasons for not agreeing to the <unk> : \\\" Formula One is a dangerous activity and it would be most <unk> to make fundamental changes to a circuit without following tried and tested procedures .\",\n \"What happened was bad but can be put right .\",\n \"This is not true of a fatality . \\\"\",\n \"He continued , \\\" Formula One is a sport which <unk> .\",\n \"It is not entertainment disguised as sport . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley gave three possible solutions for the Michelin runners : to use qualifying tyres but change them whenever necessary on safety grounds , to use a different tyre to be provided by Michelin or to run at reduced speed .\",\n \"These were all rejected by the Michelin @-@ <unk> teams .\",\n \"Paul <unk> , the then @-@ owner of the <unk> team who ran on Bridgestone tyres , was prepared to compromise to accommodate Michelin teams — even though a reduced field would guarantee his team much needed points — and was particularly vocal in his criticism and renewed his calls for Mosley to resign .\",\n \"= = = 2005 – 2009 = = = \\n \\n Mosley was elected unopposed to his fourth term as president of the FIA in 2005 .\",\n \"In recognition of his contribution to road safety and motorsport , Mosley was made a Chevalier dans l ’ <unk> de la Légion d ’ <unk> in 2006 .\",\n \"The Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour ) is France 's highest decoration for outstanding achievements in military or civil life ; a Chevalier ( Knight ) is the fifth class .\",\n \"Continuing a theme of his presidency , in 2006 Mosley called for Formula One manufacturers to develop technology relevant to road cars .\",\n \"In recent years , a large proportion of the enormous budget of Formula One has been spent on the development of very powerful , very high @-@ <unk> engines , which some say have little <unk> to road cars .\",\n \"Mosley has announced a 10 @-@ year freeze on the development of engines , which would allow manufacturers to spend more of their budgets on environmentally friendly technology such as the <unk> Energy Recovery System ( <unk> ) introduced in 2009 .\",\n \"In July 2008 , he sent a letter to the Formula One teams , in which he called for the teams to propose future sporting regulations to address specific issues including reduced fuel consumption .\",\n \"The 2007 Formula One season was dominated by Ferrari 's accusations that the McLaren team had made illegal use of their intellectual property , leading to legal cases in the United Kingdom and Italy .\",\n \"Unlike previous cases , such as the Toyota team 's illegal use of Ferrari intellectual property in 2004 that had been handled by German police , the FIA investigated .\",\n \"They initially found McLaren innocent ; unable to find enough evidence to suggest that anyone other than designer Mike <unk> had seen the information or that the team had used it .\",\n \"Ron Dennis , team principal of McLaren , was unaware at this point that Mosley had been sent personal e @-@ <unk> from Fernando Alonso , stating that the data had been used and seen by others in the team .\",\n \"When Italian police uncovered a series of text messages between McLaren and their spy at Ferrari , the team was hauled in front of the World Motor Sports Council ( WMSC ) once more .\",\n \"This time they were found guilty and eventually fined a gross $ <unk> and excluded from the 2007 constructors ' championship .\",\n \"Later in the year , the Renault team was found guilty by the FIA of possessing McLaren 's intellectual property , but was not punished , as the \\\" FIA 's WMSC decided there was not enough evidence to show the championship had been affected . \\\"\",\n \"In relation to McLaren , triple world champion Jackie Stewart criticised Mosley and stated that other teams did not back McLaren for \\\" fear of repercussions \\\" .\",\n \"TV commentator and newspaper columnist Martin Brundle , a former driver , was among those who criticised the FIA and Mosley for inconsistency and questioned the \\\" energetic manner \\\" in which he felt McLaren was being pursued , suggesting that there was a \\\" witch hunt \\\" against the team .\",\n \"Brundle and The Sunday Times subsequently received a writ for libel before the paper printed a correction .\",\n \"Mosley went on to defend himself of the charges made by Brundle , highlighting that the WMSC originally acquitted McLaren of any wrongdoing , stating : \\\" Concrete evidence of use by McLaren of the Ferrari information was simply not there . \\\"\",\n \"It was only later in the year when \\\" e @-@ <unk> emerged which showed others inside McLaren were indeed aware of the Ferrari information \\\" , that the FIA found the team guilty .\",\n \"At the start of 2008 , Mosley said that he wanted to see through reforms such as budget capping and new technologies like <unk> successfully introduced into Formula One before retiring .\",\n \"In March of that year the News of the World released video footage of Mosley engaged in acts with five <unk> women in a scenario that the paper alleged involved Nazi role @-@ playing ( an allegation that , though dismissed in court as \\\" no genuine basis \\\" , allegedly \\\" ruined \\\" Mosley 's reputation ) .\",\n \"The situation was made more controversial by his father 's association with the Nazis .\",\n \"Mosley admitted \\\" the embarrassment the revelations caused \\\" , but said that there was no Nazi theme involved .\",\n \"He was strongly criticised by former drivers , motor manufacturers and several of the national <unk> bodies who form the FIA .\",\n \"His involvement in several high level motor sport events was cancelled .\",\n \"Public expressions of support were limited .\",\n \"Mosley says that he received much supportive correspondence , and said that he would continue to the end of his current term , which he said would be his last .\",\n \"Mosley 's longtime ally Ecclestone eventually appeared to support Mosley 's removal .\",\n \"Mosley won a vote of confidence at an <unk> General Meeting of the FIA on 3 June 2008 , with 103 votes in support and 55 against , with seven <unk> and four invalid votes .\",\n \"Several clubs , including the <unk> , AAA and <unk> considered withdrawal from the FIA after the decision .\",\n \"Other formerly critical organisations have since said that they will accept the outcome of the vote and now wish to move on .\",\n \"In July 2008 , Mosley won a High Court legal case against the News of the World for invasion of privacy .\",\n \"The presiding judge , Mr Justice <unk> , said : \\\" I see no genuine basis at all for the suggestion that the participants mocked the victims of the Holocaust . \\\"\",\n \"In December 2008 , Mosley said that he still intended to stand down when his term ran out in October 2009 , but would take the final decision in June of that year .\",\n \"Mosley 's close relationship with Ecclestone , the sport 's promoter , was criticised in early 2009 by Sir Jackie Stewart , who suggested that Mosley should resign in favour of a CEO from outside motorsport .\",\n \"In mid @-@ 2009 , the FIA and the newly formed Formula One Teams Association disagreed over the format of rules for the following season .\",\n \"When the entry list for the 2010 championship was announced on 12 June 2009 , the entries of five of the eight FOTA teams remained provisional on their acceptance of the new rules .\",\n \"The next day , the European Automobile Manufacturers Association announced its support for FOTA 's request for \\\" stability , clear rules , a clear and transparent system of governance \\\" and their threat to form a <unk> series from Formula One .\",\n \"The BBC Sport website reported this as an attack on Mosley 's authority and noted that Mosley was expected to stand again for the presidency in 2009 .\",\n \"On 23 June , Mosley said he was considering running for a fifth term as FIA president in October \\\" in light of the attack on my mandate \\\" .\",\n \"However , the following day FOTA and the FIA reached an agreement with Mosley agreeing not to stand for re @-@ election as part of the deal : ' now there is peace ' .\",\n \"Luca di <unk> welcomed Mosley 's decision to stand down and called Mosley a ' dictator ' .\",\n \"Mosley responded by saying that he was still considering his ' options ' and might well stand for re @-@ election in October after all .\",\n \"He later said that he was \\\" under pressure from all over the world \\\" to stand for re @-@ election .\",\n \"On 15 July , Mosley confirmed that he would after all stand down , and again endorsed former Ferrari Executive Director Jean Todt as his successor .\",\n \"Todt went on to win the presidency .\",\n \"= = Honours = = \\n \\n Grande <unk> <unk> ' <unk> al <unk> ( Italy ) 1994 \\n <unk> Gold Medal from the Institute of Motor Industry in the year 2000 .\",\n \"Order of <unk> <unk> , 1st degree ( Bulgaria ) , 2000 \\n <unk> <unk> <unk> per la <unk> <unk> ( Italy ) , 2001 \\n The <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , 2001 \\n Order of Merit ( Romania ) , 2004 \\n <unk> <unk> do Quito ( Ecuador ) , 2005 .\",\n \"National Road Safety Council <unk> , Armenia , 2005 .\",\n \"France : Chevalier of the Légion d 'honneur ( 2006 ) \\n Monaco : Commander of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( 27 May 2006 ) \\n \\n = = <unk> = = \\n \\n Secretary , Oxford Union Society , 1961 .\",\n \"1964 , Called to the Bar , Gray ’ s Inn .\",\n \"Director of March Cars , 1969 @-@ 79 \\n Member of High Level <unk> , <unk> ( Competitive Automotive <unk> System for the 21st century ) 21 , 2005 @-@ 09 \\n <unk> at <unk> Aware , 2006 @-@ 2009 \\n Member of the Board of Trustees , 2001 @-@ 2014 , Chairman of the Programmes Committee , 2001 @-@ 2012 , FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society \\n <unk> of Euro NCAP , Global NCAP , <unk> \\n Honorary President of European Parliament Automobile <unk> ' <unk> \\n \\n = = Sex scandal = = \\n \\n In 2008 , Mosley won a court case ( Mosley v News Group Newspapers ) against the News of the World newspaper which had reported his involvement in a sex act involving five <unk> women on the grounds that it had breached his privacy .\",\n \"Justice <unk> ruled that despite some of the attendees wearing German World War 2 uniforms there were no Nazi connotations to the <unk> , a false statement that had been printed by the newspaper .\",\n \"As a result , in 2009 Mosley brought a case ( Mosley v United Kingdom ) against the UK 's privacy laws in the European Court of Human Rights , in a bid to force newspapers to warn people before exposing their private lives so they could have the opportunity to seek a court injunction .\",\n \"The case was rejected by the court on 10 May 2011 as they argued that a \\\" pre @-@ <unk> requirement would inevitably affect political reporting and serious journalism . \\\"\",\n \"In July 2011 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Mosley was financially <unk> the court costs of claimants who may have been subjected to phone hacking by the News of the World .\",\n \"Mosley refused to comment at the time , but he later gave a TV interview to the BBC and telephone interview to Reuters where he confirmed the story .\",\n \"Mosley launched legal action against Google , in an attempt to stop searches from returning web pages which use the photographs from the video used for the News of the World story .\",\n \"On 6 November 2013 in Mosley v <unk> Google a French court sided with Mosley and ordered Google to prevent its search engine from providing links to images of Mosley engaging in sexual activities from the video .\",\n \"The Register suggested the ruling would lead to a Streisand effect , increasing interest in the images , which are still <unk> through other search engines .\",\n \"At the <unk> <unk> , Mosley stated his reasons for pursuing Google : \\n \\\" the fundamental point is that Google could stop this material appearing but they don 't , or they won 't as a matter of principle .\",\n \"My position is that if the search engines - if somebody were to stop the search engines producing the material , the actual sites don 't really matter because without a search engine , nobody will find it , it would just be a few friends of the person who posts it .\",\n \"The really dangerous things are the search engines . \\\"\",\n \"Mosley launched similar legal action against Google in Germany .\",\n \"In January 2014 , the German court also ruled against the American company .\",\n \"In giving its verdict , the court stated , \\\" that the banned pictures of the <unk> severely violate his private sphere . \\\"\",\n \"In an interview with Der <unk> following the judgement , Mosley said : \\\" <unk> speaking Google has got to obey German courts in Germany and French courts in France .\",\n \"But in the end it has to decide whether it wants to live in a democracy .\",\n \"Google behaves like an adolescent <unk> against the establishment .\",\n \"The company has to recognise that it is a part of society and it must accept the responsibility which comes with that . \\\"\",\n \"= = Ancestry = =\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":97,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Verpa bohemica = \n \n Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family <unk> .","Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a \" false morel \" .","The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ shaped cap — 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.","@ 8 to 1 @.","@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.","@ 8 to 2 @.","@ 0 in ) long — that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain @-@ like <unk> .","The cap hangs from the top of a lighter @-@ colored , brittle stem that measures up to 12 cm ( 4 @.","@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.","@ 5 cm ( 0 @.","@ 4 to 1 @.","@ 0 in ) thick .","<unk> , the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores , typically 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm , and the presence of only two spores per <unk> .","In the field , the mushroom is reliably distinguished from the true morels on the basis of cap attachment : V. bohemica has a cap that hangs completely free from the stem .","Although widely considered edible , consumption of the mushroom is generally not advised due to reports of poisoning in susceptible individuals .","<unk> symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination .","V. bohemica is found in northern North America , Europe , and Asia .","It fruits in early spring , growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt , before the appearance of \" true morels \" ( genus Morchella ) .","The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European <unk> .","= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = = \n \n The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius <unk> von <unk> in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica .","The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 .","Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile <unk> in his 1907 treatise on the <unk> of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications .","<unk> believed that the large , curved <unk> and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species .","Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa .","The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .","The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia ( now a part of the Czech Republic ) , where <unk> originally collected the species .","The mushroom is commonly known as the \" early morel \" , \" early false morel \" , or the \" wrinkled thimble @-@ cap \" .","Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek <unk> ( genitive form <unk> ) , meaning \" fold \" , layer \" , or \" plate \" .","= = Description = = \n \n The cap of this fungus ( known technically as an <unk> ) is 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.","@ 8 to 1 @.","@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.","@ 8 to 2 @.","@ 0 in ) long , with a conical or bell shape .","It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together ( <unk> ) in a vein @-@ like network .","The cap is attached to the stem at the top only — hanging from the top of the stipe , with the lobed edge free from the stem — and varies in color from yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown ; the underside of the cap is pale .","The stem is 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.","@ 4 to 4 @.","@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.","@ 5 cm ( 0 @.","@ 4 to 1 @.","@ 0 in ) thick , cream @-@ white in color , and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top .","Although the stem is initially loosely <unk> with <unk> hyphae , it eventually becomes hollow in maturity ; overall , the mushroom is rather fragile .","The spore deposit is yellow , and the flesh is white .","Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm .","They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish .","The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per <unk> are characteristic for this species .","The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide .","The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald <unk> determined that the asci are <unk> — they bend toward light .","As he noted , \" I cut transverse sections though their <unk> , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the <unk> grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their <unk> must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . \"","This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind .","The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .","= = = Edibility = = = \n \n The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals .","Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species <unk> esculenta .","The responsible <unk> in G. esculenta is <unk> ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the <unk> .","Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma .","Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to <unk> with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance .","Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems .","Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from \" strong but not on a par with true morels \" , to \" pleasant \" , to \" not distinctive \" .","= = = Similar species = = = \n \n The closely related species Verpa <unk> typically has a smooth cap , although specimens with wrinkled caps are known .","V. <unk> may be distinguished microscopically by its eight @-@ spored asci .","Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica .","Another similar group of species are the \" half @-@ free \" morels , Morchella semilibera and others , which have a <unk> cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length , and with ridges that are darker than the pits .","Additionally , a cross @-@ <unk> stem of a specimen of M. semilibera is hollow , while V. bohemica usually has <unk> <unk> in the stem , and M. semilibera usually has vertical <unk> near the base , while V. bohemica lacks them .","Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores .","= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = = \n \n The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season .","It is often found along riverbanks , near <unk> , willows and <unk> , often buried in plant litter .","The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight .","Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an <unk> of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .","A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter .","It has been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle .","The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast .","In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and has been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine .","In Asia , it has been recorded from India and Turkey .","A 10 @-@ year study of the distribution , time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring , appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees .","<unk> @-@ head morels ( Morchella <unk> ) fruit next , followed by the yellow or white morels ( Morchella esculenta ) , then <unk> Morchella <unk> .","The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding <unk> ( flies ) , including <unk> media , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> ."],"string":"[\n \" = Verpa bohemica = \\n \\n Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family <unk> .\",\n \"Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a \\\" false morel \\\" .\",\n \"The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ shaped cap — 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 to 2 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) long — that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain @-@ like <unk> .\",\n \"The cap hangs from the top of a lighter @-@ colored , brittle stem that measures up to 12 cm ( 4 @.\",\n \"@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.\",\n \"@ 5 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 4 to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) thick .\",\n \"<unk> , the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores , typically 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm , and the presence of only two spores per <unk> .\",\n \"In the field , the mushroom is reliably distinguished from the true morels on the basis of cap attachment : V. bohemica has a cap that hangs completely free from the stem .\",\n \"Although widely considered edible , consumption of the mushroom is generally not advised due to reports of poisoning in susceptible individuals .\",\n \"<unk> symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination .\",\n \"V. bohemica is found in northern North America , Europe , and Asia .\",\n \"It fruits in early spring , growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt , before the appearance of \\\" true morels \\\" ( genus Morchella ) .\",\n \"The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European <unk> .\",\n \"= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = = \\n \\n The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius <unk> von <unk> in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica .\",\n \"The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 .\",\n \"Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile <unk> in his 1907 treatise on the <unk> of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications .\",\n \"<unk> believed that the large , curved <unk> and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species .\",\n \"Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa .\",\n \"The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .\",\n \"The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia ( now a part of the Czech Republic ) , where <unk> originally collected the species .\",\n \"The mushroom is commonly known as the \\\" early morel \\\" , \\\" early false morel \\\" , or the \\\" wrinkled thimble @-@ cap \\\" .\",\n \"Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek <unk> ( genitive form <unk> ) , meaning \\\" fold \\\" , layer \\\" , or \\\" plate \\\" .\",\n \"= = Description = = \\n \\n The cap of this fungus ( known technically as an <unk> ) is 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 to 2 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) long , with a conical or bell shape .\",\n \"It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together ( <unk> ) in a vein @-@ like network .\",\n \"The cap is attached to the stem at the top only — hanging from the top of the stipe , with the lobed edge free from the stem — and varies in color from yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown ; the underside of the cap is pale .\",\n \"The stem is 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 4 to 4 @.\",\n \"@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.\",\n \"@ 5 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 4 to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) thick , cream @-@ white in color , and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top .\",\n \"Although the stem is initially loosely <unk> with <unk> hyphae , it eventually becomes hollow in maturity ; overall , the mushroom is rather fragile .\",\n \"The spore deposit is yellow , and the flesh is white .\",\n \"Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm .\",\n \"They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish .\",\n \"The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per <unk> are characteristic for this species .\",\n \"The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide .\",\n \"The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald <unk> determined that the asci are <unk> — they bend toward light .\",\n \"As he noted , \\\" I cut transverse sections though their <unk> , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the <unk> grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their <unk> must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . \\\"\",\n \"This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind .\",\n \"The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .\",\n \"= = = Edibility = = = \\n \\n The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals .\",\n \"Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species <unk> esculenta .\",\n \"The responsible <unk> in G. esculenta is <unk> ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the <unk> .\",\n \"Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma .\",\n \"Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to <unk> with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance .\",\n \"Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems .\",\n \"Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from \\\" strong but not on a par with true morels \\\" , to \\\" pleasant \\\" , to \\\" not distinctive \\\" .\",\n \"= = = Similar species = = = \\n \\n The closely related species Verpa <unk> typically has a smooth cap , although specimens with wrinkled caps are known .\",\n \"V. <unk> may be distinguished microscopically by its eight @-@ spored asci .\",\n \"Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica .\",\n \"Another similar group of species are the \\\" half @-@ free \\\" morels , Morchella semilibera and others , which have a <unk> cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length , and with ridges that are darker than the pits .\",\n \"Additionally , a cross @-@ <unk> stem of a specimen of M. semilibera is hollow , while V. bohemica usually has <unk> <unk> in the stem , and M. semilibera usually has vertical <unk> near the base , while V. bohemica lacks them .\",\n \"Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores .\",\n \"= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = = \\n \\n The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season .\",\n \"It is often found along riverbanks , near <unk> , willows and <unk> , often buried in plant litter .\",\n \"The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight .\",\n \"Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an <unk> of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .\",\n \"A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter .\",\n \"It has been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle .\",\n \"The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast .\",\n \"In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and has been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine .\",\n \"In Asia , it has been recorded from India and Turkey .\",\n \"A 10 @-@ year study of the distribution , time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring , appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees .\",\n \"<unk> @-@ head morels ( Morchella <unk> ) fruit next , followed by the yellow or white morels ( Morchella esculenta ) , then <unk> Morchella <unk> .\",\n \"The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding <unk> ( flies ) , including <unk> media , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["It is often found along riverbanks , near <unk> , willows and <unk> , often buried in plant litter ."],"string":"[\n \"It is often found along riverbanks , near <unk> , willows and <unk> , often buried in plant litter .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Verpa bohemica = \n \n Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family <unk> .","Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a \" false morel \" .","The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ shaped cap — 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.","@ 8 to 1 @.","@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.","@ 8 to 2 @.","@ 0 in ) long — that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain @-@ like <unk> .","The cap hangs from the top of a lighter @-@ colored , brittle stem that measures up to 12 cm ( 4 @.","@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.","@ 5 cm ( 0 @.","@ 4 to 1 @.","@ 0 in ) thick .","<unk> , the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores , typically 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm , and the presence of only two spores per <unk> .","In the field , the mushroom is reliably distinguished from the true morels on the basis of cap attachment : V. bohemica has a cap that hangs completely free from the stem .","Although widely considered edible , consumption of the mushroom is generally not advised due to reports of poisoning in susceptible individuals .","<unk> symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination .","V. bohemica is found in northern North America , Europe , and Asia .","It fruits in early spring , growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt , before the appearance of \" true morels \" ( genus Morchella ) .","The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European <unk> .","= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = = \n \n The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius <unk> von <unk> in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica .","The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 .","Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile <unk> in his 1907 treatise on the <unk> of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications .","<unk> believed that the large , curved <unk> and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species .","Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa .","The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .","The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia ( now a part of the Czech Republic ) , where <unk> originally collected the species .","The mushroom is commonly known as the \" early morel \" , \" early false morel \" , or the \" wrinkled thimble @-@ cap \" .","Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek <unk> ( genitive form <unk> ) , meaning \" fold \" , layer \" , or \" plate \" .","= = Description = = \n \n The cap of this fungus ( known technically as an <unk> ) is 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.","@ 8 to 1 @.","@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.","@ 8 to 2 @.","@ 0 in ) long , with a conical or bell shape .","It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together ( <unk> ) in a vein @-@ like network .","The cap is attached to the stem at the top only — hanging from the top of the stipe , with the lobed edge free from the stem — and varies in color from yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown ; the underside of the cap is pale .","The stem is 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.","@ 4 to 4 @.","@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.","@ 5 cm ( 0 @.","@ 4 to 1 @.","@ 0 in ) thick , cream @-@ white in color , and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top .","Although the stem is initially loosely <unk> with <unk> hyphae , it eventually becomes hollow in maturity ; overall , the mushroom is rather fragile .","The spore deposit is yellow , and the flesh is white .","Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm .","They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish .","The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per <unk> are characteristic for this species .","The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide .","The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald <unk> determined that the asci are <unk> — they bend toward light .","As he noted , \" I cut transverse sections though their <unk> , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the <unk> grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their <unk> must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . \"","This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind .","The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .","= = = Edibility = = = \n \n The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals .","Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species <unk> esculenta .","The responsible <unk> in G. esculenta is <unk> ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the <unk> .","Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma .","Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to <unk> with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance .","Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems .","Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from \" strong but not on a par with true morels \" , to \" pleasant \" , to \" not distinctive \" .","= = = Similar species = = = \n \n The closely related species Verpa <unk> typically has a smooth cap , although specimens with wrinkled caps are known .","V. <unk> may be distinguished microscopically by its eight @-@ spored asci .","Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica .","Another similar group of species are the \" half @-@ free \" morels , Morchella semilibera and others , which have a <unk> cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length , and with ridges that are darker than the pits .","Additionally , a cross @-@ <unk> stem of a specimen of M. semilibera is hollow , while V. bohemica usually has <unk> <unk> in the stem , and M. semilibera usually has vertical <unk> near the base , while V. bohemica lacks them .","Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores .","= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = = \n \n The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season .","The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight .","Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an <unk> of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .","A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter .","It has been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle .","The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast .","In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and has been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine .","In Asia , it has been recorded from India and Turkey .","A 10 @-@ year study of the distribution , time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring , appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees .","<unk> @-@ head morels ( Morchella <unk> ) fruit next , followed by the yellow or white morels ( Morchella esculenta ) , then <unk> Morchella <unk> .","The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding <unk> ( flies ) , including <unk> media , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> ."],"string":"[\n \" = Verpa bohemica = \\n \\n Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family <unk> .\",\n \"Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a \\\" false morel \\\" .\",\n \"The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ shaped cap — 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 to 2 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) long — that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain @-@ like <unk> .\",\n \"The cap hangs from the top of a lighter @-@ colored , brittle stem that measures up to 12 cm ( 4 @.\",\n \"@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.\",\n \"@ 5 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 4 to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) thick .\",\n \"<unk> , the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores , typically 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm , and the presence of only two spores per <unk> .\",\n \"In the field , the mushroom is reliably distinguished from the true morels on the basis of cap attachment : V. bohemica has a cap that hangs completely free from the stem .\",\n \"Although widely considered edible , consumption of the mushroom is generally not advised due to reports of poisoning in susceptible individuals .\",\n \"<unk> symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination .\",\n \"V. bohemica is found in northern North America , Europe , and Asia .\",\n \"It fruits in early spring , growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt , before the appearance of \\\" true morels \\\" ( genus Morchella ) .\",\n \"The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European <unk> .\",\n \"= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = = \\n \\n The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius <unk> von <unk> in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica .\",\n \"The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 .\",\n \"Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile <unk> in his 1907 treatise on the <unk> of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications .\",\n \"<unk> believed that the large , curved <unk> and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species .\",\n \"Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa .\",\n \"The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .\",\n \"The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia ( now a part of the Czech Republic ) , where <unk> originally collected the species .\",\n \"The mushroom is commonly known as the \\\" early morel \\\" , \\\" early false morel \\\" , or the \\\" wrinkled thimble @-@ cap \\\" .\",\n \"Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek <unk> ( genitive form <unk> ) , meaning \\\" fold \\\" , layer \\\" , or \\\" plate \\\" .\",\n \"= = Description = = \\n \\n The cap of this fungus ( known technically as an <unk> ) is 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 8 to 2 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) long , with a conical or bell shape .\",\n \"It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together ( <unk> ) in a vein @-@ like network .\",\n \"The cap is attached to the stem at the top only — hanging from the top of the stipe , with the lobed edge free from the stem — and varies in color from yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown ; the underside of the cap is pale .\",\n \"The stem is 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 4 to 4 @.\",\n \"@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.\",\n \"@ 5 cm ( 0 @.\",\n \"@ 4 to 1 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) thick , cream @-@ white in color , and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top .\",\n \"Although the stem is initially loosely <unk> with <unk> hyphae , it eventually becomes hollow in maturity ; overall , the mushroom is rather fragile .\",\n \"The spore deposit is yellow , and the flesh is white .\",\n \"Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm .\",\n \"They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish .\",\n \"The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per <unk> are characteristic for this species .\",\n \"The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide .\",\n \"The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald <unk> determined that the asci are <unk> — they bend toward light .\",\n \"As he noted , \\\" I cut transverse sections though their <unk> , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the <unk> grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their <unk> must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . \\\"\",\n \"This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind .\",\n \"The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .\",\n \"= = = Edibility = = = \\n \\n The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals .\",\n \"Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species <unk> esculenta .\",\n \"The responsible <unk> in G. esculenta is <unk> ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the <unk> .\",\n \"Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma .\",\n \"Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to <unk> with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance .\",\n \"Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems .\",\n \"Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from \\\" strong but not on a par with true morels \\\" , to \\\" pleasant \\\" , to \\\" not distinctive \\\" .\",\n \"= = = Similar species = = = \\n \\n The closely related species Verpa <unk> typically has a smooth cap , although specimens with wrinkled caps are known .\",\n \"V. <unk> may be distinguished microscopically by its eight @-@ spored asci .\",\n \"Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica .\",\n \"Another similar group of species are the \\\" half @-@ free \\\" morels , Morchella semilibera and others , which have a <unk> cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length , and with ridges that are darker than the pits .\",\n \"Additionally , a cross @-@ <unk> stem of a specimen of M. semilibera is hollow , while V. bohemica usually has <unk> <unk> in the stem , and M. semilibera usually has vertical <unk> near the base , while V. bohemica lacks them .\",\n \"Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores .\",\n \"= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = = \\n \\n The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season .\",\n \"The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight .\",\n \"Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an <unk> of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .\",\n \"A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter .\",\n \"It has been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle .\",\n \"The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast .\",\n \"In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and has been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine .\",\n \"In Asia , it has been recorded from India and Turkey .\",\n \"A 10 @-@ year study of the distribution , time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring , appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees .\",\n \"<unk> @-@ head morels ( Morchella <unk> ) fruit next , followed by the yellow or white morels ( Morchella esculenta ) , then <unk> Morchella <unk> .\",\n \"The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding <unk> ( flies ) , including <unk> media , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":98,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Varanasi = \n \n Varanasi ( <unk> pronunciation : [ <unk> ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , or Kashi ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad .","The spiritual capital of India , it is the <unk> of the seven sacred cities ( <unk> Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism .","Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junction and Lal <unk> Shastri International Airport .","Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk <unk> , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture .","Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around <unk> BC when he gave his first sermon , \" The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma \" , at nearby <unk> .","The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi <unk> established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .","Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education .","<unk> Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram <unk> Manas in Varanasi .","Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas .","Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for <unk> in <unk> , a trip that played a large role in the founding of <unk> .","In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor <unk> who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and <unk> kings .","The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the <unk> in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 .","The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India <unk> <unk> , who won the <unk> <unk> elections in 2014 by a huge margin .","Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the <unk> <unk> Works and Bharat Heavy <unk> Limited .","Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .","Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges .","Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage .","The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions .","Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus <unk> their dead .","The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions .","Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple .","The Kashi Naresh ( <unk> of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations .","An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or have lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of <unk> classical music was developed .","One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) .","The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .","= = Etymology = = \n \n Traditional etymology links \" Varanasi \" to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city 's borders : Varuna , still flowing in northern Varanasi , and Assi , today a small stream in the southern part of the city , near Assi Ghat .","The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges , bounded by Varuna and Assi .","In the <unk> , an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns , the city is referred to as <unk> ( Kashi ) from the Sanskrit verbal root <unk> \" to shine \" , making Varanasi known as \" City of Light \" , the \" luminous city as an eminent seat of learning \" .","The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha 's days .","Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi , such as <unk> ( Sanskrit : \" the shining one \" ) , <unk> ( Sanskrit : \" never forsaken \" by Shiva ) , <unk> ( Sanskrit : the forest of <unk> ) , and <unk> ( Sanskrit : the place where <unk> / <unk> resides ) .","Over most of the last millennium , the city was known as Banaras .","In the 1950s , Indian government decided to return to the Sanskrit form Varanasi ; however , Banaras is still the predominant form used locally .","= = History = = \n \n According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva .","The <unk> , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of <unk> and <unk> that they had committed during the climactic <unk> War .","It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide <unk> ; <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> are the seven cities known as the <unk> of liberation .","= = = Archaeological evidence = = = \n \n Archaeological evidence of the earliest known settlements around Varanasi in the Ganges valley suggest that they began in the 20th century BC , placing it among the world 's oldest continually inhabited cities according to Kenneth Fletcher .","These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people .","However , the oldest known text referencing the city , the <unk> , which dates to approximately the same period , suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes .","It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered .","Recent excavations at <unk> and Ramnagar , two sites very near to Varanasi , show them to be from 1800 BC , suggesting Varanasi was also inhabited by this time .","= = = Ancient period = = = \n \n Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk <unk> , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture .","During the time of <unk> Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi .","The Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around <unk> BC when he gave his first sermon , \" The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma \" , at nearby <unk> .","The celebrated Chinese traveller <unk> , also known as <unk> <unk> , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.","@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges .","When <unk> , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it \" <unk> \" and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks .","The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi <unk> established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .","= = = Medieval period = = = \n \n <unk> , founder of the <unk> dynasty made Banaras a second capital in <unk> .","During the Birth Period , Varanasi was connected by a road starting from <unk> and ending at <unk> .","<unk> Shah ordered Hindu temples at Varanasi destroyed in <unk> .","Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education .","Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir who was born here in <unk> , and Ravidas , a 15th @-@ century socio @-@ religious reformer , mystic , poet , traveller , and spiritual figure , who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry .","= = = Modern history ( 1500 – present ) = = = \n \n Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia .","Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for <unk> in <unk> , a trip that played a large role in the founding of <unk> .","Varanasi experienced a Hindu cultural revival in the 16th century under the Muslim Mughal emperor <unk> , who invested in the city and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu .","The Raja of Pune established the Annapurna Mandir , and the 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) <unk> Bridge was also completed during this period .","The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century .","In 1665 , the French traveller Jean Baptiste <unk> described the architectural beauty of the <unk> <unk> temple on the side of the Ganges .","The road infrastructure was also improved during this period .","It was extended from Kolkata to <unk> by Emperor Sher Shah <unk> ; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road .","In 1656 , Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques , causing the city to experience a temporary setback .","However , after <unk> 's death , most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro @-@ Hindu kings .","Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time , especially during the 18th century by the Maratha and <unk> kings .","The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period , including the <unk> of Benares , or Kashi Naresh .","The Kingdom of Benares was given official status by the <unk> in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 , during the reign of Dr. <unk> Narayan Singh .","In the 18th century , Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges , attached to Man Mandir Ghat , designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables .","Tourism in the city began to <unk> in the 18th century .","In 1791 , under the rule of the British Governor @-@ General Warren Hastings , Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi .","In 1867 , the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city 's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services , drinking water supply and sanitation \n In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , \" Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . \"","In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself .","The religious head , Kashi Naresh , has had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a <unk> of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges .","The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .","In 1857 , the British Army committed a massacre of Indian troops and city residence during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 .","Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College , which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916 .","Besant founded the Central Hindu College because she wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of <unk> in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill @-@ will among different sections of the Indian population . \"","Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947 , and Dr. <unk> Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United <unk> in 1949 .","He died in 2000 .","The current king and the resident of the fort is <unk> Narayan Singh , since 1971 .","= = Geography and climate = = \n \n \n = = = Geography = = = \n \n Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80 @.","@ 71 metres ( 264 @.","@ 8 ft ) in the centre of the Ganges valley of North India , in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh , along the left crescent @-@ shaped bank of the Ganges , averaging between 15 metres ( 50 ft ) and 21 metres ( 70 ft ) above the river .","The city is the headquarters of Varanasi district .","By road , Varanasi is located <unk> kilometres ( 495 mi ) south @-@ east of New Delhi , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of Lucknow , 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad , and 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) south of <unk> .","The \" Varanasi Urban <unk> \" – an agglomeration of seven urban sub @-@ units – covers an area of 112 @.","@ 26 km 2 ( approximately 43 mi ² ) .","<unk> of the city include <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> Nagar , <unk> Nagar , Gopal <unk> , Guru Nanak Nagar , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Lanka <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and Sigra .","Being located in the Indo @-@ <unk> Plains of North India , the land is very fertile because low level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil .","Varanasi is located between the Ganges <unk> with two rivers : the Varuna and the Assi stream .","The distance between the two <unk> is around 2 miles ( 4 km ) , and serves as a sacred <unk> route for Hindus , which culminates with a visit to a <unk> <unk> Temple .","= = = Climate = = = \n \n Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification <unk> ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures .","The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October .","The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers .","Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights .","Cold waves from the <unk> region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon .","The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) .","<unk> is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called <unk> , blow in the summers .","In recent years , the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and <unk> glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .","= = Administration = = \n \n \n = = = Politics and law = = = \n \n Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies , the most important being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and the Varanasi Development Authority , which is responsible for the master planning of the city .","Water supply and sewage system is operated by the <unk> Nigam .","Varanasi is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India <unk> <unk> who won the <unk> <unk> elections in 2014 by a huge margin .","= = = Healthcare = = = \n \n <unk> , the great surgeon and author of the <unk> <unk> , the Sanskrit text of surgery , lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BC .","Since 1922 , Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established .","There are many Ayurvedic centres in Varanasi like <unk> Ayurvedic Centre which provide Ayurvedic treatments such as <unk> and other methods .","S S Ayurveda Hospital operates a <unk> treatment centre , in association with <unk> Ayurveda Ltd .","<unk> has several hospitals , including Heritage Hospital , <unk> Hospital , <unk> <unk> , Mata Anand Mai Hospital , <unk> Hospital , Ram Krishna Mission Hospital , <unk> Prasad Gupta Hospital , Pandit <unk> <unk> <unk> hospital ( managed by state <unk> . )","the largest & <unk> hospital is Sir <unk> Lal Hospital ( University Hospital ) having more 1150 beds & a separate trauma centre having 340 beds , and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre .","A separate cancer institute is also operated in Varanasi .","The Varanasi Hospital , established in 1964 by Dr. <unk> Prasad .","The hospital , which in 2012 had 66 beds , serves Varanasi and surrounding districts and states , many of which rely on it for surgery .","Although the hospital suffers from a lack of funding , it has facilities such as x @-@ ray , <unk> , <unk> and a pathology lab .","The urban portion of Varanasi District had an infant mortality rate of 70 per 1 @,@ 000 live births in 2010 – 2011 .","= = = Public maintenance = = = \n \n Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components .","<unk> of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself .","The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control .","Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .","Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals including toxic heavy metal .","Studies of wastewater from Varanasi 's sewage treatment plants identify that water 's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food .","One studied example is <unk> , a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil , and which people then eat .","Some of the <unk> sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser , which could make polluted water attractive to use .","<unk> used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water , to sewer treatment , then back to the farms as wastewater .","Varanasi 's water supply and sewage system is maintained by <unk> Nigam , a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam .","Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited .","The city produces about 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 92 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day of sewage and 425 tonnes ( <unk> long tons ; 468 short tons ) per day of solid waste .","The solid <unk> are disposed in one landfill site .","= = Demographics = = \n \n According to provisional data from the 2011 census , the Varanasi urban agglomeration had a population of 1 @,@ 435 @,@ 113 , with 761 @,@ 060 men and <unk> @,@ <unk> women .","The population of the Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ <unk> with a ratio of <unk> females every 1 @,@ 000 males .","However , the area under Varanasi Nagar Nigam has a population of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ <unk> with a ratio of 883 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males .","The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 77 % while that in the municipal corporation area is 78 % .","Approximately 138 @,@ 000 people in the municipal area live in slums .","7 \n \n = = Economy = = \n \n According to the 2006 City Development Plan for Varanasi , approximately 29 % of Varanasi 's population is employed .","Approximately 40 % are employed in manufacturing , 26 % work in trade and commerce , 19 % work in other services , 8 % work in transport and communication , 4 % work in agriculture , 2 % work in construction , and 2 % are marginal workers ( working for less than half of the year ) .","Among manufacturing workers , 51 % work in spinning and weaving , 15 % work in metal , 6 % work in printing and publishing , 5 % work in electrical machinery , and the rest work in a wide variety of industry sectors .","Varanasi 's manufacturing industry is not well developed and is dominated by small @-@ scale industries and household production .","Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi .","Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> .","Weaving is typically done within the household , and most <unk> are <unk> Ansari Muslims .","Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk and <unk> <unk> , <unk> with gold and silver thread work , which are often used for weddings and special occasions .","The production of silk often uses bonded child labour , though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India .","The silk weaving industry has recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer @-@ generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports .","In the metal manufacturing sector , <unk> <unk> Works is a major employer .","Bharat Heavy <unk> Limited , a large power equipment manufacturer , also operates a heavy equipment maintenance plant .","Other major commodities manufactured and traded in Varanasi include hand @-@ <unk> <unk> carpets , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , wooden and clay toys , <unk> , gold jewellery , and musical instruments .","Important agricultural products include <unk> leaves ( for <unk> ) , <unk> <unk> and <unk> ( solidified milk ) .","Tourism is Varanasi 's second most important industry .","Over 3 million domestic and 200 @,@ 000 foreign tourists visit annually ( in 2005 and 2010 , respectively ) , most commonly for religious purposes .","Most domestic tourists are from <unk> , West Bengal , <unk> Pradesh , and Uttar Pradesh , while the majority of foreign tourists are from Sri Lanka and Japan .","The peak tourist season falls between October and March .","In total , there are around 12 @,@ 000 beds available in the city , of which about one half are in inexpensive budget hotels and one third in <unk> .","Overall , Varanasi 's tourist infrastructure is not well developed .","The prominent malls and <unk> in Varanasi are <unk> Mall in the Varanasi <unk> area , IP Mall in Sigra , IP Vijaya Mall in <unk> , and PDR in <unk> .","The city has several banks , including the Allahabad Bank , Andhra Bank , Bank of <unk> , <unk> Bank , Central Bank of India , Corporation Bank , Indian Overseas Bank , and State Bank of India .","= = Notable landmarks = = \n \n Apart from the 19 archaeological sites identified by the Archaeological Survey of India , some of the prominent places of interest are the <unk> <unk> , the Alamgir Mosque , the <unk> <unk> , the Bharat Kala <unk> ( Art Museum ) , the Bharat Mata Temple , the Central University for <unk> Studies , the <unk> Temple , the Durga Temple , the Jantar Mantar , the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi <unk> , the New Vishwanath Temple on the BHU campus , the Ramnagar Fort , the <unk> Ghats , the Tulsi Manas Temple .","= = = Jantar Mantar = = = \n \n The Jantar Mantar observatory , constructed in 1737 , is located above the ghats along the Ganges , and is adjacent to the <unk> and <unk> Ghats and near the palace of Raja Jai Singh of <unk> .","While less equipped than the observatories at <unk> and Delhi , the Jantar Mantar has a unique equatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person .","= = = Ramnagar Fort = = = \n \n The Ramnagar Fort , located near the Ganges on its eastern bank and opposite the Tulsi Ghat , was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh Raja <unk> Singh with cream @-@ coloured <unk> sandstone .","The fort is a typical example of the Mughal architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions .","At present , the fort is in disrepair .","The fort and its museum are the <unk> of the history of the kings of Benares .","Cited as an \" eccentric \" museum , it contains a rare collection of American vintage cars , bejewelled <unk> chairs , an impressive weaponry hall , and a rare <unk> clock .","In addition , manuscripts , especially religious writings , are housed in the <unk> <unk> which is a part of a museum within the fort .","Many books illustrated in the Mughal miniature style are also part of the collections .","Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges , it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films .","= = = Ghats = = = \n \n The Ghats in Varanasi are world @-@ renowned embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions .","The ghats are an integral complement to the Hindu concept of divinity represented in physical , metaphysical , and supernatural elements .","Varanasi has at least 84 ghats , most of which are used for bathing by pilgrims and spiritually significant Hindu puja ceremony , while a few are used exclusively as Hindu cremation sites .","Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of Ganges , including the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , and the Harishchandra Ghat , where Hindus <unk> their dead .","Many ghats are associated with Hindu legends and several are now privately owned .","Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control .","Many ghats were constructed under the patronage of the <unk> , <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .","Most of the ghats are bathing ghats , while others are used as cremation sites .","A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular tourist attraction .","The extensive stretches of ghats in Varanasi enhance the <unk> with a multitude of shrines , temples , and palaces built \" tier on tier above the water 's edge \" .","The Dashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varanasi located on the Ganges , close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple .","It is believed that Brahma created this ghat to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during the Dasa @-@ <unk> <unk> performed there .","Above and adjacent to this ghat , there are also temples dedicated to <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Ganga ( the Ganges ) , and <unk> Devi , which are all important pilgrimage sites .","A group of priests perform \" Agni <unk> \" ( Sanskrit : \" Worship of Fire \" ) daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva , Ganga , Surya ( Sun ) , Agni ( Fire ) , and the entire universe .","Special <unk> are held on <unk> and on religious festivals .","The Manikarnika Ghat is the <unk> , the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city .","<unk> the ghat , there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals .","According to a myth it is said that an <unk> of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here .","Fourth @-@ century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat .","However , the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in <unk> and has been renovated at least three times throughout its existence .","The Jain Ghat or <unk> Ghat is a Jain Ghat and has three Jain Temples located on the banks of the River .","It is believed that the Jain <unk> used to own these <unk> Ghat has three Jain temples near the river 's banks and one them is a very ancient temple of <unk> <unk> .","= = = Temples = = = \n \n further information at Religion in Varanasi \n Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi , the temples most popular for worship are : the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva ; the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple ; and the Durga Temple , known for monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby .","The Kashi Vishwanath Temple , on the Ganges , is one of the 12 <unk> Shiva temples in Varanasi .","The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence .","The Gyanvapi Mosque , which is adjacent to the temple , is the original site of the temple .","The temple , which is also known as the Golden Temple , was built in <unk> by Queen <unk> <unk> of <unk> .","The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 by <unk> Singh , the ruler of Punjab .","The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh .","Numerous rituals , prayers , and <unk> are held daily at the temple between 02 : 30 and 23 : 00 .","The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , which is situated by the <unk> River , is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu god Hanuman .","The present temple was built in the early 1900s by the <unk> and Indian independence figure , Pandit <unk> Mohan <unk> , the founder of Banaras Hindu University .","According to Hindu legend the temple was built on the very spot where the medieval Hindu saint Tulsidas had a vision of Hanuman .","During a 7 March 2006 terrorist attack , one of three explosions hit the temple while a wedding was in progress , and resulted in injuries to 30 people apart from 23 deaths .","Following the attack , a permanent police post was installed inside the temple .","There are two temples named \" Durga \" in Varanasi : Durga Mandir built in the 16th century ( exact date not known ) , and Durga Kund ( Sanskrit ' <unk> ' meaning \" pond or pool \" ) built in the 18th century .","A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during <unk> to worship the goddess Durga .","The temple , built in the <unk> architectural style , has multi @-@ tiered <unk> and is stained red with <unk> , representing the red colour of Durga .","The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ( \" Kund \" meaning a pond or pool ) .","During annual celebrations of Nag <unk> , the act of depicting the god Vishnu <unk> on the serpent <unk> is recreated in the Kund .","While the Annapurna Temple , located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , is dedicated to Annapurna , the goddess of food , the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the <unk> Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha , the goddess of remedy .","The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to the nine planets .","Other temples of note are : the Bharat Mata Temple , dedicated to the national personification of India , which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 , the <unk> Temple , the <unk> <unk> Temple , and the New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of BHU , the Tulsi Manas Mandir .","Parshvanath Jain temple : The Parshvanath Jain temple , Varanasi is temple of Jain religion dedicated to Parshvanath , the 23rd <unk> who was born at <unk> in Varanasi .","The idol deified in the temple is of black colour and 75 cm in height .","It is located in <unk> about 5 km from the centre of Varanasi city and 3 km from the Benares Hindu University .","It belongs to the <unk> sect of Jainism and is a holy <unk> or pilgrimage centre for Jains \n \n = = = <unk> = = = \n \n There are 15 mosques of significant historical value in Varanasi .","Of particular note are the Abdul <unk> , Alamgir , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> and <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> .","Many of these mosques were constructed from the components of the Hindu shrines which were destroyed under the auspices of subsequent Muslim invaders or rulers .","The two well known mosques are the Gyanvapi Mosque and the <unk> Mosque .","The Gyanvapi Mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE , after destroying a Hindu temple .","<unk> <unk> ( Sanskrit : \" the well of knowledge \" ) , the name of the mosque , is derived from a well of the same name located within the precincts of the mosque .","The remains of an <unk> temple can be seen in the foundation , the columns and at the rear part of the mosque The façade of the mosque is modelled partially on the Taj <unk> 's entrance .","The mosque is administered by the <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) .","The <unk> Mosque was built in the 17th century by emperor Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple .","The Hindu temple that was destroyed was dedicated to Vishnu , and had been built by Beni <unk> Rao <unk> , a Maratha chieftain .","When emperor Aurangzeb had captured Banaras , he had ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there .","Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669 and named it as <unk> Mosque in the name of his own honorific title \" Alamgir \" which he had adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire .","The mosque is located at a prominent site above the Panchganga Ghat , which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges .","The mosque is <unk> a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture , particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque having been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple .","The mosque has high <unk> and <unk> .","Two of its <unk> had been damaged ; one <unk> crashed killing a few people and the other <unk> was officially brought down because of stability concerns .","Non @-@ Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque .","The mosque has a security cordon of a police force .","= = = <unk> Guru Ravidass <unk> <unk> = = = \n \n <unk> Guru Ravidass <unk> <unk> , at Seer <unk> is the ultimate place of pilgrimage or religious headquarters for followers of the <unk> religion .","The foundation stone of this Mandir was laid on 14 June 1965 on <unk> <unk> day at the birthplace of Guru Ravidass .","The temple was completed in 1994 .","= = Culture = = \n \n \n = = = Literature = = = \n \n Varanasi has its own culture of fine art and literature .","<unk> Indian writers who have resided in the city were Kabir , Ravidas , and Tulsidas , who wrote much of his Ram <unk> Manas here .","<unk> <unk> wrote the best known account of <unk> in Varanasi in the 15th century , Later writers of the city have included <unk> <unk> , Baldev <unk> , <unk> Harishchandra , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> Prasad <unk> , <unk> Prasad , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Ali , <unk> Prasad <unk> , <unk> Chandra <unk> , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> Shastri , and <unk> <unk> Mishra .","Several newspapers and journals are or were published in Varanasi such as Varanasi <unk> and its successor <unk> , which became a weekly journal , first published on 1 June 1851 .","The main newspaper is Aj , a Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper first published in 1920 .","The newspaper was the <unk> of the Indian National Congress and is still a major newspaper of Hindi northern India .","= = = Art = = = \n \n Varanasi is a major centre of arts and designs .","It is a producer of <unk> and <unk> with gold and silver thread work , carpet weaving , wooden toys , <unk> made of glass , ivory work , perfumes , artistic brass and copper ware and a variety of <unk> .","The former <unk> graveyard during the British Raj is now the location of Varanasi 's Arts and <unk> .","Artists ( musicians and dancers ) and historians of repute who belonged to this city were : Anand Krishna , <unk> Mishra , <unk> Khan , musicians <unk> Thakur , Ravi Shankar , <unk> Devi , Gopal Shankar <unk> , <unk> <unk> Maharaj , <unk> Maharaj , <unk> <unk> , N. <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Devi , <unk> Prasad , <unk> Devi , Thakur <unk> Singh , and Pandit <unk> Maharaj .","= = = Music = = = \n \n Varanasi ’ s music tradition is traced to the <unk> days .","According to ancient legend , Shiva is credited with evolving music and dance forms .","During the medieval era , Vaishnava , a <unk> movement , grew in popularity , and Varanasi became a thriving centre for musicians such as <unk> , Kabir , <unk> , <unk> and Tulsidas .","During the <unk> rule of <unk> Chandra in the 16th century , the Dhrupad style of singing received royal patronage and led to other related forms of music such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .","<unk> the Dhrupad <unk> Pandit <unk> <unk> from Varanasi is working for the revival of this art @-@ music .","In recent times , <unk> Devi , the native famous classical singer of <unk> , was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings .","Varanasi is also associated with many great <unk> such as <unk> <unk> Khan , Pandit <unk> Maharaj , and Pandit Ravi Shankar , the famous <unk> player and <unk> who was given the highest civilian award of the country , the Bharat <unk> .","Varanasi has joined the global <unk> of UNESCO \" Cities of Music \" under the Creative Cities Network .","Varanasi chosen in music category of creative cities network clearly signifies the rich musical heritage of this ancient city .","= = = Festivals = = = \n \n On <unk> ( February ) , a procession of Shiva proceeds from the <unk> Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple .","Dhrupad <unk> is a five @-@ day musical festival devoted to <unk> style held at Tulsi Ghat in February – March .","The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman <unk> ( March – April ) , the birthday of Hanuman .","A special puja , <unk> , and a public procession is organised .","Since 1923 , the temple has organised a five @-@ day classical music and dance concert festival named Sankat Mochan <unk> <unk> , when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform .","The <unk> of Ramnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama 's legend , as told in <unk> .","The plays , sponsored by Kashi Naresh , are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days .","On the last day , the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama <unk> the demon king Ravana .","Kashi Naresh <unk> Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830 .","Nag <unk> is celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik ( October – November ) .","It commemorates the victory of Krishna over the serpent <unk> .","On this occasion , a large <unk> tree ( <unk> <unk> ) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy , playing the role of Krishna , can jump into the river on to the effigy representing <unk> .","He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing the flute , while an audience watches from the banks of the river or from boats .","Bharat <unk> celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brother Bharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile .","It is celebrated during October – November , a day after the festival of <unk> .","Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire .","The festival attracts a large number of devotees .","Ganga <unk> is a five @-@ day music festival organised by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department , held in November – December .","It culminates a day before Kartik <unk> , also called the Ganges festival .","On this occasion the Ganges is attended by thousands of pilgrims , release <unk> lamps to float in the river from the ghats .","Every year , the primary Muslim festivals celebrated in the city are the <unk> @-@ ul @-@ <unk> ' ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> @-@ e @-@ <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> .","Additional festivals include <unk> and <unk> .","A non @-@ religious festival observed by Muslims is <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> ( \" the marriage of <unk> <unk> \" ) .","= = Education = = \n \n Historically , Varanasi has been a centre for education in India , attracting students and scholars from across the country .","Varanasi has an overall literacy rate of 80 % ( male literacy : 85 % , female literacy : 75 % ) .","It is home to a number of colleges and universities .","Most notably , it is the site of Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) , which is one of the largest residential universities in Asia with over 20 @,@ 000 students .","The Indian Institute of Technology , BHU is designated an Institute of National Importance and is one of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology .","Other colleges and universities in Varanasi include <unk> Arabic College , the Institute of Integrated Management and Technology ( <unk> ) , Mahatma Gandhi Kashi <unk> , <unk> <unk> Kala <unk> , <unk> Sanskrit University , Sri <unk> <unk> <unk> College , and <unk> <unk> <unk> College .","Various engineering colleges have been established in the outskirts of the city .","St. Joseph 's <unk> School , in <unk> , in Varanasi was established by the Sisters of Our Lady of Providence of France as a Catholic ( Christian ) minority institution with due approval of the Government of Uttar Pradesh .","It is an autonomous organisation under the Bishop of Varanasi Diocese .","It provides education not only to the Catholic Christian children but also to others who abide by its rules .","Another important institution is the Central Hindu School ( <unk> ) , Varanasi which was established by Annie Besant in July 1898 with the objective of <unk> secular education , is located in <unk> .","It is one of the reputed schools in the country and is also one of the largest such schools .","It is affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education ( <unk> ) It is open to students of all culture .","Schools in Varanasi are affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( <unk> ) , the <unk> , or the Uttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education ( <unk> Board ) .","The overall \" state of education in Varanasi is ... not good . \"","Schools in Varanasi vary widely in quality , with private schools <unk> government schools .","In government schools , many teachers fail to come to class or to teach children .","Some government schools lack basic equipment , such as <unk> and sufficient <unk> and chairs for all students .","Private schools vary in quality , with the most expensive conducting lessons in English ( seen as a key to children 's success ) and having computers in classrooms .","Pupils attending the more expensive private schools , tended to come from upper @-@ class families .","Lower @-@ cost private schools attracted children from lower @-@ income families or those lower @-@ income families with higher education aspirations .","Government schools tend to serve lower @-@ class children with lower education aspirations .","= = Sport = = \n \n Basketball , cricket , and field hockey are popular sports in Varanasi .","The main stadium in the city is the Sigra Stadium , also known as Dr <unk> Stadium , where first @-@ class cricket matches are held .","Local cricket matches are also played on the BHU Ground Dr. <unk> Rao sports complex .","The Physical Education Faculty of Arts of BHU offers <unk> courses in Sports Management , Sports <unk> , Sports Psychology and Sports <unk> .","<unk> is also popular in Varanasi , and many Indian girls practice outdoors at the ghats in the mornings which hosts <unk> , where \" morning exercise , a dip in the Ganges and a visit to Lord Hanuman \" forms a daily ritual .","Despite concerns regarding water quality , two swimming clubs offer swimming lessons in the Ganges .","The Varanasi District Chess Sports Association ( <unk> ) is based in Varanasi , affiliated to the regional Uttar Pradesh Chess Sports Association ( <unk> ) .","<unk> <unk> <unk> College is also known for its world class athletes like <unk> Singh .","= = Transport = = \n \n Varanasi is well @-@ connected by air , rail and road .","One of the major factors in Varanasi 's is its access to all parts of the country .","Within the city mobility is provided by taxis , rickshaws , cycle rickshaws and three <unk> but with certain restrictions in the old town area of the city .","Varanasi is served by Lal <unk> Shastri International Airport , which is approximately 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the city centre in <unk> .","The airport inaugurated a new terminal in 2010 , and it was granted international airport status on 4 October 2012 .","Air India , Buddha Air , Jet Airways , Jet <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> operate flights from Varanasi to Delhi , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Lucknow , Mumbai , Hyderabad , Bangalore , and Kolkata .","Over 330 @,@ 000 passengers pass through the airport each year .","Varanasi Junction , commonly known as Varanasi <unk> Railway Station , is the city 's largest train station .","More than 360 @,@ 000 passengers and 240 trains pass through each day .","Some of the important express trains operating from the Varanasi Junction railway station are : the <unk> Varanasi Express that runs between <unk> ( <unk> ) junction and Varanasi , a distance of 1 @,@ 398 kilometres ( <unk> mi ) ; the Kashi Vishwanath Express that runs between Varanasi and New Delhi Railway Station ; the Kanpur Varanasi <unk> express , also called Varuna express , which runs over a distance of 355 kilometres ( 221 mi ) and connects with Lucknow ( the capital city of Uttar Pradesh ) and Kanpur ; and the <unk> Express which runs between Varanasi and <unk> .","Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi .","National Highway 29 connects Varanasi to <unk> via <unk> to the northeast .","National Highway 56 connects Varanasi to Lucknow via <unk> and <unk> , to the northwest .","National Highway 7 , the longest National Highway in India , is the most important road connecting Varanasi to southern India , passing through the cities of Hyderabad , Bangalore , Salem , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .","Auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws are the most widely available forms of public transport in old city .","In the outer regions of the city , buses are common , and taxis are available .","= = Twin towns – Sister cities = = \n \n Varanasi is twinned with : \n <unk> , Japan"],"string":"[\n \" = Varanasi = \\n \\n Varanasi ( <unk> pronunciation : [ <unk> ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , or Kashi ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad .\",\n \"The spiritual capital of India , it is the <unk> of the seven sacred cities ( <unk> Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism .\",\n \"Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junction and Lal <unk> Shastri International Airport .\",\n \"Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk <unk> , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture .\",\n \"Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around <unk> BC when he gave his first sermon , \\\" The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma \\\" , at nearby <unk> .\",\n \"The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi <unk> established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .\",\n \"Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education .\",\n \"<unk> Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram <unk> Manas in Varanasi .\",\n \"Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas .\",\n \"Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for <unk> in <unk> , a trip that played a large role in the founding of <unk> .\",\n \"In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor <unk> who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and <unk> kings .\",\n \"The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the <unk> in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 .\",\n \"The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India <unk> <unk> , who won the <unk> <unk> elections in 2014 by a huge margin .\",\n \"Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the <unk> <unk> Works and Bharat Heavy <unk> Limited .\",\n \"Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .\",\n \"Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges .\",\n \"Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage .\",\n \"The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions .\",\n \"Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus <unk> their dead .\",\n \"The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions .\",\n \"Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple .\",\n \"The Kashi Naresh ( <unk> of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations .\",\n \"An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or have lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of <unk> classical music was developed .\",\n \"One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) .\",\n \"The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .\",\n \"= = Etymology = = \\n \\n Traditional etymology links \\\" Varanasi \\\" to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city 's borders : Varuna , still flowing in northern Varanasi , and Assi , today a small stream in the southern part of the city , near Assi Ghat .\",\n \"The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges , bounded by Varuna and Assi .\",\n \"In the <unk> , an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns , the city is referred to as <unk> ( Kashi ) from the Sanskrit verbal root <unk> \\\" to shine \\\" , making Varanasi known as \\\" City of Light \\\" , the \\\" luminous city as an eminent seat of learning \\\" .\",\n \"The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha 's days .\",\n \"Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi , such as <unk> ( Sanskrit : \\\" the shining one \\\" ) , <unk> ( Sanskrit : \\\" never forsaken \\\" by Shiva ) , <unk> ( Sanskrit : the forest of <unk> ) , and <unk> ( Sanskrit : the place where <unk> / <unk> resides ) .\",\n \"Over most of the last millennium , the city was known as Banaras .\",\n \"In the 1950s , Indian government decided to return to the Sanskrit form Varanasi ; however , Banaras is still the predominant form used locally .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva .\",\n \"The <unk> , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of <unk> and <unk> that they had committed during the climactic <unk> War .\",\n \"It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide <unk> ; <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> are the seven cities known as the <unk> of liberation .\",\n \"= = = Archaeological evidence = = = \\n \\n Archaeological evidence of the earliest known settlements around Varanasi in the Ganges valley suggest that they began in the 20th century BC , placing it among the world 's oldest continually inhabited cities according to Kenneth Fletcher .\",\n \"These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people .\",\n \"However , the oldest known text referencing the city , the <unk> , which dates to approximately the same period , suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes .\",\n \"It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered .\",\n \"Recent excavations at <unk> and Ramnagar , two sites very near to Varanasi , show them to be from 1800 BC , suggesting Varanasi was also inhabited by this time .\",\n \"= = = Ancient period = = = \\n \\n Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk <unk> , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture .\",\n \"During the time of <unk> Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi .\",\n \"The Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around <unk> BC when he gave his first sermon , \\\" The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma \\\" , at nearby <unk> .\",\n \"The celebrated Chinese traveller <unk> , also known as <unk> <unk> , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges .\",\n \"When <unk> , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it \\\" <unk> \\\" and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks .\",\n \"The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi <unk> established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .\",\n \"= = = Medieval period = = = \\n \\n <unk> , founder of the <unk> dynasty made Banaras a second capital in <unk> .\",\n \"During the Birth Period , Varanasi was connected by a road starting from <unk> and ending at <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> Shah ordered Hindu temples at Varanasi destroyed in <unk> .\",\n \"Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education .\",\n \"Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir who was born here in <unk> , and Ravidas , a 15th @-@ century socio @-@ religious reformer , mystic , poet , traveller , and spiritual figure , who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry .\",\n \"= = = Modern history ( 1500 – present ) = = = \\n \\n Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia .\",\n \"Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for <unk> in <unk> , a trip that played a large role in the founding of <unk> .\",\n \"Varanasi experienced a Hindu cultural revival in the 16th century under the Muslim Mughal emperor <unk> , who invested in the city and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu .\",\n \"The Raja of Pune established the Annapurna Mandir , and the 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) <unk> Bridge was also completed during this period .\",\n \"The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century .\",\n \"In 1665 , the French traveller Jean Baptiste <unk> described the architectural beauty of the <unk> <unk> temple on the side of the Ganges .\",\n \"The road infrastructure was also improved during this period .\",\n \"It was extended from Kolkata to <unk> by Emperor Sher Shah <unk> ; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road .\",\n \"In 1656 , Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques , causing the city to experience a temporary setback .\",\n \"However , after <unk> 's death , most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro @-@ Hindu kings .\",\n \"Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time , especially during the 18th century by the Maratha and <unk> kings .\",\n \"The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period , including the <unk> of Benares , or Kashi Naresh .\",\n \"The Kingdom of Benares was given official status by the <unk> in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 , during the reign of Dr. <unk> Narayan Singh .\",\n \"In the 18th century , Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges , attached to Man Mandir Ghat , designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables .\",\n \"Tourism in the city began to <unk> in the 18th century .\",\n \"In 1791 , under the rule of the British Governor @-@ General Warren Hastings , Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi .\",\n \"In 1867 , the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city 's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services , drinking water supply and sanitation \\n In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , \\\" Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . \\\"\",\n \"In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself .\",\n \"The religious head , Kashi Naresh , has had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a <unk> of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges .\",\n \"The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .\",\n \"In 1857 , the British Army committed a massacre of Indian troops and city residence during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 .\",\n \"Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College , which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916 .\",\n \"Besant founded the Central Hindu College because she wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of <unk> in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill @-@ will among different sections of the Indian population . \\\"\",\n \"Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947 , and Dr. <unk> Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United <unk> in 1949 .\",\n \"He died in 2000 .\",\n \"The current king and the resident of the fort is <unk> Narayan Singh , since 1971 .\",\n \"= = Geography and climate = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Geography = = = \\n \\n Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80 @.\",\n \"@ 71 metres ( 264 @.\",\n \"@ 8 ft ) in the centre of the Ganges valley of North India , in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh , along the left crescent @-@ shaped bank of the Ganges , averaging between 15 metres ( 50 ft ) and 21 metres ( 70 ft ) above the river .\",\n \"The city is the headquarters of Varanasi district .\",\n \"By road , Varanasi is located <unk> kilometres ( 495 mi ) south @-@ east of New Delhi , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of Lucknow , 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad , and 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) south of <unk> .\",\n \"The \\\" Varanasi Urban <unk> \\\" – an agglomeration of seven urban sub @-@ units – covers an area of 112 @.\",\n \"@ 26 km 2 ( approximately 43 mi ² ) .\",\n \"<unk> of the city include <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> Nagar , <unk> Nagar , Gopal <unk> , Guru Nanak Nagar , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Lanka <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and Sigra .\",\n \"Being located in the Indo @-@ <unk> Plains of North India , the land is very fertile because low level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil .\",\n \"Varanasi is located between the Ganges <unk> with two rivers : the Varuna and the Assi stream .\",\n \"The distance between the two <unk> is around 2 miles ( 4 km ) , and serves as a sacred <unk> route for Hindus , which culminates with a visit to a <unk> <unk> Temple .\",\n \"= = = Climate = = = \\n \\n Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification <unk> ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures .\",\n \"The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October .\",\n \"The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers .\",\n \"Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights .\",\n \"Cold waves from the <unk> region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon .\",\n \"The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) .\",\n \"<unk> is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called <unk> , blow in the summers .\",\n \"In recent years , the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and <unk> glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .\",\n \"= = Administration = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Politics and law = = = \\n \\n Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies , the most important being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and the Varanasi Development Authority , which is responsible for the master planning of the city .\",\n \"Water supply and sewage system is operated by the <unk> Nigam .\",\n \"Varanasi is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India <unk> <unk> who won the <unk> <unk> elections in 2014 by a huge margin .\",\n \"= = = Healthcare = = = \\n \\n <unk> , the great surgeon and author of the <unk> <unk> , the Sanskrit text of surgery , lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BC .\",\n \"Since 1922 , Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established .\",\n \"There are many Ayurvedic centres in Varanasi like <unk> Ayurvedic Centre which provide Ayurvedic treatments such as <unk> and other methods .\",\n \"S S Ayurveda Hospital operates a <unk> treatment centre , in association with <unk> Ayurveda Ltd .\",\n \"<unk> has several hospitals , including Heritage Hospital , <unk> Hospital , <unk> <unk> , Mata Anand Mai Hospital , <unk> Hospital , Ram Krishna Mission Hospital , <unk> Prasad Gupta Hospital , Pandit <unk> <unk> <unk> hospital ( managed by state <unk> . )\",\n \"the largest & <unk> hospital is Sir <unk> Lal Hospital ( University Hospital ) having more 1150 beds & a separate trauma centre having 340 beds , and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre .\",\n \"A separate cancer institute is also operated in Varanasi .\",\n \"The Varanasi Hospital , established in 1964 by Dr. <unk> Prasad .\",\n \"The hospital , which in 2012 had 66 beds , serves Varanasi and surrounding districts and states , many of which rely on it for surgery .\",\n \"Although the hospital suffers from a lack of funding , it has facilities such as x @-@ ray , <unk> , <unk> and a pathology lab .\",\n \"The urban portion of Varanasi District had an infant mortality rate of 70 per 1 @,@ 000 live births in 2010 – 2011 .\",\n \"= = = Public maintenance = = = \\n \\n Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components .\",\n \"<unk> of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself .\",\n \"The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control .\",\n \"Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .\",\n \"Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals including toxic heavy metal .\",\n \"Studies of wastewater from Varanasi 's sewage treatment plants identify that water 's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food .\",\n \"One studied example is <unk> , a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil , and which people then eat .\",\n \"Some of the <unk> sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser , which could make polluted water attractive to use .\",\n \"<unk> used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water , to sewer treatment , then back to the farms as wastewater .\",\n \"Varanasi 's water supply and sewage system is maintained by <unk> Nigam , a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam .\",\n \"Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited .\",\n \"The city produces about 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 92 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day of sewage and 425 tonnes ( <unk> long tons ; 468 short tons ) per day of solid waste .\",\n \"The solid <unk> are disposed in one landfill site .\",\n \"= = Demographics = = \\n \\n According to provisional data from the 2011 census , the Varanasi urban agglomeration had a population of 1 @,@ 435 @,@ 113 , with 761 @,@ 060 men and <unk> @,@ <unk> women .\",\n \"The population of the Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ <unk> with a ratio of <unk> females every 1 @,@ 000 males .\",\n \"However , the area under Varanasi Nagar Nigam has a population of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ <unk> with a ratio of 883 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males .\",\n \"The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 77 % while that in the municipal corporation area is 78 % .\",\n \"Approximately 138 @,@ 000 people in the municipal area live in slums .\",\n \"7 \\n \\n = = Economy = = \\n \\n According to the 2006 City Development Plan for Varanasi , approximately 29 % of Varanasi 's population is employed .\",\n \"Approximately 40 % are employed in manufacturing , 26 % work in trade and commerce , 19 % work in other services , 8 % work in transport and communication , 4 % work in agriculture , 2 % work in construction , and 2 % are marginal workers ( working for less than half of the year ) .\",\n \"Among manufacturing workers , 51 % work in spinning and weaving , 15 % work in metal , 6 % work in printing and publishing , 5 % work in electrical machinery , and the rest work in a wide variety of industry sectors .\",\n \"Varanasi 's manufacturing industry is not well developed and is dominated by small @-@ scale industries and household production .\",\n \"Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi .\",\n \"Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"Weaving is typically done within the household , and most <unk> are <unk> Ansari Muslims .\",\n \"Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk and <unk> <unk> , <unk> with gold and silver thread work , which are often used for weddings and special occasions .\",\n \"The production of silk often uses bonded child labour , though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India .\",\n \"The silk weaving industry has recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer @-@ generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports .\",\n \"In the metal manufacturing sector , <unk> <unk> Works is a major employer .\",\n \"Bharat Heavy <unk> Limited , a large power equipment manufacturer , also operates a heavy equipment maintenance plant .\",\n \"Other major commodities manufactured and traded in Varanasi include hand @-@ <unk> <unk> carpets , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , wooden and clay toys , <unk> , gold jewellery , and musical instruments .\",\n \"Important agricultural products include <unk> leaves ( for <unk> ) , <unk> <unk> and <unk> ( solidified milk ) .\",\n \"Tourism is Varanasi 's second most important industry .\",\n \"Over 3 million domestic and 200 @,@ 000 foreign tourists visit annually ( in 2005 and 2010 , respectively ) , most commonly for religious purposes .\",\n \"Most domestic tourists are from <unk> , West Bengal , <unk> Pradesh , and Uttar Pradesh , while the majority of foreign tourists are from Sri Lanka and Japan .\",\n \"The peak tourist season falls between October and March .\",\n \"In total , there are around 12 @,@ 000 beds available in the city , of which about one half are in inexpensive budget hotels and one third in <unk> .\",\n \"Overall , Varanasi 's tourist infrastructure is not well developed .\",\n \"The prominent malls and <unk> in Varanasi are <unk> Mall in the Varanasi <unk> area , IP Mall in Sigra , IP Vijaya Mall in <unk> , and PDR in <unk> .\",\n \"The city has several banks , including the Allahabad Bank , Andhra Bank , Bank of <unk> , <unk> Bank , Central Bank of India , Corporation Bank , Indian Overseas Bank , and State Bank of India .\",\n \"= = Notable landmarks = = \\n \\n Apart from the 19 archaeological sites identified by the Archaeological Survey of India , some of the prominent places of interest are the <unk> <unk> , the Alamgir Mosque , the <unk> <unk> , the Bharat Kala <unk> ( Art Museum ) , the Bharat Mata Temple , the Central University for <unk> Studies , the <unk> Temple , the Durga Temple , the Jantar Mantar , the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi <unk> , the New Vishwanath Temple on the BHU campus , the Ramnagar Fort , the <unk> Ghats , the Tulsi Manas Temple .\",\n \"= = = Jantar Mantar = = = \\n \\n The Jantar Mantar observatory , constructed in 1737 , is located above the ghats along the Ganges , and is adjacent to the <unk> and <unk> Ghats and near the palace of Raja Jai Singh of <unk> .\",\n \"While less equipped than the observatories at <unk> and Delhi , the Jantar Mantar has a unique equatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person .\",\n \"= = = Ramnagar Fort = = = \\n \\n The Ramnagar Fort , located near the Ganges on its eastern bank and opposite the Tulsi Ghat , was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh Raja <unk> Singh with cream @-@ coloured <unk> sandstone .\",\n \"The fort is a typical example of the Mughal architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions .\",\n \"At present , the fort is in disrepair .\",\n \"The fort and its museum are the <unk> of the history of the kings of Benares .\",\n \"Cited as an \\\" eccentric \\\" museum , it contains a rare collection of American vintage cars , bejewelled <unk> chairs , an impressive weaponry hall , and a rare <unk> clock .\",\n \"In addition , manuscripts , especially religious writings , are housed in the <unk> <unk> which is a part of a museum within the fort .\",\n \"Many books illustrated in the Mughal miniature style are also part of the collections .\",\n \"Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges , it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films .\",\n \"= = = Ghats = = = \\n \\n The Ghats in Varanasi are world @-@ renowned embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions .\",\n \"The ghats are an integral complement to the Hindu concept of divinity represented in physical , metaphysical , and supernatural elements .\",\n \"Varanasi has at least 84 ghats , most of which are used for bathing by pilgrims and spiritually significant Hindu puja ceremony , while a few are used exclusively as Hindu cremation sites .\",\n \"Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of Ganges , including the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , and the Harishchandra Ghat , where Hindus <unk> their dead .\",\n \"Many ghats are associated with Hindu legends and several are now privately owned .\",\n \"Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control .\",\n \"Many ghats were constructed under the patronage of the <unk> , <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"Most of the ghats are bathing ghats , while others are used as cremation sites .\",\n \"A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular tourist attraction .\",\n \"The extensive stretches of ghats in Varanasi enhance the <unk> with a multitude of shrines , temples , and palaces built \\\" tier on tier above the water 's edge \\\" .\",\n \"The Dashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varanasi located on the Ganges , close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple .\",\n \"It is believed that Brahma created this ghat to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during the Dasa @-@ <unk> <unk> performed there .\",\n \"Above and adjacent to this ghat , there are also temples dedicated to <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Ganga ( the Ganges ) , and <unk> Devi , which are all important pilgrimage sites .\",\n \"A group of priests perform \\\" Agni <unk> \\\" ( Sanskrit : \\\" Worship of Fire \\\" ) daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva , Ganga , Surya ( Sun ) , Agni ( Fire ) , and the entire universe .\",\n \"Special <unk> are held on <unk> and on religious festivals .\",\n \"The Manikarnika Ghat is the <unk> , the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city .\",\n \"<unk> the ghat , there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals .\",\n \"According to a myth it is said that an <unk> of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here .\",\n \"Fourth @-@ century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat .\",\n \"However , the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in <unk> and has been renovated at least three times throughout its existence .\",\n \"The Jain Ghat or <unk> Ghat is a Jain Ghat and has three Jain Temples located on the banks of the River .\",\n \"It is believed that the Jain <unk> used to own these <unk> Ghat has three Jain temples near the river 's banks and one them is a very ancient temple of <unk> <unk> .\",\n \"= = = Temples = = = \\n \\n further information at Religion in Varanasi \\n Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi , the temples most popular for worship are : the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva ; the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple ; and the Durga Temple , known for monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby .\",\n \"The Kashi Vishwanath Temple , on the Ganges , is one of the 12 <unk> Shiva temples in Varanasi .\",\n \"The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence .\",\n \"The Gyanvapi Mosque , which is adjacent to the temple , is the original site of the temple .\",\n \"The temple , which is also known as the Golden Temple , was built in <unk> by Queen <unk> <unk> of <unk> .\",\n \"The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 by <unk> Singh , the ruler of Punjab .\",\n \"The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh .\",\n \"Numerous rituals , prayers , and <unk> are held daily at the temple between 02 : 30 and 23 : 00 .\",\n \"The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , which is situated by the <unk> River , is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu god Hanuman .\",\n \"The present temple was built in the early 1900s by the <unk> and Indian independence figure , Pandit <unk> Mohan <unk> , the founder of Banaras Hindu University .\",\n \"According to Hindu legend the temple was built on the very spot where the medieval Hindu saint Tulsidas had a vision of Hanuman .\",\n \"During a 7 March 2006 terrorist attack , one of three explosions hit the temple while a wedding was in progress , and resulted in injuries to 30 people apart from 23 deaths .\",\n \"Following the attack , a permanent police post was installed inside the temple .\",\n \"There are two temples named \\\" Durga \\\" in Varanasi : Durga Mandir built in the 16th century ( exact date not known ) , and Durga Kund ( Sanskrit ' <unk> ' meaning \\\" pond or pool \\\" ) built in the 18th century .\",\n \"A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during <unk> to worship the goddess Durga .\",\n \"The temple , built in the <unk> architectural style , has multi @-@ tiered <unk> and is stained red with <unk> , representing the red colour of Durga .\",\n \"The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ( \\\" Kund \\\" meaning a pond or pool ) .\",\n \"During annual celebrations of Nag <unk> , the act of depicting the god Vishnu <unk> on the serpent <unk> is recreated in the Kund .\",\n \"While the Annapurna Temple , located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , is dedicated to Annapurna , the goddess of food , the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the <unk> Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha , the goddess of remedy .\",\n \"The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to the nine planets .\",\n \"Other temples of note are : the Bharat Mata Temple , dedicated to the national personification of India , which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 , the <unk> Temple , the <unk> <unk> Temple , and the New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of BHU , the Tulsi Manas Mandir .\",\n \"Parshvanath Jain temple : The Parshvanath Jain temple , Varanasi is temple of Jain religion dedicated to Parshvanath , the 23rd <unk> who was born at <unk> in Varanasi .\",\n \"The idol deified in the temple is of black colour and 75 cm in height .\",\n \"It is located in <unk> about 5 km from the centre of Varanasi city and 3 km from the Benares Hindu University .\",\n \"It belongs to the <unk> sect of Jainism and is a holy <unk> or pilgrimage centre for Jains \\n \\n = = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n There are 15 mosques of significant historical value in Varanasi .\",\n \"Of particular note are the Abdul <unk> , Alamgir , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> and <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> .\",\n \"Many of these mosques were constructed from the components of the Hindu shrines which were destroyed under the auspices of subsequent Muslim invaders or rulers .\",\n \"The two well known mosques are the Gyanvapi Mosque and the <unk> Mosque .\",\n \"The Gyanvapi Mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE , after destroying a Hindu temple .\",\n \"<unk> <unk> ( Sanskrit : \\\" the well of knowledge \\\" ) , the name of the mosque , is derived from a well of the same name located within the precincts of the mosque .\",\n \"The remains of an <unk> temple can be seen in the foundation , the columns and at the rear part of the mosque The façade of the mosque is modelled partially on the Taj <unk> 's entrance .\",\n \"The mosque is administered by the <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"The <unk> Mosque was built in the 17th century by emperor Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple .\",\n \"The Hindu temple that was destroyed was dedicated to Vishnu , and had been built by Beni <unk> Rao <unk> , a Maratha chieftain .\",\n \"When emperor Aurangzeb had captured Banaras , he had ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there .\",\n \"Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669 and named it as <unk> Mosque in the name of his own honorific title \\\" Alamgir \\\" which he had adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire .\",\n \"The mosque is located at a prominent site above the Panchganga Ghat , which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges .\",\n \"The mosque is <unk> a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture , particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque having been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple .\",\n \"The mosque has high <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"Two of its <unk> had been damaged ; one <unk> crashed killing a few people and the other <unk> was officially brought down because of stability concerns .\",\n \"Non @-@ Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque .\",\n \"The mosque has a security cordon of a police force .\",\n \"= = = <unk> Guru Ravidass <unk> <unk> = = = \\n \\n <unk> Guru Ravidass <unk> <unk> , at Seer <unk> is the ultimate place of pilgrimage or religious headquarters for followers of the <unk> religion .\",\n \"The foundation stone of this Mandir was laid on 14 June 1965 on <unk> <unk> day at the birthplace of Guru Ravidass .\",\n \"The temple was completed in 1994 .\",\n \"= = Culture = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Literature = = = \\n \\n Varanasi has its own culture of fine art and literature .\",\n \"<unk> Indian writers who have resided in the city were Kabir , Ravidas , and Tulsidas , who wrote much of his Ram <unk> Manas here .\",\n \"<unk> <unk> wrote the best known account of <unk> in Varanasi in the 15th century , Later writers of the city have included <unk> <unk> , Baldev <unk> , <unk> Harishchandra , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> Prasad <unk> , <unk> Prasad , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Ali , <unk> Prasad <unk> , <unk> Chandra <unk> , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> Shastri , and <unk> <unk> Mishra .\",\n \"Several newspapers and journals are or were published in Varanasi such as Varanasi <unk> and its successor <unk> , which became a weekly journal , first published on 1 June 1851 .\",\n \"The main newspaper is Aj , a Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper first published in 1920 .\",\n \"The newspaper was the <unk> of the Indian National Congress and is still a major newspaper of Hindi northern India .\",\n \"= = = Art = = = \\n \\n Varanasi is a major centre of arts and designs .\",\n \"It is a producer of <unk> and <unk> with gold and silver thread work , carpet weaving , wooden toys , <unk> made of glass , ivory work , perfumes , artistic brass and copper ware and a variety of <unk> .\",\n \"The former <unk> graveyard during the British Raj is now the location of Varanasi 's Arts and <unk> .\",\n \"Artists ( musicians and dancers ) and historians of repute who belonged to this city were : Anand Krishna , <unk> Mishra , <unk> Khan , musicians <unk> Thakur , Ravi Shankar , <unk> Devi , Gopal Shankar <unk> , <unk> <unk> Maharaj , <unk> Maharaj , <unk> <unk> , N. <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Devi , <unk> Prasad , <unk> Devi , Thakur <unk> Singh , and Pandit <unk> Maharaj .\",\n \"= = = Music = = = \\n \\n Varanasi ’ s music tradition is traced to the <unk> days .\",\n \"According to ancient legend , Shiva is credited with evolving music and dance forms .\",\n \"During the medieval era , Vaishnava , a <unk> movement , grew in popularity , and Varanasi became a thriving centre for musicians such as <unk> , Kabir , <unk> , <unk> and Tulsidas .\",\n \"During the <unk> rule of <unk> Chandra in the 16th century , the Dhrupad style of singing received royal patronage and led to other related forms of music such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> the Dhrupad <unk> Pandit <unk> <unk> from Varanasi is working for the revival of this art @-@ music .\",\n \"In recent times , <unk> Devi , the native famous classical singer of <unk> , was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings .\",\n \"Varanasi is also associated with many great <unk> such as <unk> <unk> Khan , Pandit <unk> Maharaj , and Pandit Ravi Shankar , the famous <unk> player and <unk> who was given the highest civilian award of the country , the Bharat <unk> .\",\n \"Varanasi has joined the global <unk> of UNESCO \\\" Cities of Music \\\" under the Creative Cities Network .\",\n \"Varanasi chosen in music category of creative cities network clearly signifies the rich musical heritage of this ancient city .\",\n \"= = = Festivals = = = \\n \\n On <unk> ( February ) , a procession of Shiva proceeds from the <unk> Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple .\",\n \"Dhrupad <unk> is a five @-@ day musical festival devoted to <unk> style held at Tulsi Ghat in February – March .\",\n \"The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman <unk> ( March – April ) , the birthday of Hanuman .\",\n \"A special puja , <unk> , and a public procession is organised .\",\n \"Since 1923 , the temple has organised a five @-@ day classical music and dance concert festival named Sankat Mochan <unk> <unk> , when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform .\",\n \"The <unk> of Ramnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama 's legend , as told in <unk> .\",\n \"The plays , sponsored by Kashi Naresh , are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days .\",\n \"On the last day , the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama <unk> the demon king Ravana .\",\n \"Kashi Naresh <unk> Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830 .\",\n \"Nag <unk> is celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik ( October – November ) .\",\n \"It commemorates the victory of Krishna over the serpent <unk> .\",\n \"On this occasion , a large <unk> tree ( <unk> <unk> ) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy , playing the role of Krishna , can jump into the river on to the effigy representing <unk> .\",\n \"He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing the flute , while an audience watches from the banks of the river or from boats .\",\n \"Bharat <unk> celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brother Bharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile .\",\n \"It is celebrated during October – November , a day after the festival of <unk> .\",\n \"Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire .\",\n \"The festival attracts a large number of devotees .\",\n \"Ganga <unk> is a five @-@ day music festival organised by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department , held in November – December .\",\n \"It culminates a day before Kartik <unk> , also called the Ganges festival .\",\n \"On this occasion the Ganges is attended by thousands of pilgrims , release <unk> lamps to float in the river from the ghats .\",\n \"Every year , the primary Muslim festivals celebrated in the city are the <unk> @-@ ul @-@ <unk> ' ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> @-@ e @-@ <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"Additional festivals include <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"A non @-@ religious festival observed by Muslims is <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> ( \\\" the marriage of <unk> <unk> \\\" ) .\",\n \"= = Education = = \\n \\n Historically , Varanasi has been a centre for education in India , attracting students and scholars from across the country .\",\n \"Varanasi has an overall literacy rate of 80 % ( male literacy : 85 % , female literacy : 75 % ) .\",\n \"It is home to a number of colleges and universities .\",\n \"Most notably , it is the site of Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) , which is one of the largest residential universities in Asia with over 20 @,@ 000 students .\",\n \"The Indian Institute of Technology , BHU is designated an Institute of National Importance and is one of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology .\",\n \"Other colleges and universities in Varanasi include <unk> Arabic College , the Institute of Integrated Management and Technology ( <unk> ) , Mahatma Gandhi Kashi <unk> , <unk> <unk> Kala <unk> , <unk> Sanskrit University , Sri <unk> <unk> <unk> College , and <unk> <unk> <unk> College .\",\n \"Various engineering colleges have been established in the outskirts of the city .\",\n \"St. Joseph 's <unk> School , in <unk> , in Varanasi was established by the Sisters of Our Lady of Providence of France as a Catholic ( Christian ) minority institution with due approval of the Government of Uttar Pradesh .\",\n \"It is an autonomous organisation under the Bishop of Varanasi Diocese .\",\n \"It provides education not only to the Catholic Christian children but also to others who abide by its rules .\",\n \"Another important institution is the Central Hindu School ( <unk> ) , Varanasi which was established by Annie Besant in July 1898 with the objective of <unk> secular education , is located in <unk> .\",\n \"It is one of the reputed schools in the country and is also one of the largest such schools .\",\n \"It is affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education ( <unk> ) It is open to students of all culture .\",\n \"Schools in Varanasi are affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( <unk> ) , the <unk> , or the Uttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education ( <unk> Board ) .\",\n \"The overall \\\" state of education in Varanasi is ... not good . \\\"\",\n \"Schools in Varanasi vary widely in quality , with private schools <unk> government schools .\",\n \"In government schools , many teachers fail to come to class or to teach children .\",\n \"Some government schools lack basic equipment , such as <unk> and sufficient <unk> and chairs for all students .\",\n \"Private schools vary in quality , with the most expensive conducting lessons in English ( seen as a key to children 's success ) and having computers in classrooms .\",\n \"Pupils attending the more expensive private schools , tended to come from upper @-@ class families .\",\n \"Lower @-@ cost private schools attracted children from lower @-@ income families or those lower @-@ income families with higher education aspirations .\",\n \"Government schools tend to serve lower @-@ class children with lower education aspirations .\",\n \"= = Sport = = \\n \\n Basketball , cricket , and field hockey are popular sports in Varanasi .\",\n \"The main stadium in the city is the Sigra Stadium , also known as Dr <unk> Stadium , where first @-@ class cricket matches are held .\",\n \"Local cricket matches are also played on the BHU Ground Dr. <unk> Rao sports complex .\",\n \"The Physical Education Faculty of Arts of BHU offers <unk> courses in Sports Management , Sports <unk> , Sports Psychology and Sports <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> is also popular in Varanasi , and many Indian girls practice outdoors at the ghats in the mornings which hosts <unk> , where \\\" morning exercise , a dip in the Ganges and a visit to Lord Hanuman \\\" forms a daily ritual .\",\n \"Despite concerns regarding water quality , two swimming clubs offer swimming lessons in the Ganges .\",\n \"The Varanasi District Chess Sports Association ( <unk> ) is based in Varanasi , affiliated to the regional Uttar Pradesh Chess Sports Association ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"<unk> <unk> <unk> College is also known for its world class athletes like <unk> Singh .\",\n \"= = Transport = = \\n \\n Varanasi is well @-@ connected by air , rail and road .\",\n \"One of the major factors in Varanasi 's is its access to all parts of the country .\",\n \"Within the city mobility is provided by taxis , rickshaws , cycle rickshaws and three <unk> but with certain restrictions in the old town area of the city .\",\n \"Varanasi is served by Lal <unk> Shastri International Airport , which is approximately 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the city centre in <unk> .\",\n \"The airport inaugurated a new terminal in 2010 , and it was granted international airport status on 4 October 2012 .\",\n \"Air India , Buddha Air , Jet Airways , Jet <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> operate flights from Varanasi to Delhi , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Lucknow , Mumbai , Hyderabad , Bangalore , and Kolkata .\",\n \"Over 330 @,@ 000 passengers pass through the airport each year .\",\n \"Varanasi Junction , commonly known as Varanasi <unk> Railway Station , is the city 's largest train station .\",\n \"More than 360 @,@ 000 passengers and 240 trains pass through each day .\",\n \"Some of the important express trains operating from the Varanasi Junction railway station are : the <unk> Varanasi Express that runs between <unk> ( <unk> ) junction and Varanasi , a distance of 1 @,@ 398 kilometres ( <unk> mi ) ; the Kashi Vishwanath Express that runs between Varanasi and New Delhi Railway Station ; the Kanpur Varanasi <unk> express , also called Varuna express , which runs over a distance of 355 kilometres ( 221 mi ) and connects with Lucknow ( the capital city of Uttar Pradesh ) and Kanpur ; and the <unk> Express which runs between Varanasi and <unk> .\",\n \"Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi .\",\n \"National Highway 29 connects Varanasi to <unk> via <unk> to the northeast .\",\n \"National Highway 56 connects Varanasi to Lucknow via <unk> and <unk> , to the northwest .\",\n \"National Highway 7 , the longest National Highway in India , is the most important road connecting Varanasi to southern India , passing through the cities of Hyderabad , Bangalore , Salem , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"Auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws are the most widely available forms of public transport in old city .\",\n \"In the outer regions of the city , buses are common , and taxis are available .\",\n \"= = Twin towns – Sister cities = = \\n \\n Varanasi is twinned with : \\n <unk> , Japan\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Varanasi = \n \n Varanasi ( <unk> pronunciation : [ <unk> ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , or Kashi ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad .","The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions .","The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions .","@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges .","@ 8 ft ) in the centre of the Ganges valley of North India , in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh , along the left crescent @-@ shaped bank of the Ganges , averaging between 15 metres ( 50 ft ) and 21 metres ( 70 ft ) above the river .","The city has several banks , including the Allahabad Bank , Andhra Bank , Bank of <unk> , <unk> Bank , Central Bank of India , Corporation Bank , Indian Overseas Bank , and State Bank of India .","= = = Ramnagar Fort = = = \n \n The Ramnagar Fort , located near the Ganges on its eastern bank and opposite the Tulsi Ghat , was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh Raja <unk> Singh with cream @-@ coloured <unk> sandstone .","Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges , it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films .","= = = Ghats = = = \n \n The Ghats in Varanasi are world @-@ renowned embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions .","Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of Ganges , including the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , and the Harishchandra Ghat , where Hindus <unk> their dead .","However , the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in <unk> and has been renovated at least three times throughout its existence .","The Jain Ghat or <unk> Ghat is a Jain Ghat and has three Jain Temples located on the banks of the River .","It is believed that the Jain <unk> used to own these <unk> Ghat has three Jain temples near the river 's banks and one them is a very ancient temple of <unk> <unk> .","On this occasion , a large <unk> tree ( <unk> <unk> ) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy , playing the role of Krishna , can jump into the river on to the effigy representing <unk> .","He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing the flute , while an audience watches from the banks of the river or from boats ."],"string":"[\n \" = Varanasi = \\n \\n Varanasi ( <unk> pronunciation : [ <unk> ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , or Kashi ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad .\",\n \"The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions .\",\n \"The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions .\",\n \"@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges .\",\n \"@ 8 ft ) in the centre of the Ganges valley of North India , in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh , along the left crescent @-@ shaped bank of the Ganges , averaging between 15 metres ( 50 ft ) and 21 metres ( 70 ft ) above the river .\",\n \"The city has several banks , including the Allahabad Bank , Andhra Bank , Bank of <unk> , <unk> Bank , Central Bank of India , Corporation Bank , Indian Overseas Bank , and State Bank of India .\",\n \"= = = Ramnagar Fort = = = \\n \\n The Ramnagar Fort , located near the Ganges on its eastern bank and opposite the Tulsi Ghat , was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh Raja <unk> Singh with cream @-@ coloured <unk> sandstone .\",\n \"Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges , it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films .\",\n \"= = = Ghats = = = \\n \\n The Ghats in Varanasi are world @-@ renowned embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions .\",\n \"Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of Ganges , including the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , and the Harishchandra Ghat , where Hindus <unk> their dead .\",\n \"However , the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in <unk> and has been renovated at least three times throughout its existence .\",\n \"The Jain Ghat or <unk> Ghat is a Jain Ghat and has three Jain Temples located on the banks of the River .\",\n \"It is believed that the Jain <unk> used to own these <unk> Ghat has three Jain temples near the river 's banks and one them is a very ancient temple of <unk> <unk> .\",\n \"On this occasion , a large <unk> tree ( <unk> <unk> ) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy , playing the role of Krishna , can jump into the river on to the effigy representing <unk> .\",\n \"He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing the flute , while an audience watches from the banks of the river or from boats .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["The spiritual capital of India , it is the <unk> of the seven sacred cities ( <unk> Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism .","Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junction and Lal <unk> Shastri International Airport .","Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk <unk> , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture .","Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around <unk> BC when he gave his first sermon , \" The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma \" , at nearby <unk> .","The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi <unk> established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .","Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education .","<unk> Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram <unk> Manas in Varanasi .","Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas .","Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for <unk> in <unk> , a trip that played a large role in the founding of <unk> .","In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor <unk> who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and <unk> kings .","The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the <unk> in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 .","The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India <unk> <unk> , who won the <unk> <unk> elections in 2014 by a huge margin .","Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the <unk> <unk> Works and Bharat Heavy <unk> Limited .","Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .","Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges .","Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage .","Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus <unk> their dead .","Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple .","The Kashi Naresh ( <unk> of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations .","An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or have lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of <unk> classical music was developed .","One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) .","The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .","= = Etymology = = \n \n Traditional etymology links \" Varanasi \" to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city 's borders : Varuna , still flowing in northern Varanasi , and Assi , today a small stream in the southern part of the city , near Assi Ghat .","The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges , bounded by Varuna and Assi .","In the <unk> , an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns , the city is referred to as <unk> ( Kashi ) from the Sanskrit verbal root <unk> \" to shine \" , making Varanasi known as \" City of Light \" , the \" luminous city as an eminent seat of learning \" .","The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha 's days .","Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi , such as <unk> ( Sanskrit : \" the shining one \" ) , <unk> ( Sanskrit : \" never forsaken \" by Shiva ) , <unk> ( Sanskrit : the forest of <unk> ) , and <unk> ( Sanskrit : the place where <unk> / <unk> resides ) .","Over most of the last millennium , the city was known as Banaras .","In the 1950s , Indian government decided to return to the Sanskrit form Varanasi ; however , Banaras is still the predominant form used locally .","= = History = = \n \n According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva .","The <unk> , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of <unk> and <unk> that they had committed during the climactic <unk> War .","It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide <unk> ; <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> are the seven cities known as the <unk> of liberation .","= = = Archaeological evidence = = = \n \n Archaeological evidence of the earliest known settlements around Varanasi in the Ganges valley suggest that they began in the 20th century BC , placing it among the world 's oldest continually inhabited cities according to Kenneth Fletcher .","These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people .","However , the oldest known text referencing the city , the <unk> , which dates to approximately the same period , suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes .","It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered .","Recent excavations at <unk> and Ramnagar , two sites very near to Varanasi , show them to be from 1800 BC , suggesting Varanasi was also inhabited by this time .","= = = Ancient period = = = \n \n Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk <unk> , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture .","During the time of <unk> Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi .","The Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around <unk> BC when he gave his first sermon , \" The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma \" , at nearby <unk> .","The celebrated Chinese traveller <unk> , also known as <unk> <unk> , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.","When <unk> , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it \" <unk> \" and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks .","The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi <unk> established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .","= = = Medieval period = = = \n \n <unk> , founder of the <unk> dynasty made Banaras a second capital in <unk> .","During the Birth Period , Varanasi was connected by a road starting from <unk> and ending at <unk> .","<unk> Shah ordered Hindu temples at Varanasi destroyed in <unk> .","Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education .","Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir who was born here in <unk> , and Ravidas , a 15th @-@ century socio @-@ religious reformer , mystic , poet , traveller , and spiritual figure , who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry .","= = = Modern history ( 1500 – present ) = = = \n \n Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia .","Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for <unk> in <unk> , a trip that played a large role in the founding of <unk> .","Varanasi experienced a Hindu cultural revival in the 16th century under the Muslim Mughal emperor <unk> , who invested in the city and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu .","The Raja of Pune established the Annapurna Mandir , and the 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) <unk> Bridge was also completed during this period .","The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century .","In 1665 , the French traveller Jean Baptiste <unk> described the architectural beauty of the <unk> <unk> temple on the side of the Ganges .","The road infrastructure was also improved during this period .","It was extended from Kolkata to <unk> by Emperor Sher Shah <unk> ; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road .","In 1656 , Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques , causing the city to experience a temporary setback .","However , after <unk> 's death , most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro @-@ Hindu kings .","Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time , especially during the 18th century by the Maratha and <unk> kings .","The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period , including the <unk> of Benares , or Kashi Naresh .","The Kingdom of Benares was given official status by the <unk> in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 , during the reign of Dr. <unk> Narayan Singh .","In the 18th century , Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges , attached to Man Mandir Ghat , designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables .","Tourism in the city began to <unk> in the 18th century .","In 1791 , under the rule of the British Governor @-@ General Warren Hastings , Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi .","In 1867 , the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city 's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services , drinking water supply and sanitation \n In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , \" Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . \"","In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself .","The religious head , Kashi Naresh , has had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a <unk> of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges .","The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .","In 1857 , the British Army committed a massacre of Indian troops and city residence during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 .","Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College , which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916 .","Besant founded the Central Hindu College because she wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of <unk> in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill @-@ will among different sections of the Indian population . \"","Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947 , and Dr. <unk> Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United <unk> in 1949 .","He died in 2000 .","The current king and the resident of the fort is <unk> Narayan Singh , since 1971 .","= = Geography and climate = = \n \n \n = = = Geography = = = \n \n Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80 @.","@ 71 metres ( 264 @.","The city is the headquarters of Varanasi district .","By road , Varanasi is located <unk> kilometres ( 495 mi ) south @-@ east of New Delhi , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of Lucknow , 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad , and 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) south of <unk> .","The \" Varanasi Urban <unk> \" – an agglomeration of seven urban sub @-@ units – covers an area of 112 @.","@ 26 km 2 ( approximately 43 mi ² ) .","<unk> of the city include <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> Nagar , <unk> Nagar , Gopal <unk> , Guru Nanak Nagar , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Lanka <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and Sigra .","Being located in the Indo @-@ <unk> Plains of North India , the land is very fertile because low level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil .","Varanasi is located between the Ganges <unk> with two rivers : the Varuna and the Assi stream .","The distance between the two <unk> is around 2 miles ( 4 km ) , and serves as a sacred <unk> route for Hindus , which culminates with a visit to a <unk> <unk> Temple .","= = = Climate = = = \n \n Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification <unk> ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures .","The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October .","The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers .","Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights .","Cold waves from the <unk> region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon .","The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) .","<unk> is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called <unk> , blow in the summers .","In recent years , the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and <unk> glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .","= = Administration = = \n \n \n = = = Politics and law = = = \n \n Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies , the most important being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and the Varanasi Development Authority , which is responsible for the master planning of the city .","Water supply and sewage system is operated by the <unk> Nigam .","Varanasi is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India <unk> <unk> who won the <unk> <unk> elections in 2014 by a huge margin .","= = = Healthcare = = = \n \n <unk> , the great surgeon and author of the <unk> <unk> , the Sanskrit text of surgery , lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BC .","Since 1922 , Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established .","There are many Ayurvedic centres in Varanasi like <unk> Ayurvedic Centre which provide Ayurvedic treatments such as <unk> and other methods .","S S Ayurveda Hospital operates a <unk> treatment centre , in association with <unk> Ayurveda Ltd .","<unk> has several hospitals , including Heritage Hospital , <unk> Hospital , <unk> <unk> , Mata Anand Mai Hospital , <unk> Hospital , Ram Krishna Mission Hospital , <unk> Prasad Gupta Hospital , Pandit <unk> <unk> <unk> hospital ( managed by state <unk> . )","the largest & <unk> hospital is Sir <unk> Lal Hospital ( University Hospital ) having more 1150 beds & a separate trauma centre having 340 beds , and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre .","A separate cancer institute is also operated in Varanasi .","The Varanasi Hospital , established in 1964 by Dr. <unk> Prasad .","The hospital , which in 2012 had 66 beds , serves Varanasi and surrounding districts and states , many of which rely on it for surgery .","Although the hospital suffers from a lack of funding , it has facilities such as x @-@ ray , <unk> , <unk> and a pathology lab .","The urban portion of Varanasi District had an infant mortality rate of 70 per 1 @,@ 000 live births in 2010 – 2011 .","= = = Public maintenance = = = \n \n Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components .","<unk> of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself .","The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control .","Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .","Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals including toxic heavy metal .","Studies of wastewater from Varanasi 's sewage treatment plants identify that water 's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food .","One studied example is <unk> , a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil , and which people then eat .","Some of the <unk> sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser , which could make polluted water attractive to use .","<unk> used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water , to sewer treatment , then back to the farms as wastewater .","Varanasi 's water supply and sewage system is maintained by <unk> Nigam , a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam .","Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited .","The city produces about 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 92 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day of sewage and 425 tonnes ( <unk> long tons ; 468 short tons ) per day of solid waste .","The solid <unk> are disposed in one landfill site .","= = Demographics = = \n \n According to provisional data from the 2011 census , the Varanasi urban agglomeration had a population of 1 @,@ 435 @,@ 113 , with 761 @,@ 060 men and <unk> @,@ <unk> women .","The population of the Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ <unk> with a ratio of <unk> females every 1 @,@ 000 males .","However , the area under Varanasi Nagar Nigam has a population of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ <unk> with a ratio of 883 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males .","The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 77 % while that in the municipal corporation area is 78 % .","Approximately 138 @,@ 000 people in the municipal area live in slums .","7 \n \n = = Economy = = \n \n According to the 2006 City Development Plan for Varanasi , approximately 29 % of Varanasi 's population is employed .","Approximately 40 % are employed in manufacturing , 26 % work in trade and commerce , 19 % work in other services , 8 % work in transport and communication , 4 % work in agriculture , 2 % work in construction , and 2 % are marginal workers ( working for less than half of the year ) .","Among manufacturing workers , 51 % work in spinning and weaving , 15 % work in metal , 6 % work in printing and publishing , 5 % work in electrical machinery , and the rest work in a wide variety of industry sectors .","Varanasi 's manufacturing industry is not well developed and is dominated by small @-@ scale industries and household production .","Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi .","Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> .","Weaving is typically done within the household , and most <unk> are <unk> Ansari Muslims .","Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk and <unk> <unk> , <unk> with gold and silver thread work , which are often used for weddings and special occasions .","The production of silk often uses bonded child labour , though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India .","The silk weaving industry has recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer @-@ generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports .","In the metal manufacturing sector , <unk> <unk> Works is a major employer .","Bharat Heavy <unk> Limited , a large power equipment manufacturer , also operates a heavy equipment maintenance plant .","Other major commodities manufactured and traded in Varanasi include hand @-@ <unk> <unk> carpets , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , wooden and clay toys , <unk> , gold jewellery , and musical instruments .","Important agricultural products include <unk> leaves ( for <unk> ) , <unk> <unk> and <unk> ( solidified milk ) .","Tourism is Varanasi 's second most important industry .","Over 3 million domestic and 200 @,@ 000 foreign tourists visit annually ( in 2005 and 2010 , respectively ) , most commonly for religious purposes .","Most domestic tourists are from <unk> , West Bengal , <unk> Pradesh , and Uttar Pradesh , while the majority of foreign tourists are from Sri Lanka and Japan .","The peak tourist season falls between October and March .","In total , there are around 12 @,@ 000 beds available in the city , of which about one half are in inexpensive budget hotels and one third in <unk> .","Overall , Varanasi 's tourist infrastructure is not well developed .","The prominent malls and <unk> in Varanasi are <unk> Mall in the Varanasi <unk> area , IP Mall in Sigra , IP Vijaya Mall in <unk> , and PDR in <unk> .","= = Notable landmarks = = \n \n Apart from the 19 archaeological sites identified by the Archaeological Survey of India , some of the prominent places of interest are the <unk> <unk> , the Alamgir Mosque , the <unk> <unk> , the Bharat Kala <unk> ( Art Museum ) , the Bharat Mata Temple , the Central University for <unk> Studies , the <unk> Temple , the Durga Temple , the Jantar Mantar , the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi <unk> , the New Vishwanath Temple on the BHU campus , the Ramnagar Fort , the <unk> Ghats , the Tulsi Manas Temple .","= = = Jantar Mantar = = = \n \n The Jantar Mantar observatory , constructed in 1737 , is located above the ghats along the Ganges , and is adjacent to the <unk> and <unk> Ghats and near the palace of Raja Jai Singh of <unk> .","While less equipped than the observatories at <unk> and Delhi , the Jantar Mantar has a unique equatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person .","The fort is a typical example of the Mughal architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions .","At present , the fort is in disrepair .","The fort and its museum are the <unk> of the history of the kings of Benares .","Cited as an \" eccentric \" museum , it contains a rare collection of American vintage cars , bejewelled <unk> chairs , an impressive weaponry hall , and a rare <unk> clock .","In addition , manuscripts , especially religious writings , are housed in the <unk> <unk> which is a part of a museum within the fort .","Many books illustrated in the Mughal miniature style are also part of the collections .","The ghats are an integral complement to the Hindu concept of divinity represented in physical , metaphysical , and supernatural elements .","Varanasi has at least 84 ghats , most of which are used for bathing by pilgrims and spiritually significant Hindu puja ceremony , while a few are used exclusively as Hindu cremation sites .","Many ghats are associated with Hindu legends and several are now privately owned .","Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control .","Many ghats were constructed under the patronage of the <unk> , <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .","Most of the ghats are bathing ghats , while others are used as cremation sites .","A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular tourist attraction .","The extensive stretches of ghats in Varanasi enhance the <unk> with a multitude of shrines , temples , and palaces built \" tier on tier above the water 's edge \" .","The Dashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varanasi located on the Ganges , close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple .","It is believed that Brahma created this ghat to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during the Dasa @-@ <unk> <unk> performed there .","Above and adjacent to this ghat , there are also temples dedicated to <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Ganga ( the Ganges ) , and <unk> Devi , which are all important pilgrimage sites .","A group of priests perform \" Agni <unk> \" ( Sanskrit : \" Worship of Fire \" ) daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva , Ganga , Surya ( Sun ) , Agni ( Fire ) , and the entire universe .","Special <unk> are held on <unk> and on religious festivals .","The Manikarnika Ghat is the <unk> , the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city .","<unk> the ghat , there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals .","According to a myth it is said that an <unk> of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here .","Fourth @-@ century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat .","= = = Temples = = = \n \n further information at Religion in Varanasi \n Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi , the temples most popular for worship are : the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva ; the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple ; and the Durga Temple , known for monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby .","The Kashi Vishwanath Temple , on the Ganges , is one of the 12 <unk> Shiva temples in Varanasi .","The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence .","The Gyanvapi Mosque , which is adjacent to the temple , is the original site of the temple .","The temple , which is also known as the Golden Temple , was built in <unk> by Queen <unk> <unk> of <unk> .","The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 by <unk> Singh , the ruler of Punjab .","The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh .","Numerous rituals , prayers , and <unk> are held daily at the temple between 02 : 30 and 23 : 00 .","The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , which is situated by the <unk> River , is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu god Hanuman .","The present temple was built in the early 1900s by the <unk> and Indian independence figure , Pandit <unk> Mohan <unk> , the founder of Banaras Hindu University .","According to Hindu legend the temple was built on the very spot where the medieval Hindu saint Tulsidas had a vision of Hanuman .","During a 7 March 2006 terrorist attack , one of three explosions hit the temple while a wedding was in progress , and resulted in injuries to 30 people apart from 23 deaths .","Following the attack , a permanent police post was installed inside the temple .","There are two temples named \" Durga \" in Varanasi : Durga Mandir built in the 16th century ( exact date not known ) , and Durga Kund ( Sanskrit ' <unk> ' meaning \" pond or pool \" ) built in the 18th century .","A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during <unk> to worship the goddess Durga .","The temple , built in the <unk> architectural style , has multi @-@ tiered <unk> and is stained red with <unk> , representing the red colour of Durga .","The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ( \" Kund \" meaning a pond or pool ) .","During annual celebrations of Nag <unk> , the act of depicting the god Vishnu <unk> on the serpent <unk> is recreated in the Kund .","While the Annapurna Temple , located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , is dedicated to Annapurna , the goddess of food , the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the <unk> Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha , the goddess of remedy .","The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to the nine planets .","Other temples of note are : the Bharat Mata Temple , dedicated to the national personification of India , which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 , the <unk> Temple , the <unk> <unk> Temple , and the New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of BHU , the Tulsi Manas Mandir .","Parshvanath Jain temple : The Parshvanath Jain temple , Varanasi is temple of Jain religion dedicated to Parshvanath , the 23rd <unk> who was born at <unk> in Varanasi .","The idol deified in the temple is of black colour and 75 cm in height .","It is located in <unk> about 5 km from the centre of Varanasi city and 3 km from the Benares Hindu University .","It belongs to the <unk> sect of Jainism and is a holy <unk> or pilgrimage centre for Jains \n \n = = = <unk> = = = \n \n There are 15 mosques of significant historical value in Varanasi .","Of particular note are the Abdul <unk> , Alamgir , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> and <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> .","Many of these mosques were constructed from the components of the Hindu shrines which were destroyed under the auspices of subsequent Muslim invaders or rulers .","The two well known mosques are the Gyanvapi Mosque and the <unk> Mosque .","The Gyanvapi Mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE , after destroying a Hindu temple .","<unk> <unk> ( Sanskrit : \" the well of knowledge \" ) , the name of the mosque , is derived from a well of the same name located within the precincts of the mosque .","The remains of an <unk> temple can be seen in the foundation , the columns and at the rear part of the mosque The façade of the mosque is modelled partially on the Taj <unk> 's entrance .","The mosque is administered by the <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) .","The <unk> Mosque was built in the 17th century by emperor Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple .","The Hindu temple that was destroyed was dedicated to Vishnu , and had been built by Beni <unk> Rao <unk> , a Maratha chieftain .","When emperor Aurangzeb had captured Banaras , he had ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there .","Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669 and named it as <unk> Mosque in the name of his own honorific title \" Alamgir \" which he had adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire .","The mosque is located at a prominent site above the Panchganga Ghat , which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges .","The mosque is <unk> a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture , particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque having been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple .","The mosque has high <unk> and <unk> .","Two of its <unk> had been damaged ; one <unk> crashed killing a few people and the other <unk> was officially brought down because of stability concerns .","Non @-@ Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque .","The mosque has a security cordon of a police force .","= = = <unk> Guru Ravidass <unk> <unk> = = = \n \n <unk> Guru Ravidass <unk> <unk> , at Seer <unk> is the ultimate place of pilgrimage or religious headquarters for followers of the <unk> religion .","The foundation stone of this Mandir was laid on 14 June 1965 on <unk> <unk> day at the birthplace of Guru Ravidass .","The temple was completed in 1994 .","= = Culture = = \n \n \n = = = Literature = = = \n \n Varanasi has its own culture of fine art and literature .","<unk> Indian writers who have resided in the city were Kabir , Ravidas , and Tulsidas , who wrote much of his Ram <unk> Manas here .","<unk> <unk> wrote the best known account of <unk> in Varanasi in the 15th century , Later writers of the city have included <unk> <unk> , Baldev <unk> , <unk> Harishchandra , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> Prasad <unk> , <unk> Prasad , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Ali , <unk> Prasad <unk> , <unk> Chandra <unk> , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> Shastri , and <unk> <unk> Mishra .","Several newspapers and journals are or were published in Varanasi such as Varanasi <unk> and its successor <unk> , which became a weekly journal , first published on 1 June 1851 .","The main newspaper is Aj , a Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper first published in 1920 .","The newspaper was the <unk> of the Indian National Congress and is still a major newspaper of Hindi northern India .","= = = Art = = = \n \n Varanasi is a major centre of arts and designs .","It is a producer of <unk> and <unk> with gold and silver thread work , carpet weaving , wooden toys , <unk> made of glass , ivory work , perfumes , artistic brass and copper ware and a variety of <unk> .","The former <unk> graveyard during the British Raj is now the location of Varanasi 's Arts and <unk> .","Artists ( musicians and dancers ) and historians of repute who belonged to this city were : Anand Krishna , <unk> Mishra , <unk> Khan , musicians <unk> Thakur , Ravi Shankar , <unk> Devi , Gopal Shankar <unk> , <unk> <unk> Maharaj , <unk> Maharaj , <unk> <unk> , N. <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Devi , <unk> Prasad , <unk> Devi , Thakur <unk> Singh , and Pandit <unk> Maharaj .","= = = Music = = = \n \n Varanasi ’ s music tradition is traced to the <unk> days .","According to ancient legend , Shiva is credited with evolving music and dance forms .","During the medieval era , Vaishnava , a <unk> movement , grew in popularity , and Varanasi became a thriving centre for musicians such as <unk> , Kabir , <unk> , <unk> and Tulsidas .","During the <unk> rule of <unk> Chandra in the 16th century , the Dhrupad style of singing received royal patronage and led to other related forms of music such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .","<unk> the Dhrupad <unk> Pandit <unk> <unk> from Varanasi is working for the revival of this art @-@ music .","In recent times , <unk> Devi , the native famous classical singer of <unk> , was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings .","Varanasi is also associated with many great <unk> such as <unk> <unk> Khan , Pandit <unk> Maharaj , and Pandit Ravi Shankar , the famous <unk> player and <unk> who was given the highest civilian award of the country , the Bharat <unk> .","Varanasi has joined the global <unk> of UNESCO \" Cities of Music \" under the Creative Cities Network .","Varanasi chosen in music category of creative cities network clearly signifies the rich musical heritage of this ancient city .","= = = Festivals = = = \n \n On <unk> ( February ) , a procession of Shiva proceeds from the <unk> Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple .","Dhrupad <unk> is a five @-@ day musical festival devoted to <unk> style held at Tulsi Ghat in February – March .","The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman <unk> ( March – April ) , the birthday of Hanuman .","A special puja , <unk> , and a public procession is organised .","Since 1923 , the temple has organised a five @-@ day classical music and dance concert festival named Sankat Mochan <unk> <unk> , when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform .","The <unk> of Ramnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama 's legend , as told in <unk> .","The plays , sponsored by Kashi Naresh , are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days .","On the last day , the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama <unk> the demon king Ravana .","Kashi Naresh <unk> Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830 .","Nag <unk> is celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik ( October – November ) .","It commemorates the victory of Krishna over the serpent <unk> .","Bharat <unk> celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brother Bharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile .","It is celebrated during October – November , a day after the festival of <unk> .","Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire .","The festival attracts a large number of devotees .","Ganga <unk> is a five @-@ day music festival organised by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department , held in November – December .","It culminates a day before Kartik <unk> , also called the Ganges festival .","On this occasion the Ganges is attended by thousands of pilgrims , release <unk> lamps to float in the river from the ghats .","Every year , the primary Muslim festivals celebrated in the city are the <unk> @-@ ul @-@ <unk> ' ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> @-@ e @-@ <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> .","Additional festivals include <unk> and <unk> .","A non @-@ religious festival observed by Muslims is <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> ( \" the marriage of <unk> <unk> \" ) .","= = Education = = \n \n Historically , Varanasi has been a centre for education in India , attracting students and scholars from across the country .","Varanasi has an overall literacy rate of 80 % ( male literacy : 85 % , female literacy : 75 % ) .","It is home to a number of colleges and universities .","Most notably , it is the site of Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) , which is one of the largest residential universities in Asia with over 20 @,@ 000 students .","The Indian Institute of Technology , BHU is designated an Institute of National Importance and is one of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology .","Other colleges and universities in Varanasi include <unk> Arabic College , the Institute of Integrated Management and Technology ( <unk> ) , Mahatma Gandhi Kashi <unk> , <unk> <unk> Kala <unk> , <unk> Sanskrit University , Sri <unk> <unk> <unk> College , and <unk> <unk> <unk> College .","Various engineering colleges have been established in the outskirts of the city .","St. Joseph 's <unk> School , in <unk> , in Varanasi was established by the Sisters of Our Lady of Providence of France as a Catholic ( Christian ) minority institution with due approval of the Government of Uttar Pradesh .","It is an autonomous organisation under the Bishop of Varanasi Diocese .","It provides education not only to the Catholic Christian children but also to others who abide by its rules .","Another important institution is the Central Hindu School ( <unk> ) , Varanasi which was established by Annie Besant in July 1898 with the objective of <unk> secular education , is located in <unk> .","It is one of the reputed schools in the country and is also one of the largest such schools .","It is affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education ( <unk> ) It is open to students of all culture .","Schools in Varanasi are affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( <unk> ) , the <unk> , or the Uttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education ( <unk> Board ) .","The overall \" state of education in Varanasi is ... not good . \"","Schools in Varanasi vary widely in quality , with private schools <unk> government schools .","In government schools , many teachers fail to come to class or to teach children .","Some government schools lack basic equipment , such as <unk> and sufficient <unk> and chairs for all students .","Private schools vary in quality , with the most expensive conducting lessons in English ( seen as a key to children 's success ) and having computers in classrooms .","Pupils attending the more expensive private schools , tended to come from upper @-@ class families .","Lower @-@ cost private schools attracted children from lower @-@ income families or those lower @-@ income families with higher education aspirations .","Government schools tend to serve lower @-@ class children with lower education aspirations .","= = Sport = = \n \n Basketball , cricket , and field hockey are popular sports in Varanasi .","The main stadium in the city is the Sigra Stadium , also known as Dr <unk> Stadium , where first @-@ class cricket matches are held .","Local cricket matches are also played on the BHU Ground Dr. <unk> Rao sports complex .","The Physical Education Faculty of Arts of BHU offers <unk> courses in Sports Management , Sports <unk> , Sports Psychology and Sports <unk> .","<unk> is also popular in Varanasi , and many Indian girls practice outdoors at the ghats in the mornings which hosts <unk> , where \" morning exercise , a dip in the Ganges and a visit to Lord Hanuman \" forms a daily ritual .","Despite concerns regarding water quality , two swimming clubs offer swimming lessons in the Ganges .","The Varanasi District Chess Sports Association ( <unk> ) is based in Varanasi , affiliated to the regional Uttar Pradesh Chess Sports Association ( <unk> ) .","<unk> <unk> <unk> College is also known for its world class athletes like <unk> Singh .","= = Transport = = \n \n Varanasi is well @-@ connected by air , rail and road .","One of the major factors in Varanasi 's is its access to all parts of the country .","Within the city mobility is provided by taxis , rickshaws , cycle rickshaws and three <unk> but with certain restrictions in the old town area of the city .","Varanasi is served by Lal <unk> Shastri International Airport , which is approximately 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the city centre in <unk> .","The airport inaugurated a new terminal in 2010 , and it was granted international airport status on 4 October 2012 .","Air India , Buddha Air , Jet Airways , Jet <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> operate flights from Varanasi to Delhi , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Lucknow , Mumbai , Hyderabad , Bangalore , and Kolkata .","Over 330 @,@ 000 passengers pass through the airport each year .","Varanasi Junction , commonly known as Varanasi <unk> Railway Station , is the city 's largest train station .","More than 360 @,@ 000 passengers and 240 trains pass through each day .","Some of the important express trains operating from the Varanasi Junction railway station are : the <unk> Varanasi Express that runs between <unk> ( <unk> ) junction and Varanasi , a distance of 1 @,@ 398 kilometres ( <unk> mi ) ; the Kashi Vishwanath Express that runs between Varanasi and New Delhi Railway Station ; the Kanpur Varanasi <unk> express , also called Varuna express , which runs over a distance of 355 kilometres ( 221 mi ) and connects with Lucknow ( the capital city of Uttar Pradesh ) and Kanpur ; and the <unk> Express which runs between Varanasi and <unk> .","Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi .","National Highway 29 connects Varanasi to <unk> via <unk> to the northeast .","National Highway 56 connects Varanasi to Lucknow via <unk> and <unk> , to the northwest .","National Highway 7 , the longest National Highway in India , is the most important road connecting Varanasi to southern India , passing through the cities of Hyderabad , Bangalore , Salem , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .","Auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws are the most widely available forms of public transport in old city .","In the outer regions of the city , buses are common , and taxis are available .","= = Twin towns – Sister cities = = \n \n Varanasi is twinned with : \n <unk> , Japan"],"string":"[\n \"The spiritual capital of India , it is the <unk> of the seven sacred cities ( <unk> Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism .\",\n \"Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junction and Lal <unk> Shastri International Airport .\",\n \"Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk <unk> , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture .\",\n \"Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around <unk> BC when he gave his first sermon , \\\" The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma \\\" , at nearby <unk> .\",\n \"The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi <unk> established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .\",\n \"Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education .\",\n \"<unk> Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram <unk> Manas in Varanasi .\",\n \"Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas .\",\n \"Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for <unk> in <unk> , a trip that played a large role in the founding of <unk> .\",\n \"In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor <unk> who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and <unk> kings .\",\n \"The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the <unk> in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 .\",\n \"The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India <unk> <unk> , who won the <unk> <unk> elections in 2014 by a huge margin .\",\n \"Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the <unk> <unk> Works and Bharat Heavy <unk> Limited .\",\n \"Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .\",\n \"Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges .\",\n \"Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage .\",\n \"Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus <unk> their dead .\",\n \"Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple .\",\n \"The Kashi Naresh ( <unk> of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations .\",\n \"An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or have lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of <unk> classical music was developed .\",\n \"One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) .\",\n \"The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .\",\n \"= = Etymology = = \\n \\n Traditional etymology links \\\" Varanasi \\\" to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city 's borders : Varuna , still flowing in northern Varanasi , and Assi , today a small stream in the southern part of the city , near Assi Ghat .\",\n \"The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges , bounded by Varuna and Assi .\",\n \"In the <unk> , an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns , the city is referred to as <unk> ( Kashi ) from the Sanskrit verbal root <unk> \\\" to shine \\\" , making Varanasi known as \\\" City of Light \\\" , the \\\" luminous city as an eminent seat of learning \\\" .\",\n \"The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha 's days .\",\n \"Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi , such as <unk> ( Sanskrit : \\\" the shining one \\\" ) , <unk> ( Sanskrit : \\\" never forsaken \\\" by Shiva ) , <unk> ( Sanskrit : the forest of <unk> ) , and <unk> ( Sanskrit : the place where <unk> / <unk> resides ) .\",\n \"Over most of the last millennium , the city was known as Banaras .\",\n \"In the 1950s , Indian government decided to return to the Sanskrit form Varanasi ; however , Banaras is still the predominant form used locally .\",\n \"= = History = = \\n \\n According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva .\",\n \"The <unk> , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of <unk> and <unk> that they had committed during the climactic <unk> War .\",\n \"It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide <unk> ; <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> are the seven cities known as the <unk> of liberation .\",\n \"= = = Archaeological evidence = = = \\n \\n Archaeological evidence of the earliest known settlements around Varanasi in the Ganges valley suggest that they began in the 20th century BC , placing it among the world 's oldest continually inhabited cities according to Kenneth Fletcher .\",\n \"These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people .\",\n \"However , the oldest known text referencing the city , the <unk> , which dates to approximately the same period , suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes .\",\n \"It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered .\",\n \"Recent excavations at <unk> and Ramnagar , two sites very near to Varanasi , show them to be from 1800 BC , suggesting Varanasi was also inhabited by this time .\",\n \"= = = Ancient period = = = \\n \\n Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk <unk> , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture .\",\n \"During the time of <unk> Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi .\",\n \"The Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around <unk> BC when he gave his first sermon , \\\" The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma \\\" , at nearby <unk> .\",\n \"The celebrated Chinese traveller <unk> , also known as <unk> <unk> , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.\",\n \"When <unk> , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it \\\" <unk> \\\" and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks .\",\n \"The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi <unk> established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .\",\n \"= = = Medieval period = = = \\n \\n <unk> , founder of the <unk> dynasty made Banaras a second capital in <unk> .\",\n \"During the Birth Period , Varanasi was connected by a road starting from <unk> and ending at <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> Shah ordered Hindu temples at Varanasi destroyed in <unk> .\",\n \"Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education .\",\n \"Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir who was born here in <unk> , and Ravidas , a 15th @-@ century socio @-@ religious reformer , mystic , poet , traveller , and spiritual figure , who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry .\",\n \"= = = Modern history ( 1500 – present ) = = = \\n \\n Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia .\",\n \"Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for <unk> in <unk> , a trip that played a large role in the founding of <unk> .\",\n \"Varanasi experienced a Hindu cultural revival in the 16th century under the Muslim Mughal emperor <unk> , who invested in the city and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu .\",\n \"The Raja of Pune established the Annapurna Mandir , and the 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) <unk> Bridge was also completed during this period .\",\n \"The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century .\",\n \"In 1665 , the French traveller Jean Baptiste <unk> described the architectural beauty of the <unk> <unk> temple on the side of the Ganges .\",\n \"The road infrastructure was also improved during this period .\",\n \"It was extended from Kolkata to <unk> by Emperor Sher Shah <unk> ; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road .\",\n \"In 1656 , Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques , causing the city to experience a temporary setback .\",\n \"However , after <unk> 's death , most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro @-@ Hindu kings .\",\n \"Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time , especially during the 18th century by the Maratha and <unk> kings .\",\n \"The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period , including the <unk> of Benares , or Kashi Naresh .\",\n \"The Kingdom of Benares was given official status by the <unk> in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 , during the reign of Dr. <unk> Narayan Singh .\",\n \"In the 18th century , Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges , attached to Man Mandir Ghat , designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables .\",\n \"Tourism in the city began to <unk> in the 18th century .\",\n \"In 1791 , under the rule of the British Governor @-@ General Warren Hastings , Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi .\",\n \"In 1867 , the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city 's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services , drinking water supply and sanitation \\n In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , \\\" Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . \\\"\",\n \"In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself .\",\n \"The religious head , Kashi Naresh , has had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a <unk> of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges .\",\n \"The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .\",\n \"In 1857 , the British Army committed a massacre of Indian troops and city residence during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 .\",\n \"Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College , which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916 .\",\n \"Besant founded the Central Hindu College because she wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of <unk> in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill @-@ will among different sections of the Indian population . \\\"\",\n \"Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947 , and Dr. <unk> Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United <unk> in 1949 .\",\n \"He died in 2000 .\",\n \"The current king and the resident of the fort is <unk> Narayan Singh , since 1971 .\",\n \"= = Geography and climate = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Geography = = = \\n \\n Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80 @.\",\n \"@ 71 metres ( 264 @.\",\n \"The city is the headquarters of Varanasi district .\",\n \"By road , Varanasi is located <unk> kilometres ( 495 mi ) south @-@ east of New Delhi , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of Lucknow , 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad , and 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) south of <unk> .\",\n \"The \\\" Varanasi Urban <unk> \\\" – an agglomeration of seven urban sub @-@ units – covers an area of 112 @.\",\n \"@ 26 km 2 ( approximately 43 mi ² ) .\",\n \"<unk> of the city include <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> Nagar , <unk> Nagar , Gopal <unk> , Guru Nanak Nagar , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Lanka <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and Sigra .\",\n \"Being located in the Indo @-@ <unk> Plains of North India , the land is very fertile because low level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil .\",\n \"Varanasi is located between the Ganges <unk> with two rivers : the Varuna and the Assi stream .\",\n \"The distance between the two <unk> is around 2 miles ( 4 km ) , and serves as a sacred <unk> route for Hindus , which culminates with a visit to a <unk> <unk> Temple .\",\n \"= = = Climate = = = \\n \\n Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification <unk> ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures .\",\n \"The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October .\",\n \"The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers .\",\n \"Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights .\",\n \"Cold waves from the <unk> region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon .\",\n \"The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) .\",\n \"<unk> is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called <unk> , blow in the summers .\",\n \"In recent years , the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and <unk> glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .\",\n \"= = Administration = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Politics and law = = = \\n \\n Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies , the most important being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and the Varanasi Development Authority , which is responsible for the master planning of the city .\",\n \"Water supply and sewage system is operated by the <unk> Nigam .\",\n \"Varanasi is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India <unk> <unk> who won the <unk> <unk> elections in 2014 by a huge margin .\",\n \"= = = Healthcare = = = \\n \\n <unk> , the great surgeon and author of the <unk> <unk> , the Sanskrit text of surgery , lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BC .\",\n \"Since 1922 , Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established .\",\n \"There are many Ayurvedic centres in Varanasi like <unk> Ayurvedic Centre which provide Ayurvedic treatments such as <unk> and other methods .\",\n \"S S Ayurveda Hospital operates a <unk> treatment centre , in association with <unk> Ayurveda Ltd .\",\n \"<unk> has several hospitals , including Heritage Hospital , <unk> Hospital , <unk> <unk> , Mata Anand Mai Hospital , <unk> Hospital , Ram Krishna Mission Hospital , <unk> Prasad Gupta Hospital , Pandit <unk> <unk> <unk> hospital ( managed by state <unk> . )\",\n \"the largest & <unk> hospital is Sir <unk> Lal Hospital ( University Hospital ) having more 1150 beds & a separate trauma centre having 340 beds , and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre .\",\n \"A separate cancer institute is also operated in Varanasi .\",\n \"The Varanasi Hospital , established in 1964 by Dr. <unk> Prasad .\",\n \"The hospital , which in 2012 had 66 beds , serves Varanasi and surrounding districts and states , many of which rely on it for surgery .\",\n \"Although the hospital suffers from a lack of funding , it has facilities such as x @-@ ray , <unk> , <unk> and a pathology lab .\",\n \"The urban portion of Varanasi District had an infant mortality rate of 70 per 1 @,@ 000 live births in 2010 – 2011 .\",\n \"= = = Public maintenance = = = \\n \\n Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components .\",\n \"<unk> of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself .\",\n \"The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control .\",\n \"Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .\",\n \"Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals including toxic heavy metal .\",\n \"Studies of wastewater from Varanasi 's sewage treatment plants identify that water 's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food .\",\n \"One studied example is <unk> , a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil , and which people then eat .\",\n \"Some of the <unk> sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser , which could make polluted water attractive to use .\",\n \"<unk> used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water , to sewer treatment , then back to the farms as wastewater .\",\n \"Varanasi 's water supply and sewage system is maintained by <unk> Nigam , a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam .\",\n \"Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited .\",\n \"The city produces about 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 92 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day of sewage and 425 tonnes ( <unk> long tons ; 468 short tons ) per day of solid waste .\",\n \"The solid <unk> are disposed in one landfill site .\",\n \"= = Demographics = = \\n \\n According to provisional data from the 2011 census , the Varanasi urban agglomeration had a population of 1 @,@ 435 @,@ 113 , with 761 @,@ 060 men and <unk> @,@ <unk> women .\",\n \"The population of the Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ <unk> with a ratio of <unk> females every 1 @,@ 000 males .\",\n \"However , the area under Varanasi Nagar Nigam has a population of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ <unk> with a ratio of 883 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males .\",\n \"The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 77 % while that in the municipal corporation area is 78 % .\",\n \"Approximately 138 @,@ 000 people in the municipal area live in slums .\",\n \"7 \\n \\n = = Economy = = \\n \\n According to the 2006 City Development Plan for Varanasi , approximately 29 % of Varanasi 's population is employed .\",\n \"Approximately 40 % are employed in manufacturing , 26 % work in trade and commerce , 19 % work in other services , 8 % work in transport and communication , 4 % work in agriculture , 2 % work in construction , and 2 % are marginal workers ( working for less than half of the year ) .\",\n \"Among manufacturing workers , 51 % work in spinning and weaving , 15 % work in metal , 6 % work in printing and publishing , 5 % work in electrical machinery , and the rest work in a wide variety of industry sectors .\",\n \"Varanasi 's manufacturing industry is not well developed and is dominated by small @-@ scale industries and household production .\",\n \"Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi .\",\n \"Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"Weaving is typically done within the household , and most <unk> are <unk> Ansari Muslims .\",\n \"Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk and <unk> <unk> , <unk> with gold and silver thread work , which are often used for weddings and special occasions .\",\n \"The production of silk often uses bonded child labour , though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India .\",\n \"The silk weaving industry has recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer @-@ generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports .\",\n \"In the metal manufacturing sector , <unk> <unk> Works is a major employer .\",\n \"Bharat Heavy <unk> Limited , a large power equipment manufacturer , also operates a heavy equipment maintenance plant .\",\n \"Other major commodities manufactured and traded in Varanasi include hand @-@ <unk> <unk> carpets , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , wooden and clay toys , <unk> , gold jewellery , and musical instruments .\",\n \"Important agricultural products include <unk> leaves ( for <unk> ) , <unk> <unk> and <unk> ( solidified milk ) .\",\n \"Tourism is Varanasi 's second most important industry .\",\n \"Over 3 million domestic and 200 @,@ 000 foreign tourists visit annually ( in 2005 and 2010 , respectively ) , most commonly for religious purposes .\",\n \"Most domestic tourists are from <unk> , West Bengal , <unk> Pradesh , and Uttar Pradesh , while the majority of foreign tourists are from Sri Lanka and Japan .\",\n \"The peak tourist season falls between October and March .\",\n \"In total , there are around 12 @,@ 000 beds available in the city , of which about one half are in inexpensive budget hotels and one third in <unk> .\",\n \"Overall , Varanasi 's tourist infrastructure is not well developed .\",\n \"The prominent malls and <unk> in Varanasi are <unk> Mall in the Varanasi <unk> area , IP Mall in Sigra , IP Vijaya Mall in <unk> , and PDR in <unk> .\",\n \"= = Notable landmarks = = \\n \\n Apart from the 19 archaeological sites identified by the Archaeological Survey of India , some of the prominent places of interest are the <unk> <unk> , the Alamgir Mosque , the <unk> <unk> , the Bharat Kala <unk> ( Art Museum ) , the Bharat Mata Temple , the Central University for <unk> Studies , the <unk> Temple , the Durga Temple , the Jantar Mantar , the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi <unk> , the New Vishwanath Temple on the BHU campus , the Ramnagar Fort , the <unk> Ghats , the Tulsi Manas Temple .\",\n \"= = = Jantar Mantar = = = \\n \\n The Jantar Mantar observatory , constructed in 1737 , is located above the ghats along the Ganges , and is adjacent to the <unk> and <unk> Ghats and near the palace of Raja Jai Singh of <unk> .\",\n \"While less equipped than the observatories at <unk> and Delhi , the Jantar Mantar has a unique equatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person .\",\n \"The fort is a typical example of the Mughal architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions .\",\n \"At present , the fort is in disrepair .\",\n \"The fort and its museum are the <unk> of the history of the kings of Benares .\",\n \"Cited as an \\\" eccentric \\\" museum , it contains a rare collection of American vintage cars , bejewelled <unk> chairs , an impressive weaponry hall , and a rare <unk> clock .\",\n \"In addition , manuscripts , especially religious writings , are housed in the <unk> <unk> which is a part of a museum within the fort .\",\n \"Many books illustrated in the Mughal miniature style are also part of the collections .\",\n \"The ghats are an integral complement to the Hindu concept of divinity represented in physical , metaphysical , and supernatural elements .\",\n \"Varanasi has at least 84 ghats , most of which are used for bathing by pilgrims and spiritually significant Hindu puja ceremony , while a few are used exclusively as Hindu cremation sites .\",\n \"Many ghats are associated with Hindu legends and several are now privately owned .\",\n \"Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control .\",\n \"Many ghats were constructed under the patronage of the <unk> , <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"Most of the ghats are bathing ghats , while others are used as cremation sites .\",\n \"A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular tourist attraction .\",\n \"The extensive stretches of ghats in Varanasi enhance the <unk> with a multitude of shrines , temples , and palaces built \\\" tier on tier above the water 's edge \\\" .\",\n \"The Dashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varanasi located on the Ganges , close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple .\",\n \"It is believed that Brahma created this ghat to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during the Dasa @-@ <unk> <unk> performed there .\",\n \"Above and adjacent to this ghat , there are also temples dedicated to <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Ganga ( the Ganges ) , and <unk> Devi , which are all important pilgrimage sites .\",\n \"A group of priests perform \\\" Agni <unk> \\\" ( Sanskrit : \\\" Worship of Fire \\\" ) daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva , Ganga , Surya ( Sun ) , Agni ( Fire ) , and the entire universe .\",\n \"Special <unk> are held on <unk> and on religious festivals .\",\n \"The Manikarnika Ghat is the <unk> , the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city .\",\n \"<unk> the ghat , there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals .\",\n \"According to a myth it is said that an <unk> of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here .\",\n \"Fourth @-@ century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat .\",\n \"= = = Temples = = = \\n \\n further information at Religion in Varanasi \\n Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi , the temples most popular for worship are : the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva ; the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple ; and the Durga Temple , known for monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby .\",\n \"The Kashi Vishwanath Temple , on the Ganges , is one of the 12 <unk> Shiva temples in Varanasi .\",\n \"The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence .\",\n \"The Gyanvapi Mosque , which is adjacent to the temple , is the original site of the temple .\",\n \"The temple , which is also known as the Golden Temple , was built in <unk> by Queen <unk> <unk> of <unk> .\",\n \"The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 by <unk> Singh , the ruler of Punjab .\",\n \"The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh .\",\n \"Numerous rituals , prayers , and <unk> are held daily at the temple between 02 : 30 and 23 : 00 .\",\n \"The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , which is situated by the <unk> River , is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu god Hanuman .\",\n \"The present temple was built in the early 1900s by the <unk> and Indian independence figure , Pandit <unk> Mohan <unk> , the founder of Banaras Hindu University .\",\n \"According to Hindu legend the temple was built on the very spot where the medieval Hindu saint Tulsidas had a vision of Hanuman .\",\n \"During a 7 March 2006 terrorist attack , one of three explosions hit the temple while a wedding was in progress , and resulted in injuries to 30 people apart from 23 deaths .\",\n \"Following the attack , a permanent police post was installed inside the temple .\",\n \"There are two temples named \\\" Durga \\\" in Varanasi : Durga Mandir built in the 16th century ( exact date not known ) , and Durga Kund ( Sanskrit ' <unk> ' meaning \\\" pond or pool \\\" ) built in the 18th century .\",\n \"A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during <unk> to worship the goddess Durga .\",\n \"The temple , built in the <unk> architectural style , has multi @-@ tiered <unk> and is stained red with <unk> , representing the red colour of Durga .\",\n \"The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ( \\\" Kund \\\" meaning a pond or pool ) .\",\n \"During annual celebrations of Nag <unk> , the act of depicting the god Vishnu <unk> on the serpent <unk> is recreated in the Kund .\",\n \"While the Annapurna Temple , located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , is dedicated to Annapurna , the goddess of food , the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the <unk> Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha , the goddess of remedy .\",\n \"The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to the nine planets .\",\n \"Other temples of note are : the Bharat Mata Temple , dedicated to the national personification of India , which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 , the <unk> Temple , the <unk> <unk> Temple , and the New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of BHU , the Tulsi Manas Mandir .\",\n \"Parshvanath Jain temple : The Parshvanath Jain temple , Varanasi is temple of Jain religion dedicated to Parshvanath , the 23rd <unk> who was born at <unk> in Varanasi .\",\n \"The idol deified in the temple is of black colour and 75 cm in height .\",\n \"It is located in <unk> about 5 km from the centre of Varanasi city and 3 km from the Benares Hindu University .\",\n \"It belongs to the <unk> sect of Jainism and is a holy <unk> or pilgrimage centre for Jains \\n \\n = = = <unk> = = = \\n \\n There are 15 mosques of significant historical value in Varanasi .\",\n \"Of particular note are the Abdul <unk> , Alamgir , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> and <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> .\",\n \"Many of these mosques were constructed from the components of the Hindu shrines which were destroyed under the auspices of subsequent Muslim invaders or rulers .\",\n \"The two well known mosques are the Gyanvapi Mosque and the <unk> Mosque .\",\n \"The Gyanvapi Mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE , after destroying a Hindu temple .\",\n \"<unk> <unk> ( Sanskrit : \\\" the well of knowledge \\\" ) , the name of the mosque , is derived from a well of the same name located within the precincts of the mosque .\",\n \"The remains of an <unk> temple can be seen in the foundation , the columns and at the rear part of the mosque The façade of the mosque is modelled partially on the Taj <unk> 's entrance .\",\n \"The mosque is administered by the <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"The <unk> Mosque was built in the 17th century by emperor Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple .\",\n \"The Hindu temple that was destroyed was dedicated to Vishnu , and had been built by Beni <unk> Rao <unk> , a Maratha chieftain .\",\n \"When emperor Aurangzeb had captured Banaras , he had ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there .\",\n \"Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669 and named it as <unk> Mosque in the name of his own honorific title \\\" Alamgir \\\" which he had adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire .\",\n \"The mosque is located at a prominent site above the Panchganga Ghat , which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges .\",\n \"The mosque is <unk> a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture , particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque having been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple .\",\n \"The mosque has high <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"Two of its <unk> had been damaged ; one <unk> crashed killing a few people and the other <unk> was officially brought down because of stability concerns .\",\n \"Non @-@ Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque .\",\n \"The mosque has a security cordon of a police force .\",\n \"= = = <unk> Guru Ravidass <unk> <unk> = = = \\n \\n <unk> Guru Ravidass <unk> <unk> , at Seer <unk> is the ultimate place of pilgrimage or religious headquarters for followers of the <unk> religion .\",\n \"The foundation stone of this Mandir was laid on 14 June 1965 on <unk> <unk> day at the birthplace of Guru Ravidass .\",\n \"The temple was completed in 1994 .\",\n \"= = Culture = = \\n \\n \\n = = = Literature = = = \\n \\n Varanasi has its own culture of fine art and literature .\",\n \"<unk> Indian writers who have resided in the city were Kabir , Ravidas , and Tulsidas , who wrote much of his Ram <unk> Manas here .\",\n \"<unk> <unk> wrote the best known account of <unk> in Varanasi in the 15th century , Later writers of the city have included <unk> <unk> , Baldev <unk> , <unk> Harishchandra , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> Prasad <unk> , <unk> Prasad , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Ali , <unk> Prasad <unk> , <unk> Chandra <unk> , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> Shastri , and <unk> <unk> Mishra .\",\n \"Several newspapers and journals are or were published in Varanasi such as Varanasi <unk> and its successor <unk> , which became a weekly journal , first published on 1 June 1851 .\",\n \"The main newspaper is Aj , a Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper first published in 1920 .\",\n \"The newspaper was the <unk> of the Indian National Congress and is still a major newspaper of Hindi northern India .\",\n \"= = = Art = = = \\n \\n Varanasi is a major centre of arts and designs .\",\n \"It is a producer of <unk> and <unk> with gold and silver thread work , carpet weaving , wooden toys , <unk> made of glass , ivory work , perfumes , artistic brass and copper ware and a variety of <unk> .\",\n \"The former <unk> graveyard during the British Raj is now the location of Varanasi 's Arts and <unk> .\",\n \"Artists ( musicians and dancers ) and historians of repute who belonged to this city were : Anand Krishna , <unk> Mishra , <unk> Khan , musicians <unk> Thakur , Ravi Shankar , <unk> Devi , Gopal Shankar <unk> , <unk> <unk> Maharaj , <unk> Maharaj , <unk> <unk> , N. <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Devi , <unk> Prasad , <unk> Devi , Thakur <unk> Singh , and Pandit <unk> Maharaj .\",\n \"= = = Music = = = \\n \\n Varanasi ’ s music tradition is traced to the <unk> days .\",\n \"According to ancient legend , Shiva is credited with evolving music and dance forms .\",\n \"During the medieval era , Vaishnava , a <unk> movement , grew in popularity , and Varanasi became a thriving centre for musicians such as <unk> , Kabir , <unk> , <unk> and Tulsidas .\",\n \"During the <unk> rule of <unk> Chandra in the 16th century , the Dhrupad style of singing received royal patronage and led to other related forms of music such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> the Dhrupad <unk> Pandit <unk> <unk> from Varanasi is working for the revival of this art @-@ music .\",\n \"In recent times , <unk> Devi , the native famous classical singer of <unk> , was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings .\",\n \"Varanasi is also associated with many great <unk> such as <unk> <unk> Khan , Pandit <unk> Maharaj , and Pandit Ravi Shankar , the famous <unk> player and <unk> who was given the highest civilian award of the country , the Bharat <unk> .\",\n \"Varanasi has joined the global <unk> of UNESCO \\\" Cities of Music \\\" under the Creative Cities Network .\",\n \"Varanasi chosen in music category of creative cities network clearly signifies the rich musical heritage of this ancient city .\",\n \"= = = Festivals = = = \\n \\n On <unk> ( February ) , a procession of Shiva proceeds from the <unk> Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple .\",\n \"Dhrupad <unk> is a five @-@ day musical festival devoted to <unk> style held at Tulsi Ghat in February – March .\",\n \"The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman <unk> ( March – April ) , the birthday of Hanuman .\",\n \"A special puja , <unk> , and a public procession is organised .\",\n \"Since 1923 , the temple has organised a five @-@ day classical music and dance concert festival named Sankat Mochan <unk> <unk> , when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform .\",\n \"The <unk> of Ramnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama 's legend , as told in <unk> .\",\n \"The plays , sponsored by Kashi Naresh , are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days .\",\n \"On the last day , the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama <unk> the demon king Ravana .\",\n \"Kashi Naresh <unk> Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830 .\",\n \"Nag <unk> is celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik ( October – November ) .\",\n \"It commemorates the victory of Krishna over the serpent <unk> .\",\n \"Bharat <unk> celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brother Bharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile .\",\n \"It is celebrated during October – November , a day after the festival of <unk> .\",\n \"Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire .\",\n \"The festival attracts a large number of devotees .\",\n \"Ganga <unk> is a five @-@ day music festival organised by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department , held in November – December .\",\n \"It culminates a day before Kartik <unk> , also called the Ganges festival .\",\n \"On this occasion the Ganges is attended by thousands of pilgrims , release <unk> lamps to float in the river from the ghats .\",\n \"Every year , the primary Muslim festivals celebrated in the city are the <unk> @-@ ul @-@ <unk> ' ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> @-@ e @-@ <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"Additional festivals include <unk> and <unk> .\",\n \"A non @-@ religious festival observed by Muslims is <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> ( \\\" the marriage of <unk> <unk> \\\" ) .\",\n \"= = Education = = \\n \\n Historically , Varanasi has been a centre for education in India , attracting students and scholars from across the country .\",\n \"Varanasi has an overall literacy rate of 80 % ( male literacy : 85 % , female literacy : 75 % ) .\",\n \"It is home to a number of colleges and universities .\",\n \"Most notably , it is the site of Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) , which is one of the largest residential universities in Asia with over 20 @,@ 000 students .\",\n \"The Indian Institute of Technology , BHU is designated an Institute of National Importance and is one of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology .\",\n \"Other colleges and universities in Varanasi include <unk> Arabic College , the Institute of Integrated Management and Technology ( <unk> ) , Mahatma Gandhi Kashi <unk> , <unk> <unk> Kala <unk> , <unk> Sanskrit University , Sri <unk> <unk> <unk> College , and <unk> <unk> <unk> College .\",\n \"Various engineering colleges have been established in the outskirts of the city .\",\n \"St. Joseph 's <unk> School , in <unk> , in Varanasi was established by the Sisters of Our Lady of Providence of France as a Catholic ( Christian ) minority institution with due approval of the Government of Uttar Pradesh .\",\n \"It is an autonomous organisation under the Bishop of Varanasi Diocese .\",\n \"It provides education not only to the Catholic Christian children but also to others who abide by its rules .\",\n \"Another important institution is the Central Hindu School ( <unk> ) , Varanasi which was established by Annie Besant in July 1898 with the objective of <unk> secular education , is located in <unk> .\",\n \"It is one of the reputed schools in the country and is also one of the largest such schools .\",\n \"It is affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education ( <unk> ) It is open to students of all culture .\",\n \"Schools in Varanasi are affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( <unk> ) , the <unk> , or the Uttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education ( <unk> Board ) .\",\n \"The overall \\\" state of education in Varanasi is ... not good . \\\"\",\n \"Schools in Varanasi vary widely in quality , with private schools <unk> government schools .\",\n \"In government schools , many teachers fail to come to class or to teach children .\",\n \"Some government schools lack basic equipment , such as <unk> and sufficient <unk> and chairs for all students .\",\n \"Private schools vary in quality , with the most expensive conducting lessons in English ( seen as a key to children 's success ) and having computers in classrooms .\",\n \"Pupils attending the more expensive private schools , tended to come from upper @-@ class families .\",\n \"Lower @-@ cost private schools attracted children from lower @-@ income families or those lower @-@ income families with higher education aspirations .\",\n \"Government schools tend to serve lower @-@ class children with lower education aspirations .\",\n \"= = Sport = = \\n \\n Basketball , cricket , and field hockey are popular sports in Varanasi .\",\n \"The main stadium in the city is the Sigra Stadium , also known as Dr <unk> Stadium , where first @-@ class cricket matches are held .\",\n \"Local cricket matches are also played on the BHU Ground Dr. <unk> Rao sports complex .\",\n \"The Physical Education Faculty of Arts of BHU offers <unk> courses in Sports Management , Sports <unk> , Sports Psychology and Sports <unk> .\",\n \"<unk> is also popular in Varanasi , and many Indian girls practice outdoors at the ghats in the mornings which hosts <unk> , where \\\" morning exercise , a dip in the Ganges and a visit to Lord Hanuman \\\" forms a daily ritual .\",\n \"Despite concerns regarding water quality , two swimming clubs offer swimming lessons in the Ganges .\",\n \"The Varanasi District Chess Sports Association ( <unk> ) is based in Varanasi , affiliated to the regional Uttar Pradesh Chess Sports Association ( <unk> ) .\",\n \"<unk> <unk> <unk> College is also known for its world class athletes like <unk> Singh .\",\n \"= = Transport = = \\n \\n Varanasi is well @-@ connected by air , rail and road .\",\n \"One of the major factors in Varanasi 's is its access to all parts of the country .\",\n \"Within the city mobility is provided by taxis , rickshaws , cycle rickshaws and three <unk> but with certain restrictions in the old town area of the city .\",\n \"Varanasi is served by Lal <unk> Shastri International Airport , which is approximately 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the city centre in <unk> .\",\n \"The airport inaugurated a new terminal in 2010 , and it was granted international airport status on 4 October 2012 .\",\n \"Air India , Buddha Air , Jet Airways , Jet <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> operate flights from Varanasi to Delhi , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Lucknow , Mumbai , Hyderabad , Bangalore , and Kolkata .\",\n \"Over 330 @,@ 000 passengers pass through the airport each year .\",\n \"Varanasi Junction , commonly known as Varanasi <unk> Railway Station , is the city 's largest train station .\",\n \"More than 360 @,@ 000 passengers and 240 trains pass through each day .\",\n \"Some of the important express trains operating from the Varanasi Junction railway station are : the <unk> Varanasi Express that runs between <unk> ( <unk> ) junction and Varanasi , a distance of 1 @,@ 398 kilometres ( <unk> mi ) ; the Kashi Vishwanath Express that runs between Varanasi and New Delhi Railway Station ; the Kanpur Varanasi <unk> express , also called Varuna express , which runs over a distance of 355 kilometres ( 221 mi ) and connects with Lucknow ( the capital city of Uttar Pradesh ) and Kanpur ; and the <unk> Express which runs between Varanasi and <unk> .\",\n \"Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi .\",\n \"National Highway 29 connects Varanasi to <unk> via <unk> to the northeast .\",\n \"National Highway 56 connects Varanasi to Lucknow via <unk> and <unk> , to the northwest .\",\n \"National Highway 7 , the longest National Highway in India , is the most important road connecting Varanasi to southern India , passing through the cities of Hyderabad , Bangalore , Salem , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> .\",\n \"Auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws are the most widely available forms of public transport in old city .\",\n \"In the outer regions of the city , buses are common , and taxis are available .\",\n \"= = Twin towns – Sister cities = = \\n \\n Varanasi is twinned with : \\n <unk> , Japan\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":99,"cells":{"sentences":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Cyclone Herbie = \n \n Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record .","The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the <unk> Islands on 17 May .","The following day , the system was classified as a tropical low by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and intensified into a Category 1 cyclone later that day .","Several hours after this upgrade , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) .","Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified Herbie as Tropical Storm <unk> .","On 19 May , the cyclone formed a new low pressure center and relocated roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south .","Shortly thereafter , the storm began to accelerate towards the southeast and started to undergo an extratropical transition .","Early on 21 May , Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay before losing its identity the following day over the Great Australian Bight .","Although a weak storm , Herbie brought flooding rains and severe dust storms to portions of Western Australia .","Additionally , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter broke in half amidst rough seas produced by the storm .","Total losses from the storm reached A $ 20 million ( $ 15 @.","@ 6 million USD ) .","Due to the significant damage wrought by Herbie , the name was retired following its use .","= = Meteorological history = = \n \n Tropical Cyclone Herbie originated from an area of low pressure on 17 May 1988 northwest of the <unk> Islands .","Later that day , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring the system as a tropical low .","Several hours after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression <unk> , having attained winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .","Following slight development , the system intensified into a Category 1 cyclone and was given the name Herbie by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology early on 18 May .","Several hours after being named , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 990 hPa ( mbar ) .","Around the same time , the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm , estimating the cyclone to have attained peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .","On 19 May , satellite imagery of the system depicted that a new low pressure centre had developed roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south of the original low .","Several hours after the relocation , the JTWC downgraded Herbie to a tropical depression as the system 's movement began to accelerate towards the southeast .","As the storm moved at a rapid speed towards the coastline of Western Australia , it began to undergo an extratropical transition .","During a 24 @-@ hour period ( 20 – 21 May ) Herbie tracked roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) , with the movement of the storm reaching 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) at times .","Late on 20 May , the JTWC ceased advisories on the system as it weakened below tropical depression status offshore .","However , the Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor the system .","Early on 21 May , the center of Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay with wind gusts up to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and a pressure of 980 hPa ( mbar ) .","Due to the rapid movement of the storm , it reached the Great Australian Bight while retaining tropical characteristics despite its low @-@ latitude .","Early on 22 May , the system lost its identity south of Australia as an extratropical cyclone .","= = Impact = = \n \n Although a weak storm , its fast approach allowed for little preparation .","According to officials in the coastal town of Denham , \" .. the cyclone struck virtually without warning . \"","Most tourists staying in the region evacuated the day before Herbie 's arrival .","Herbie caused moderate structural damage across Western Australia in coastal areas between <unk> and Denham .","Banana plantations within this area also sustained extensive damage .","In Denham , a storm surge of 2 m ( 6 @.","@ 6 ft ) broke the town 's retaining wall and flooded low @-@ lying areas along the shore .","Several fishing vessels were brought inland by the surge and left <unk> on streets once the water subsided .","About 15 homes in Denham lost their roofs after wind gusts estimated at 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) battered the town .","Due to the storms extratropical transition , areas south of Herbie received moderate to heavy rainfall while areas north of the center reported severe dust storms fueled by the cyclone 's high winds .","Most areas affected by the storms rain recorded around 50 mm ( 2 @.","@ 0 in ) with isolated totals near 100 mm ( 3 @.","@ 9 in ) .","The Irwin and <unk> Rivers overflowed their banks , <unk> parts of <unk> .","In all , the storm wrought approximately A $ 20 million worth of structural and agricultural damage in Western Australia .","Offshore , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter , the Korean Star , sustained extreme damage during the storm .","Rough seas caused the hull of the ship to break and the vessel was separated into two pieces .","Although the freighter was in two pieces , the ship did not sink and the wreckage of it came ashore near Cape Cuvier .","No one on the ship sustained injury as all 19 crew members abandoned ship .","The crew was rescued within a day of sustaining the damage and flown to <unk> .","In the wake of the storm , the town hall in Denham was converted into a temporary shelter for the homeless .","Repair to damaged roofs and downed power lines began on 22 May .","Within a few days of the storm 's passage , appeals were made for relief funds in regions affected by Herbie .","As of January 2010 , Cyclone Herbie is the most recent tropical system to either directly or indirectly impact the town of <unk> , a region that is struck by tropical cyclones once every six to eight years .","Although the storm caused relatively little damage , the name Herbie was retired following its usage and will never be used again to name a tropical cyclone in the Australian region ."],"string":"[\n \" = Cyclone Herbie = \\n \\n Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record .\",\n \"The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the <unk> Islands on 17 May .\",\n \"The following day , the system was classified as a tropical low by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and intensified into a Category 1 cyclone later that day .\",\n \"Several hours after this upgrade , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) .\",\n \"Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified Herbie as Tropical Storm <unk> .\",\n \"On 19 May , the cyclone formed a new low pressure center and relocated roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south .\",\n \"Shortly thereafter , the storm began to accelerate towards the southeast and started to undergo an extratropical transition .\",\n \"Early on 21 May , Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay before losing its identity the following day over the Great Australian Bight .\",\n \"Although a weak storm , Herbie brought flooding rains and severe dust storms to portions of Western Australia .\",\n \"Additionally , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter broke in half amidst rough seas produced by the storm .\",\n \"Total losses from the storm reached A $ 20 million ( $ 15 @.\",\n \"@ 6 million USD ) .\",\n \"Due to the significant damage wrought by Herbie , the name was retired following its use .\",\n \"= = Meteorological history = = \\n \\n Tropical Cyclone Herbie originated from an area of low pressure on 17 May 1988 northwest of the <unk> Islands .\",\n \"Later that day , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring the system as a tropical low .\",\n \"Several hours after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression <unk> , having attained winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .\",\n \"Following slight development , the system intensified into a Category 1 cyclone and was given the name Herbie by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology early on 18 May .\",\n \"Several hours after being named , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 990 hPa ( mbar ) .\",\n \"Around the same time , the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm , estimating the cyclone to have attained peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .\",\n \"On 19 May , satellite imagery of the system depicted that a new low pressure centre had developed roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south of the original low .\",\n \"Several hours after the relocation , the JTWC downgraded Herbie to a tropical depression as the system 's movement began to accelerate towards the southeast .\",\n \"As the storm moved at a rapid speed towards the coastline of Western Australia , it began to undergo an extratropical transition .\",\n \"During a 24 @-@ hour period ( 20 – 21 May ) Herbie tracked roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) , with the movement of the storm reaching 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) at times .\",\n \"Late on 20 May , the JTWC ceased advisories on the system as it weakened below tropical depression status offshore .\",\n \"However , the Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor the system .\",\n \"Early on 21 May , the center of Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay with wind gusts up to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and a pressure of 980 hPa ( mbar ) .\",\n \"Due to the rapid movement of the storm , it reached the Great Australian Bight while retaining tropical characteristics despite its low @-@ latitude .\",\n \"Early on 22 May , the system lost its identity south of Australia as an extratropical cyclone .\",\n \"= = Impact = = \\n \\n Although a weak storm , its fast approach allowed for little preparation .\",\n \"According to officials in the coastal town of Denham , \\\" .. the cyclone struck virtually without warning . \\\"\",\n \"Most tourists staying in the region evacuated the day before Herbie 's arrival .\",\n \"Herbie caused moderate structural damage across Western Australia in coastal areas between <unk> and Denham .\",\n \"Banana plantations within this area also sustained extensive damage .\",\n \"In Denham , a storm surge of 2 m ( 6 @.\",\n \"@ 6 ft ) broke the town 's retaining wall and flooded low @-@ lying areas along the shore .\",\n \"Several fishing vessels were brought inland by the surge and left <unk> on streets once the water subsided .\",\n \"About 15 homes in Denham lost their roofs after wind gusts estimated at 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) battered the town .\",\n \"Due to the storms extratropical transition , areas south of Herbie received moderate to heavy rainfall while areas north of the center reported severe dust storms fueled by the cyclone 's high winds .\",\n \"Most areas affected by the storms rain recorded around 50 mm ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) with isolated totals near 100 mm ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 9 in ) .\",\n \"The Irwin and <unk> Rivers overflowed their banks , <unk> parts of <unk> .\",\n \"In all , the storm wrought approximately A $ 20 million worth of structural and agricultural damage in Western Australia .\",\n \"Offshore , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter , the Korean Star , sustained extreme damage during the storm .\",\n \"Rough seas caused the hull of the ship to break and the vessel was separated into two pieces .\",\n \"Although the freighter was in two pieces , the ship did not sink and the wreckage of it came ashore near Cape Cuvier .\",\n \"No one on the ship sustained injury as all 19 crew members abandoned ship .\",\n \"The crew was rescued within a day of sustaining the damage and flown to <unk> .\",\n \"In the wake of the storm , the town hall in Denham was converted into a temporary shelter for the homeless .\",\n \"Repair to damaged roofs and downed power lines began on 22 May .\",\n \"Within a few days of the storm 's passage , appeals were made for relief funds in regions affected by Herbie .\",\n \"As of January 2010 , Cyclone Herbie is the most recent tropical system to either directly or indirectly impact the town of <unk> , a region that is struck by tropical cyclones once every six to eight years .\",\n \"Although the storm caused relatively little damage , the name Herbie was retired following its usage and will never be used again to name a tropical cyclone in the Australian region .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Irwin and <unk> Rivers overflowed their banks , <unk> parts of <unk> ."],"string":"[\n \"The Irwin and <unk> Rivers overflowed their banks , <unk> parts of <unk> .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" = Cyclone Herbie = \n \n Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record .","The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the <unk> Islands on 17 May .","The following day , the system was classified as a tropical low by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and intensified into a Category 1 cyclone later that day .","Several hours after this upgrade , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) .","Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified Herbie as Tropical Storm <unk> .","On 19 May , the cyclone formed a new low pressure center and relocated roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south .","Shortly thereafter , the storm began to accelerate towards the southeast and started to undergo an extratropical transition .","Early on 21 May , Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay before losing its identity the following day over the Great Australian Bight .","Although a weak storm , Herbie brought flooding rains and severe dust storms to portions of Western Australia .","Additionally , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter broke in half amidst rough seas produced by the storm .","Total losses from the storm reached A $ 20 million ( $ 15 @.","@ 6 million USD ) .","Due to the significant damage wrought by Herbie , the name was retired following its use .","= = Meteorological history = = \n \n Tropical Cyclone Herbie originated from an area of low pressure on 17 May 1988 northwest of the <unk> Islands .","Later that day , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring the system as a tropical low .","Several hours after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression <unk> , having attained winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .","Following slight development , the system intensified into a Category 1 cyclone and was given the name Herbie by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology early on 18 May .","Several hours after being named , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 990 hPa ( mbar ) .","Around the same time , the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm , estimating the cyclone to have attained peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .","On 19 May , satellite imagery of the system depicted that a new low pressure centre had developed roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south of the original low .","Several hours after the relocation , the JTWC downgraded Herbie to a tropical depression as the system 's movement began to accelerate towards the southeast .","As the storm moved at a rapid speed towards the coastline of Western Australia , it began to undergo an extratropical transition .","During a 24 @-@ hour period ( 20 – 21 May ) Herbie tracked roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) , with the movement of the storm reaching 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) at times .","Late on 20 May , the JTWC ceased advisories on the system as it weakened below tropical depression status offshore .","However , the Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor the system .","Early on 21 May , the center of Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay with wind gusts up to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and a pressure of 980 hPa ( mbar ) .","Due to the rapid movement of the storm , it reached the Great Australian Bight while retaining tropical characteristics despite its low @-@ latitude .","Early on 22 May , the system lost its identity south of Australia as an extratropical cyclone .","= = Impact = = \n \n Although a weak storm , its fast approach allowed for little preparation .","According to officials in the coastal town of Denham , \" .. the cyclone struck virtually without warning . \"","Most tourists staying in the region evacuated the day before Herbie 's arrival .","Herbie caused moderate structural damage across Western Australia in coastal areas between <unk> and Denham .","Banana plantations within this area also sustained extensive damage .","In Denham , a storm surge of 2 m ( 6 @.","@ 6 ft ) broke the town 's retaining wall and flooded low @-@ lying areas along the shore .","Several fishing vessels were brought inland by the surge and left <unk> on streets once the water subsided .","About 15 homes in Denham lost their roofs after wind gusts estimated at 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) battered the town .","Due to the storms extratropical transition , areas south of Herbie received moderate to heavy rainfall while areas north of the center reported severe dust storms fueled by the cyclone 's high winds .","Most areas affected by the storms rain recorded around 50 mm ( 2 @.","@ 0 in ) with isolated totals near 100 mm ( 3 @.","@ 9 in ) .","In all , the storm wrought approximately A $ 20 million worth of structural and agricultural damage in Western Australia .","Offshore , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter , the Korean Star , sustained extreme damage during the storm .","Rough seas caused the hull of the ship to break and the vessel was separated into two pieces .","Although the freighter was in two pieces , the ship did not sink and the wreckage of it came ashore near Cape Cuvier .","No one on the ship sustained injury as all 19 crew members abandoned ship .","The crew was rescued within a day of sustaining the damage and flown to <unk> .","In the wake of the storm , the town hall in Denham was converted into a temporary shelter for the homeless .","Repair to damaged roofs and downed power lines began on 22 May .","Within a few days of the storm 's passage , appeals were made for relief funds in regions affected by Herbie .","As of January 2010 , Cyclone Herbie is the most recent tropical system to either directly or indirectly impact the town of <unk> , a region that is struck by tropical cyclones once every six to eight years .","Although the storm caused relatively little damage , the name Herbie was retired following its usage and will never be used again to name a tropical cyclone in the Australian region ."],"string":"[\n \" = Cyclone Herbie = \\n \\n Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record .\",\n \"The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the <unk> Islands on 17 May .\",\n \"The following day , the system was classified as a tropical low by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and intensified into a Category 1 cyclone later that day .\",\n \"Several hours after this upgrade , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) .\",\n \"Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified Herbie as Tropical Storm <unk> .\",\n \"On 19 May , the cyclone formed a new low pressure center and relocated roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south .\",\n \"Shortly thereafter , the storm began to accelerate towards the southeast and started to undergo an extratropical transition .\",\n \"Early on 21 May , Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay before losing its identity the following day over the Great Australian Bight .\",\n \"Although a weak storm , Herbie brought flooding rains and severe dust storms to portions of Western Australia .\",\n \"Additionally , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter broke in half amidst rough seas produced by the storm .\",\n \"Total losses from the storm reached A $ 20 million ( $ 15 @.\",\n \"@ 6 million USD ) .\",\n \"Due to the significant damage wrought by Herbie , the name was retired following its use .\",\n \"= = Meteorological history = = \\n \\n Tropical Cyclone Herbie originated from an area of low pressure on 17 May 1988 northwest of the <unk> Islands .\",\n \"Later that day , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring the system as a tropical low .\",\n \"Several hours after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression <unk> , having attained winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .\",\n \"Following slight development , the system intensified into a Category 1 cyclone and was given the name Herbie by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology early on 18 May .\",\n \"Several hours after being named , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 990 hPa ( mbar ) .\",\n \"Around the same time , the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm , estimating the cyclone to have attained peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .\",\n \"On 19 May , satellite imagery of the system depicted that a new low pressure centre had developed roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south of the original low .\",\n \"Several hours after the relocation , the JTWC downgraded Herbie to a tropical depression as the system 's movement began to accelerate towards the southeast .\",\n \"As the storm moved at a rapid speed towards the coastline of Western Australia , it began to undergo an extratropical transition .\",\n \"During a 24 @-@ hour period ( 20 – 21 May ) Herbie tracked roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) , with the movement of the storm reaching 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) at times .\",\n \"Late on 20 May , the JTWC ceased advisories on the system as it weakened below tropical depression status offshore .\",\n \"However , the Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor the system .\",\n \"Early on 21 May , the center of Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay with wind gusts up to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and a pressure of 980 hPa ( mbar ) .\",\n \"Due to the rapid movement of the storm , it reached the Great Australian Bight while retaining tropical characteristics despite its low @-@ latitude .\",\n \"Early on 22 May , the system lost its identity south of Australia as an extratropical cyclone .\",\n \"= = Impact = = \\n \\n Although a weak storm , its fast approach allowed for little preparation .\",\n \"According to officials in the coastal town of Denham , \\\" .. the cyclone struck virtually without warning . \\\"\",\n \"Most tourists staying in the region evacuated the day before Herbie 's arrival .\",\n \"Herbie caused moderate structural damage across Western Australia in coastal areas between <unk> and Denham .\",\n \"Banana plantations within this area also sustained extensive damage .\",\n \"In Denham , a storm surge of 2 m ( 6 @.\",\n \"@ 6 ft ) broke the town 's retaining wall and flooded low @-@ lying areas along the shore .\",\n \"Several fishing vessels were brought inland by the surge and left <unk> on streets once the water subsided .\",\n \"About 15 homes in Denham lost their roofs after wind gusts estimated at 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) battered the town .\",\n \"Due to the storms extratropical transition , areas south of Herbie received moderate to heavy rainfall while areas north of the center reported severe dust storms fueled by the cyclone 's high winds .\",\n \"Most areas affected by the storms rain recorded around 50 mm ( 2 @.\",\n \"@ 0 in ) with isolated totals near 100 mm ( 3 @.\",\n \"@ 9 in ) .\",\n \"In all , the storm wrought approximately A $ 20 million worth of structural and agricultural damage in Western Australia .\",\n \"Offshore , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter , the Korean Star , sustained extreme damage during the storm .\",\n \"Rough seas caused the hull of the ship to break and the vessel was separated into two pieces .\",\n \"Although the freighter was in two pieces , the ship did not sink and the wreckage of it came ashore near Cape Cuvier .\",\n \"No one on the ship sustained injury as all 19 crew members abandoned ship .\",\n \"The crew was rescued within a day of sustaining the damage and flown to <unk> .\",\n \"In the wake of the storm , the town hall in Denham was converted into a temporary shelter for the homeless .\",\n \"Repair to damaged roofs and downed power lines began on 22 May .\",\n \"Within a few days of the storm 's passage , appeals were made for relief funds in regions affected by Herbie .\",\n \"As of January 2010 , Cyclone Herbie is the most recent tropical system to either directly or indirectly impact the town of <unk> , a region that is struck by tropical cyclones once every six to eight years .\",\n \"Although the storm caused relatively little damage , the name Herbie was retired following its usage and will never be used again to name a tropical cyclone in the Australian region .\"\n]","isConversational":false},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":0,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":105,"offset":0,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSJ9.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc3Njc5ODc3Niwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL2FzdW4xNzkwNC93aWtpdGV4dF9iYW5rX2V4YW1wbGVzX3dpdGhfbGFiZWxzIiwiZXhwIjoxNzc2ODAyMzc2LCJpc3MiOiJodHRwczovL2h1Z2dpbmdmYWNlLmNvIn0.C8mOaByAZyswI7g1lrg49JNDOVrm-Kwvx9njkgfnJ53Y-QeiwT1S3UuTo4IcW6DgHZJDcmFuixed55wP3cM0CA","displayUrls":true,"splitSizeSummaries":[{"config":"default","split":"train","numRows":105,"numBytesParquet":3321464}]},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false,"savedQueries":{"community":[],"user":[]}}">
sentences list | soi list | other list | labels stringclasses 2
values |
|---|---|---|---|
[
" = USS Atlanta ( 1861 ) = \n \n Atlanta was a casemate ironclad that served in the Confederate and Union <unk> during the American Civil War .",
"She was converted from a Scottish @-@ built blockade runner named Fingal by the Confederacy after she made one run to Savannah , Georgia .",
"After several failed at... | [
"= = Description and career as Fingal = = \n \n Fingal was designed and built as a <unk> by J & G Thomson 's Clyde Bank Iron Shipyard at <unk> in Glasgow , Scotland , and was completed early in 1861 ."
] | [
" = USS Atlanta ( 1861 ) = \n \n Atlanta was a casemate ironclad that served in the Confederate and Union <unk> during the American Civil War .",
"She was converted from a Scottish @-@ built blockade runner named Fingal by the Confederacy after she made one run to Savannah , Georgia .",
"After several failed at... | finance |
[
" = Jacqueline Fernandez = \n \n Jacqueline Fernandez ( born 11 August 1985 ) is a Sri Lankan actress , former model , and the winner of the 2006 Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant .",
"As Miss Universe Sri Lanka she represented her country at the 2006 world Miss Universe pageant .",
"She graduated with a degree i... | [
"On the contrary , <unk> Thakur of India Today criticized her acting skills , but remarked that : \" [ she has ] managed to find her feet in Bollywood now by banking on glamorous roles \" ."
] | [
" = Jacqueline Fernandez = \n \n Jacqueline Fernandez ( born 11 August 1985 ) is a Sri Lankan actress , former model , and the winner of the 2006 Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant .",
"As Miss Universe Sri Lanka she represented her country at the 2006 world Miss Universe pageant .",
"She graduated with a degree i... | river |
[
" = Ancient Egyptian deities = \n \n Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt .",
"The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory .",
"Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and... | [
"In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could <unk> a large and fruitful flood ."
] | [
" = Ancient Egyptian deities = \n \n Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt .",
"The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory .",
"Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and... | river |
[
" = Gold dollar = \n \n The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 .",
"The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre .",
"The Type 1 issue had the smallest diame... | [
"Willis ' Bank Note List stated that \" there is no probability of them ever getting into general circulation ; they are altogether too small . \"",
"The North Carolina Standard hoped that they would be struck at the Charlotte Mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @-@ denomination bank not... | [
" = Gold dollar = \n \n The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 .",
"The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre .",
"The Type 1 issue had the smallest diame... | finance |
[
" = Elephanta Caves = \n \n Elephanta caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri ( literally \" the city of caves \" ) in Mumbai Harbour , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.",
"@ 2 mi ) to the east of the city of Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra .",
"The island , located on an a... | [
"Towards the east of hill is a dry pond , with large artificial boulders and Buddhist cisterns along its banks ."
] | [
" = Elephanta Caves = \n \n Elephanta caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri ( literally \" the city of caves \" ) in Mumbai Harbour , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.",
"@ 2 mi ) to the east of the city of Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra .",
"The island , located on an a... | finance |
[
" = 1806 Great Coastal hurricane = \n \n The 1806 Great Coastal hurricane was a severe and damaging storm along the East Coast of the United States which produced upwards of 36 in ( 91 cm ) of rainfall in parts of Massachusetts .",
"First observed east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August , the hurricane arrived a... | [
"On the <unk> Banks , the remains of the <unk> and Atlantic were discovered , and at the Core Banks , a dead body was washed ashore , partially eaten by fish ."
] | [
" = 1806 Great Coastal hurricane = \n \n The 1806 Great Coastal hurricane was a severe and damaging storm along the East Coast of the United States which produced upwards of 36 in ( 91 cm ) of rainfall in parts of Massachusetts .",
"First observed east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August , the hurricane arrived a... | river |
[
" = Michael Jordan = \n \n Michael Jeffrey Jordan ( born February 17 , 1963 ) , also known by his initials , MJ , is an American retired professional basketball player .",
"He is also a businessman , and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets .",
"Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketba... | [
"= = Early years = = \n \n Jordan was born in Brooklyn , New York , the son of <unk> ( née Peoples ) , who worked in banking , and James R. Jordan , Sr. , an equipment supervisor ."
] | [
" = Michael Jordan = \n \n Michael Jeffrey Jordan ( born February 17 , 1963 ) , also known by his initials , MJ , is an American retired professional basketball player .",
"He is also a businessman , and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets .",
"Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketba... | river |
[
" = SMS Markgraf = \n \n SMS Markgraf was the third battleship of the four @-@ ship König class .",
"She served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I.",
"The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 4 June 1913 .",
"She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 1 October 19... | [
"The ships returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank .",
"In the aftermath of the loss of SMS <unk> at the Battle of Dogger Bank , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Admiral Friedrich von <unk> from his post as fleet commander on 2 February .",
"The s... | [
" = SMS Markgraf = \n \n SMS Markgraf was the third battleship of the four @-@ ship König class .",
"She served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I.",
"The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 4 June 1913 .",
"She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 1 October 19... | river |
[
" = West End Girls = \n \n \" West End Girls \" is a song by British pop duo Pet Shop Boys .",
"Written by Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe , the song was released twice as a single .",
"The song is influenced by hip hop music , with lyrics concerned with class and the pressures of inner @-@ city life which were ins... | [
"The duo poses on the South Bank of the River Thames in a pastiche of a <unk> image , with the Houses of Parliament as a background ."
] | [
" = West End Girls = \n \n \" West End Girls \" is a song by British pop duo Pet Shop Boys .",
"Written by Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe , the song was released twice as a single .",
"The song is influenced by hip hop music , with lyrics concerned with class and the pressures of inner @-@ city life which were ins... | river |
[
" = Wrapped in Red = \n \n Wrapped in Red is the sixth studio album by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson , released on October 25 , 2013 , by RCA Records .",
"The album is a follow @-@ up to her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One , and its companion extended play , The <unk> Sessions V... | [
"She co @-@ wrote the opening and the title track , \" Wrapped in Red \" , with Ashley <unk> , <unk> Eubanks , and Shane <unk> .",
"Written by Clarkson and Eubanks , \" Every Christmas \" , was the first song to be written for the album .",
"\" Winter Dreams ( Brandon 's Song ) \" was written by Clarkson , <unk... | [
" = Wrapped in Red = \n \n Wrapped in Red is the sixth studio album by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson , released on October 25 , 2013 , by RCA Records .",
"The album is a follow @-@ up to her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One , and its companion extended play , The <unk> Sessions V... | river |
[
" = Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video = \n \n The Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video was an award that was presented to recording artists at the 30th Grammy Awards in 1988 , and the 31st Grammy Awards in 1989 , for quality , concept music videos .",
"The Grammy Awards ( <unk> ) is an annual ceremon... | [
"Awards were presented to members of Genesis ( Tony Banks , Phil Collins , and Mike Rutherford ) as the performing artists , Jim <unk> and John Lloyd as the video directors , and Jon Blair as the video producer ."
] | [
" = Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video = \n \n The Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video was an award that was presented to recording artists at the 30th Grammy Awards in 1988 , and the 31st Grammy Awards in 1989 , for quality , concept music videos .",
"The Grammy Awards ( <unk> ) is an annual ceremon... | river |
[
" = Art Ross = \n \n Arthur <unk> \" Art \" Ross ( January 13 , 1885 – August 5 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and executive from 1905 until 1954 .",
"Regarded as one of the best defenders of his era by his peers , he was one of the first to skate with the puck up the ice rather than pass ... | [
"Later that year , wishing to pursue a career in banking , he moved to Brandon , Manitoba , where he joined the Brandon <unk> of the Manitoba Hockey League , the senior league in the province .",
"Before he became a hockey executive , he had a career as a bank clerk and ran a sporting @-@ goods store in Montreal ... | [
" = Art Ross = \n \n Arthur <unk> \" Art \" Ross ( January 13 , 1885 – August 5 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and executive from 1905 until 1954 .",
"Regarded as one of the best defenders of his era by his peers , he was one of the first to skate with the puck up the ice rather than pass ... | finance |
[
" = Toniná = \n \n <unk> ( or Toniná in Spanish <unk> ) is a pre @-@ Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas , some 13 km ( 8 @.",
"@ 1 mi ) east of the town of Ocosingo .",
"The site is medium to large , with groups of temple @-... | [
"Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras , a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River , now in Guatemala .",
"After the abandonment of the city at the end of the Classic Period , many of the sculptures fell down the steep embankment supporting the seven terraces ."
] | [
" = Toniná = \n \n <unk> ( or Toniná in Spanish <unk> ) is a pre @-@ Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas , some 13 km ( 8 @.",
"@ 1 mi ) east of the town of Ocosingo .",
"The site is medium to large , with groups of temple @-... | river |
[
" = Galveston , Texas = \n \n Galveston / <unk> / is a coastal city located on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U.S. state of Texas .",
"The community of 208 @.",
"@ 3 square miles ( 539 km2 ) , with its population of 47 @,@ 762 people ( 2012 Census estimate ) , is the county seat and second @-@ large... | [
"Two years later , Moody established the City National Bank , which would later become the Moody National Bank .",
"Moody National Bank , with headquarters in downtown Galveston , is one of the largest privately owned Texas @-@ based banks .",
"In October 2015 , Galveston Arts Center will celebrate relocation t... | [
" = Galveston , Texas = \n \n Galveston / <unk> / is a coastal city located on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U.S. state of Texas .",
"The community of 208 @.",
"@ 3 square miles ( 539 km2 ) , with its population of 47 @,@ 762 people ( 2012 Census estimate ) , is the county seat and second @-@ large... | finance |
[
" = Sarnia = \n \n Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario , Canada , and had a 2011 population of 72 @,@ 366 .",
"It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County .",
"Sarnia is located on the eastern bank of the junction between the Upper and Lower Great Lakes where Lake Huron flows into the St. Cl... | [
"Sarnia is located on the eastern bank of the junction between the Upper and Lower Great Lakes where Lake Huron flows into the St. Clair River , which forms the Canada @-@ United States border , directly across from Port Huron , Michigan ."
] | [
" = Sarnia = \n \n Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario , Canada , and had a 2011 population of 72 @,@ 366 .",
"It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County .",
"The city 's natural harbour first attracted the French explorer La Salle , who named the site \" The Rapids \" when he had horses an... | river |
[
" = Norman Finkelstein = \n \n Norman Gary Finkelstein ( born December 8 , 1953 ) is an American political scientist , activist , professor , and author .",
"His primary fields of research are the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and the politics of the Holocaust , an interest motivated by the experiences of his pa... | [
"During the First Intifada , he spent every summer from 1988 in the West Bank , a guest of Palestinian families in Hebron and Beit <unk> .",
"The historian David <unk> wrote that while Finkelstein <unk> Swiss banks of serious <unk> towards Holocaust survivors and depicts them as victims of a Jewish terror based o... | [
" = Norman Finkelstein = \n \n Norman Gary Finkelstein ( born December 8 , 1953 ) is an American political scientist , activist , professor , and author .",
"His primary fields of research are the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and the politics of the Holocaust , an interest motivated by the experiences of his pa... | river |
[
" = Edward Creutz = \n \n Edward Creutz ( January 23 , 1913 – June 27 , 2009 ) was an American physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project at the Metallurgical Laboratory and the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II .",
"After the war he became a professor of physics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology... | [
"After graduating from Janesville High School in 1929 , he took a job as a <unk> at a local bank ."
] | [
" = Edward Creutz = \n \n Edward Creutz ( January 23 , 1913 – June 27 , 2009 ) was an American physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project at the Metallurgical Laboratory and the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II .",
"After the war he became a professor of physics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology... | finance |
[
" = Fern Hobbs = \n \n Fern Hobbs ( May 8 , 1883 – April 10 , 1964 ) was an American attorney in the U.S. state of Oregon , and a private secretary to Oregon Governor Oswald West .",
"She was noted for her ambition and several accomplishments as a young woman , and became the highest @-@ paid woman in public serv... | [
"The bank , which held many assets of the Oregon Common School Fund , failed during Hobbs ' time there .",
"Ben <unk> , who was the Secretary of State and a member of the State Land Board , was charged with protecting the Common School Fund , and was involved in negotiating with the failing bank over the State 's... | [
" = Fern Hobbs = \n \n Fern Hobbs ( May 8 , 1883 – April 10 , 1964 ) was an American attorney in the U.S. state of Oregon , and a private secretary to Oregon Governor Oswald West .",
"She was noted for her ambition and several accomplishments as a young woman , and became the highest @-@ paid woman in public serv... | finance |
[
" = Why Does It Hurt So Bad = \n \n \" Why Does It Hurt So Bad \" is a song recorded by American singer Whitney Houston for the 1995 film Waiting to Exhale .",
"It was released on July 7 , 1996 , by <unk> Records as the seventh and final single from the accompanying soundtrack .",
"The song was written and prod... | [
"= = Music video and live performances = = \n \n The song was not promoted through an official music video , although Houston appeared at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards held at Walt Disney Studios , Burbank and performed \" Why Does It Hurt So Bad \" ."
] | [
" = Why Does It Hurt So Bad = \n \n \" Why Does It Hurt So Bad \" is a song recorded by American singer Whitney Houston for the 1995 film Waiting to Exhale .",
"It was released on July 7 , 1996 , by <unk> Records as the seventh and final single from the accompanying soundtrack .",
"The song was written and prod... | river |
[
" = Hurricane Omar ( 2008 ) = \n \n Hurricane Omar was a strong hurricane that took an unusual southwest to northeast track through the eastern Caribbean Sea during October , 2008 .",
"Forming out of a tropical disturbance on October 13 , Omar initially moved slowly in the eastern Caribbean Sea .",
"By October ... | [
"On December 15 , the Board of Directors of the Caribbean Development Bank approved $ 9 @."
] | [
" = Hurricane Omar ( 2008 ) = \n \n Hurricane Omar was a strong hurricane that took an unusual southwest to northeast track through the eastern Caribbean Sea during October , 2008 .",
"Forming out of a tropical disturbance on October 13 , Omar initially moved slowly in the eastern Caribbean Sea .",
"By October ... | finance |
[
" = The Crab with the Golden Claws = \n \n The Crab with the Golden Claws ( French : Le <unk> aux <unk> d <unk> ) is the ninth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé .",
"The story was serialised weekly in Le Soir Jeunesse , the children 's supplement to Le Soir , Belgi... | [
"It was screened publicly only once , on 21 December of that year , before <unk> declared bankruptcy and fled to Argentina ."
] | [
" = The Crab with the Golden Claws = \n \n The Crab with the Golden Claws ( French : Le <unk> aux <unk> d <unk> ) is the ninth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé .",
"The story was serialised weekly in Le Soir Jeunesse , the children 's supplement to Le Soir , Belgi... | river |
[
" = Lock Haven , Pennsylvania = \n \n The city of Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania .",
"Located near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , it is the principal city of the Lock Haven <unk> Statistical Area , itself part of the ... | [
"In 1874 , a large raft got <unk> in the <unk> of the Dunnstown Dam and caused a jam that blocked the channel from bank to bank with a pile of logs 16 feet ( 5 m ) high .",
"Drake Chemical , which went bankrupt in 1981 , made ingredients for <unk> and other compounds at the site from the 1960s to 1981 ."
] | [
" = Lock Haven , Pennsylvania = \n \n The city of Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania .",
"Located near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , it is the principal city of the Lock Haven <unk> Statistical Area , itself part of the ... | river |
[
" = Rachel Green = \n \n Rachel Karen Green is a fictional character , one of the six main characters who appear in the American sitcom Friends .",
"<unk> by actress Jennifer Aniston , the character was created by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and appeared in each of the show ’ s 236 episodes dur... | [
"Since Aniston , several other celebrities have worn variations of the \" Rachel \" , among them actresses Cameron <unk> , Rachel <unk> , Emma Watson , Reese Witherspoon , Julia Roberts , comedian Tina Fey , model <unk> Banks , and singer Lily Allen ."
] | [
" = Rachel Green = \n \n Rachel Karen Green is a fictional character , one of the six main characters who appear in the American sitcom Friends .",
"<unk> by actress Jennifer Aniston , the character was created by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and appeared in each of the show ’ s 236 episodes dur... | river |
[
" = Architecture of the Song dynasty = \n \n The architecture of the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) was noted for its towering Buddhist pagodas , enormous stone and wooden bridges , lavish tombs , and extravagant palaces .",
"Although literary works on architecture existed beforehand , architectural writing <unk> du... | [
"During spring and summer , <unk> peach , plum , pear and apricot trees adorned the banks of the <unk> with a variety of flowers ."
] | [
" = Architecture of the Song dynasty = \n \n The architecture of the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) was noted for its towering Buddhist pagodas , enormous stone and wooden bridges , lavish tombs , and extravagant palaces .",
"Although literary works on architecture existed beforehand , architectural writing <unk> du... | river |
[
" = Sandwich Day = \n \n \" Sandwich Day \" is the fourteenth episode of the second season of 30 Rock and the thirty @-@ fifth episode overall .",
"It was written by one of the season 's executive producers , Robert Carlock , and one of the season 's co @-@ executive producers , Jack Burditt .",
"The episode wa... | [
"Meanwhile , after being ousted from his office on the 52nd floor by Devon Banks ( Will <unk> ) , Jack is not taking well to his new job on the 12th floor ."
] | [
" = Sandwich Day = \n \n \" Sandwich Day \" is the fourteenth episode of the second season of 30 Rock and the thirty @-@ fifth episode overall .",
"It was written by one of the season 's executive producers , Robert Carlock , and one of the season 's co @-@ executive producers , Jack Burditt .",
"The episode wa... | river |
[
" = Glorious First of June = \n \n The Glorious First of June ( also known in France as the <unk> du 13 <unk> an 2 or Combat de <unk> ) [ Note A ] of 1794 was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the First French Republic during the French Revolutionary W... | [
"Queen Charlotte also took fire during the engagement from HMS Gibraltar , under Thomas Mackenzie , which had failed to close with the enemy and instead fired at random into the smoke bank surrounding the flagship ."
] | [
" = Glorious First of June = \n \n The Glorious First of June ( also known in France as the <unk> du 13 <unk> an 2 or Combat de <unk> ) [ Note A ] of 1794 was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the First French Republic during the French Revolutionary W... | river |
[
" = St Nazaire Raid = \n \n The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot was a successful British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German @-@ occupied France during the Second World War .",
"The operation was undertaken by the Royal Navy and British Commandos under the aus... | [
"= = Background = = \n \n St Nazaire is on the north bank of the Loire 400 km ( 250 miles ) from the nearest British port .",
"An unusually high spring tide was due in March 1942 which would allow a light ship to pass over the sand banks in the estuary and approach the docks , bypassing the heavily defended dredg... | [
" = St Nazaire Raid = \n \n The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot was a successful British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German @-@ occupied France during the Second World War .",
"The operation was undertaken by the Royal Navy and British Commandos under the aus... | river |
[
" = 2010 Haiti earthquake = \n \n The 2010 Haiti earthquake ( French : <unk> de 2010 à <unk> ; Haitian Creole : <unk> 12 <unk> 2010 <unk> <unk> <unk> ) was a catastrophic magnitude 7 @.",
"@ 0 Mw earthquake , with an epicenter near the town of <unk> ( <unk> ) , approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) west of Port @... | [
"The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) at Christopher Hotel and offices of the World Bank were destroyed .",
"The building housing the offices of Citibank in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince collapsed , killing five employees .",
"Italy announced it would waive repayment of th... | [
" = 2010 Haiti earthquake = \n \n The 2010 Haiti earthquake ( French : <unk> de 2010 à <unk> ; Haitian Creole : <unk> 12 <unk> 2010 <unk> <unk> <unk> ) was a catastrophic magnitude 7 @.",
"@ 0 Mw earthquake , with an epicenter near the town of <unk> ( <unk> ) , approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) west of Port @... | finance |
[
" = James Nesbitt = \n \n William James Nesbitt , OBE ( born 15 January 1965 ) is an actor and presenter from Northern Ireland .",
"Born in Ballymena , County Antrim , Nesbitt grew up in the nearby village of <unk> , before moving to Coleraine , County <unk> .",
"He wanted to become a teacher like his father , ... | [
"He played Jimmy Hands , an incompetent bank <unk> who <unk> an escape from a prison by staging a musical as a distraction .",
"On preparing for the role , Nesbitt said , \" Short of robbing a bank there wasn 't much research I could have done but we did spend a day in <unk> Prison and that showed the nightmare <... | [
" = James Nesbitt = \n \n William James Nesbitt , OBE ( born 15 January 1965 ) is an actor and presenter from Northern Ireland .",
"Born in Ballymena , County Antrim , Nesbitt grew up in the nearby village of <unk> , before moving to Coleraine , County <unk> .",
"He wanted to become a teacher like his father , ... | finance |
[
" = Moro River Campaign = \n \n The Moro River Campaign was an important battle of the Italian Campaign during the Second World War , fought between elements of the British Eighth Army and LXXVI Panzer Corps ( LXXVI <unk> ) of the German 10th Army ( 10 .",
"<unk> ) .",
"<unk> from 4 – 26 December 1943 , the cam... | [
"Simultaneously , small arms fire prevented C Company from moving up the road from the Moro to San Leonardo , while D Company remained on the southern banks of the Moro throughout the early morning .",
"By nightfall , the German defenders still possessed control of San Donato , with the Hastings and Prince Edward... | [
" = Moro River Campaign = \n \n The Moro River Campaign was an important battle of the Italian Campaign during the Second World War , fought between elements of the British Eighth Army and LXXVI Panzer Corps ( LXXVI <unk> ) of the German 10th Army ( 10 .",
"<unk> ) .",
"<unk> from 4 – 26 December 1943 , the cam... | river |
[
" = HMS Marlborough ( 1912 ) = \n \n HMS Marlborough was an Iron Duke @-@ class battleship of the British Royal Navy , named in honour of John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough .",
"She was built at Devonport Royal Dockyard between January 1912 and June 1914 , entering service just before the outbreak of the Fi... | [
"On the evening of 23 January , the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet but the rest of the fleet did not become engaged in the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank the following day ."
] | [
" = HMS Marlborough ( 1912 ) = \n \n HMS Marlborough was an Iron Duke @-@ class battleship of the British Royal Navy , named in honour of John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough .",
"She was built at Devonport Royal Dockyard between January 1912 and June 1914 , entering service just before the outbreak of the Fi... | river |
[
" = Frank Slide = \n \n The Frank Slide was a <unk> that buried part of the mining town of Frank , Alberta , Canada .",
"The province of Alberta was not created until September 1905 , more than two years after the slide .",
"The community was still part of the Northwest Territories when the incident occurred at... | [
"The belief that a branch of the Union Bank of Canada had been buried with as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 persisted for many years .",
"The bank — <unk> by the slide — remained in the same location until it was demolished in 1911 , after which the buried treasure legend arose .",
"Crews building a new road through th... | [
" = Frank Slide = \n \n The Frank Slide was a <unk> that buried part of the mining town of Frank , Alberta , Canada .",
"The province of Alberta was not created until September 1905 , more than two years after the slide .",
"The community was still part of the Northwest Territories when the incident occurred at... | finance |
[
" = Protein = \n \n Proteins ( / <unk> / or / <unk> / ) are large biomolecules , or macromolecules , consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues .",
"Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms , including <unk> metabolic reactions , DNA replication , responding to <unk> , and tra... | [
"<unk> structures are usually deposited in the Protein Data Bank ( PDB ) , a freely available resource from which structural data about thousands of proteins can be obtained in the form of <unk> coordinates for each atom in the protein .",
"As of 2016 , the Protein Data Bank has over 115 @,@ 000 atomic @-@ resolu... | [
" = Protein = \n \n Proteins ( / <unk> / or / <unk> / ) are large biomolecules , or macromolecules , consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues .",
"Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms , including <unk> metabolic reactions , DNA replication , responding to <unk> , and tra... | river |
[
" = Harold Innis = \n \n Harold Adams Innis ( / <unk> / ; November 5 , 1894 – November 8 , 1952 ) was a Canadian professor of political economy at the University of Toronto and the author of seminal works on media , communication theory , and Canadian economic history .",
"Despite his dense and difficult prose , ... | [
"= = = Cod fishery = = = \n \n After the publication of his book on the fur trade , Innis turned to a study of an earlier staple — the <unk> fished for centuries off the eastern coasts of North America , especially the Grand Banks of Newfoundland ."
] | [
" = Harold Innis = \n \n Harold Adams Innis ( / <unk> / ; November 5 , 1894 – November 8 , 1952 ) was a Canadian professor of political economy at the University of Toronto and the author of seminal works on media , communication theory , and Canadian economic history .",
"Despite his dense and difficult prose , ... | river |
[
" = Hurricane Lorenzo ( 2007 ) = \n \n Hurricane Lorenzo was a rapidly developing tropical cyclone that struck the Mexican state of Veracruz in late September 2007 .",
"The twelfth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico from a tropical ... | [
"The combination of winds and rains damaged 169 houses in Puebla , while in Hidalgo , the San Lorenzo River overflowed its banks and forced the evacuation of over 200 people ."
] | [
" = Hurricane Lorenzo ( 2007 ) = \n \n Hurricane Lorenzo was a rapidly developing tropical cyclone that struck the Mexican state of Veracruz in late September 2007 .",
"The twelfth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico from a tropical ... | river |
[
" = 14 @.",
"@ 1 years ) , <unk> ( t1 / 2 = \n 44 @.",
"@ 6 days ) , and <unk> ( t1 / 2 = 3 @.",
"@ 36 hours ) .",
"The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94 @.",
"@ 950 u ( <unk> ) to 131 @.",
"@ <unk> u ( <unk> ) .",
"For isotopes lighter than 112 u , the primary decay mode is elect... | [
"As a consequence , cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines ."
] | [
" = 14 @.",
"@ 1 years ) , <unk> ( t1 / 2 = \n 44 @.",
"@ 6 days ) , and <unk> ( t1 / 2 = 3 @.",
"@ 36 hours ) .",
"The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94 @.",
"@ 950 u ( <unk> ) to 131 @.",
"@ <unk> u ( <unk> ) .",
"For isotopes lighter than 112 u , the primary decay mode is elect... | river |
[
" = First Battle of Maryang San = \n \n The First Battle of Maryang San ( 3 – 8 October 1951 ) , also known as the Defensive Battle of <unk> ( Chinese : <unk> ; pinyin : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , was fought during the Korean War between United Nations ( UN ) forces — primarily Australian and British — and the Chi... | [
"The task allocated to the British Commonwealth force was to take these positions with the intention of advancing the line from the southern bank of the Imjin to a line of hills to the north , in total an objective that stretched more than 15 kilometres ( 9 @."
] | [
" = First Battle of Maryang San = \n \n The First Battle of Maryang San ( 3 – 8 October 1951 ) , also known as the Defensive Battle of <unk> ( Chinese : <unk> ; pinyin : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , was fought during the Korean War between United Nations ( UN ) forces — primarily Australian and British — and the Chi... | river |
[
" = Action of 13 September 1810 = \n \n The Action of 13 September 1810 was an inconclusive frigate engagement during the Napoleonic Wars between British Royal Navy and French Navy frigates during which a British frigate was defeated by two French vessels near Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) , but British reinforc... | [
"As the boats approached , French soldiers and militia appeared along the banks and began firing on the British sailors ."
] | [
" = Action of 13 September 1810 = \n \n The Action of 13 September 1810 was an inconclusive frigate engagement during the Napoleonic Wars between British Royal Navy and French Navy frigates during which a British frigate was defeated by two French vessels near Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) , but British reinforc... | river |
[
" = Fort Glanville Conservation Park = \n \n Fort Glanville Conservation Park is a protected area located in the Australian state of South Australia located in Semaphore Park , a seaside suburb of Adelaide consisting of a functional 19th century fort listed on the South Australian Heritage Register and some adjoini... | [
"While the fort retains its original form , the ditch and glacis ( embankment ) have been modified and are largely non @-@ <unk> in some areas .",
"The guns were supplied with siege over @-@ bank carriages .",
"The lower carriage sections are the type made for the guns when used as field pieces and the upper se... | [
" = Fort Glanville Conservation Park = \n \n Fort Glanville Conservation Park is a protected area located in the Australian state of South Australia located in Semaphore Park , a seaside suburb of Adelaide consisting of a functional 19th century fort listed on the South Australian Heritage Register and some adjoini... | river |
[
" = Jifna = \n \n Jifna ( Arabic : <unk> , <unk> ) is a Palestinian village in the Ramallah and al @-@ <unk> <unk> in the central West Bank , Palestine , located 8 kilometers ( 5 @.",
"@ 0 mi ) north of Ramallah and 23 kilometers ( 14 mi ) north of Jerusalem .",
"A village of about 1 @,@ 400 people , Jifna has ... | [
" = Jifna = \n \n Jifna ( Arabic : <unk> , <unk> ) is a Palestinian village in the Ramallah and al @-@ <unk> <unk> in the central West Bank , Palestine , located 8 kilometers ( 5 @.",
"However , after the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War the whole West Bank region , including Jifna , was annexed by Transjordan to form t... | [
"@ 0 mi ) north of Ramallah and 23 kilometers ( 14 mi ) north of Jerusalem .",
"A village of about 1 @,@ 400 people , Jifna has retained a Christian majority since the 6th century CE .",
"Its total land area consists of 6 @,@ 015 dunams , of which 420 are designated as built @-@ up areas , most of the remainder... | finance |
[
" = No result , Pts = \n Points , NRR = Net run rate .",
"= = = Match logs and statistics = = = \n \n \n = = Reaction = = \n \n After the conclusion of the Champions League tournament , Justin Langer retired from professional cricket .",
"Trescothick replaced him as Somerset captain for the 2010 season .",
"S... | [
"Additionally , Somerset released Wes <unk> and <unk> Banks , both of whom they felt were surplus to requirements ."
] | [
" = No result , Pts = \n Points , NRR = Net run rate .",
"= = = Match logs and statistics = = = \n \n \n = = Reaction = = \n \n After the conclusion of the Champions League tournament , Justin Langer retired from professional cricket .",
"Trescothick replaced him as Somerset captain for the 2010 season .",
"S... | river |
[
" = Oldham = \n \n Oldham / <unk> / is a large town in Greater Manchester , England , amid the Pennines between the rivers <unk> and <unk> , 5 @.",
"@ 3 miles ( 8 @.",
"@ 5 km ) south @-@ southeast of Rochdale and 6 @.",
"@ 9 miles ( 11 @.",
"@ 1 km ) northeast of Manchester .",
"Together with several sma... | [
"The <unk> ( named with reference to textile spindles ) is a modern shopping centre with over 40 retailers , banks , building societies and catering outlets ."
] | [
" = Oldham = \n \n Oldham / <unk> / is a large town in Greater Manchester , England , amid the Pennines between the rivers <unk> and <unk> , 5 @.",
"@ 3 miles ( 8 @.",
"@ 5 km ) south @-@ southeast of Rochdale and 6 @.",
"@ 9 miles ( 11 @.",
"@ 1 km ) northeast of Manchester .",
"Together with several sma... | river |
[
" = Tropical Storm Domoina = \n \n Severe Tropical Storm Domoina in 1984 caused 100 year floods in South Africa and record rainfall in Swaziland .",
"The fourth named storm of the season , Domoina developed on January 16 off the northeast coast of Madagascar .",
"With a ridge to the north , the storm tracked ge... | [
"The rains led to rivers <unk> their banks , which isolated tens of thousands of people .",
"The river flooding moved sediment along many banks , and in one location the sediment reached 10 km ( 6 @."
] | [
" = Tropical Storm Domoina = \n \n Severe Tropical Storm Domoina in 1984 caused 100 year floods in South Africa and record rainfall in Swaziland .",
"The fourth named storm of the season , Domoina developed on January 16 off the northeast coast of Madagascar .",
"With a ridge to the north , the storm tracked ge... | river |
[
" = Tales of Destiny 2 = \n \n Tales of Destiny 2 ( Japanese : <unk> <unk> <unk> 2 , Hepburn : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing video game , co @-@ developed by Wolfteam and <unk> Japan , and published by Namco .",
"It is the fourth main entry in the Tales series of video games , and a dir... | [
"Shortly after meeting a mysterious girl named Reala while trying to save Rutee 's orphanage from bankruptcy , Kyle is drawn into conflict with Barbatos , a cruel warrior responsible for killing Stahn , and the machinations of <unk> , a religious leader seeking to bring peace to mankind .",
"With the orphanage on... | [
" = Tales of Destiny 2 = \n \n Tales of Destiny 2 ( Japanese : <unk> <unk> <unk> 2 , Hepburn : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing video game , co @-@ developed by Wolfteam and <unk> Japan , and published by Namco .",
"It is the fourth main entry in the Tales series of video games , and a dir... | river |
[
" = Lady in the Lake trial = \n \n The Lady in the Lake trial was a 2005 murder case in which Gordon Park ( 25 January 1944 – 25 January 2010 ) a retired teacher from <unk> , near Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , Cumbria , England , was jailed for life for the murder of his first wife , Carol Ann Park , in 1976 .",
"C... | [
"Glen Banks , a man with whom Park had briefly shared a cell and who claimed in court that Park had admitted his guilt to him , was described as \" highly <unk> \" , frequently changed his story , and also claimed that Park had admitted to killing Carol while sailing to Blackpool ."
] | [
" = Lady in the Lake trial = \n \n The Lady in the Lake trial was a 2005 murder case in which Gordon Park ( 25 January 1944 – 25 January 2010 ) a retired teacher from <unk> , near Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , Cumbria , England , was jailed for life for the murder of his first wife , Carol Ann Park , in 1976 .",
"C... | river |
[
" = Odaenathus = \n \n Lucius Septimius Udaynath , <unk> as Odaenathus ( Aramaic : <unk> / <unk> ; Arabic : <unk> / Udaynath ; 220 – 267 ) , was the founder king ( Mlk ) of the Palmyrene Kingdom centered at the city of Palmyra , Syria .",
"He lifted his city from the position of a regional center subordinate to R... | [
"Odaenathus stayed on the side of Rome ; assuming the title of king , he led the Palmyrene army and fell upon the Persians before they could cross the Euphrates to the eastern bank , and inflicted upon them a considerable defeat .",
"Using this route , Odaenathus would have crossed the Euphrates at <unk> then mov... | [
" = Odaenathus = \n \n Lucius Septimius Udaynath , <unk> as Odaenathus ( Aramaic : <unk> / <unk> ; Arabic : <unk> / Udaynath ; 220 – 267 ) , was the founder king ( Mlk ) of the Palmyrene Kingdom centered at the city of Palmyra , Syria .",
"He lifted his city from the position of a regional center subordinate to R... | river |
[
" = Banksia violacea = \n \n Banksia violacea , commonly known as violet banksia , is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia ( family <unk> ) .",
"It generally grows as a small shrub to 1 @.",
"@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) high with fine narrow leaves , and is best known for its unusually coloured dark purple ... | [
" = Banksia violacea = \n \n Banksia violacea , commonly known as violet banksia , is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia ( family <unk> ) .",
"Although there are no recognised subspecies or varieties , both lignotuberous and <unk> forms exist for Banksia violacea .",
"Banksia violacea is clas... | [
"It generally grows as a small shrub to 1 @.",
"@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) high with fine narrow leaves , and is best known for its unusually coloured dark purple @-@ violet inflorescences .",
"The colour of the inflorescences , short leaves , and flattened follicles which are sticky when young , help identify this species... | river |
[
" = Rockstar 101 = \n \n \" Rockstar 101 \" is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) .",
"The song features the British @-@ American guitarist Slash of the rock group Guns N ' Roses .",
"It was released on May 18 , 2010 , as the fifth single from the album ... | [
"Her vocals and the instrumentation for the song were recorded at <unk> Sound Studios in Los Angeles , California , the Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California and Triangle Sound Studios in Atlanta , Georgia .",
"= = Track listing = = \n \n \n = = Credits and personnel = = \n \n Recording \n Recorded at <unk> Soun... | [
" = Rockstar 101 = \n \n \" Rockstar 101 \" is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) .",
"The song features the British @-@ American guitarist Slash of the rock group Guns N ' Roses .",
"It was released on May 18 , 2010 , as the fifth single from the album ... | river |
[
" = History of Braathens SAFE ( 1946 – 93 ) = \n \n Braathens South American & Far East Airtransport A / S or Braathens SAFE was founded by ship @-@ owner Ludvig G. Braathen in 1946 .",
"It started as a charter airline based at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen in Norway , flying to destinations in the Far East and in So... | [
"The route Stavanger – Bergen – Trondheim was awarded to <unk> <unk> in 1956 , but this company filed for bankruptcy the following year .",
"In 1968 , the large Swedish – Danish charter airline <unk> went bankrupt , giving Braathens SAFE increased charter traffic .",
"In 1992 , Busy Bee filed for bankruptcy ; t... | [
" = History of Braathens SAFE ( 1946 – 93 ) = \n \n Braathens South American & Far East Airtransport A / S or Braathens SAFE was founded by ship @-@ owner Ludvig G. Braathen in 1946 .",
"It started as a charter airline based at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen in Norway , flying to destinations in the Far East and in So... | river |
[
" = First Ostend Raid = \n \n The First Ostend Raid ( part of Operation <unk> ) was the first of two attacks by the Royal Navy on the German @-@ held port of Ostend during the late spring of 1918 during the First World War .",
"Ostend was attacked in conjunction with the neighbouring harbour of Zeebrugge on 23 Ap... | [
"With their volunteer crews suffering heavy casualties , the commanders increased speed despite the poor visibility and continued <unk> through the narrow channels inshore , searching for the <unk> Bank buoy which directed shipping into the canal ."
] | [
" = First Ostend Raid = \n \n The First Ostend Raid ( part of Operation <unk> ) was the first of two attacks by the Royal Navy on the German @-@ held port of Ostend during the late spring of 1918 during the First World War .",
"Ostend was attacked in conjunction with the neighbouring harbour of Zeebrugge on 23 Ap... | river |
[
" = Bob Dylan = \n \n Bob Dylan ( / <unk> / ; born Robert Allen Zimmerman , May 24 , 1941 ) is an American singer @-@ songwriter , artist and writer .",
"He has been influential in popular music and culture for more than five decades .",
"Much of his most celebrated work dates from the 1960s when his songs chro... | [
"Backed by Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood , he performed a ragged version of \" Hollis Brown \" , his ballad of rural poverty , and then said to the worldwide audience exceeding one billion people : \" I hope that some of the money ... maybe they can just take a little bit of it , maybe ... one or two million , may... | [
" = Bob Dylan = \n \n Bob Dylan ( / <unk> / ; born Robert Allen Zimmerman , May 24 , 1941 ) is an American singer @-@ songwriter , artist and writer .",
"He has been influential in popular music and culture for more than five decades .",
"Much of his most celebrated work dates from the 1960s when his songs chro... | river |
[
" = Mogadishu = \n \n Mogadishu ( / <unk> / ; Somali : <unk> ; Arabic : <unk> <unk> ) , known locally as Hamar , is the capital and most populous city of Somalia .",
"Located in the coastal Banaadir region on the Indian Ocean , the city has served as an important port for millennia .",
"As of 2015 , it had a po... | [
"In May 2012 , the First Somali Bank was established in the capital , which organized Mogadishu 's first ever Technology , Entertainment , Design ( TEDx ) conference .",
"In May 2012 , the First Somali Bank was established in the capital , representing the first commercial bank to open in southern Somalia since 1... | [
" = Mogadishu = \n \n Mogadishu ( / <unk> / ; Somali : <unk> ; Arabic : <unk> <unk> ) , known locally as Hamar , is the capital and most populous city of Somalia .",
"Located in the coastal Banaadir region on the Indian Ocean , the city has served as an important port for millennia .",
"As of 2015 , it had a po... | finance |
[
" = Jane 's Attack Squadron = \n \n Jane 's Attack Squadron is a 2002 combat flight simulator developed by Looking Glass Studios and Mad Doc Software and published by <unk> Interactive .",
"Based on World War II , the game allows players to pilot fifteen reproductions of that era 's military aircraft and to carry... | [
"These issues contributed to Looking Glass 's bankruptcy and closure in 2000 .",
"As a result , Looking Glass Studios went bankrupt in May 2000 .",
"<unk> circulated that the decision was part of the publisher 's larger plan to abandon the flight simulator genre , and Computer Gaming World 's Denny Atkin later ... | [
" = Jane 's Attack Squadron = \n \n Jane 's Attack Squadron is a 2002 combat flight simulator developed by Looking Glass Studios and Mad Doc Software and published by <unk> Interactive .",
"Based on World War II , the game allows players to pilot fifteen reproductions of that era 's military aircraft and to carry... | finance |
[
" = Stuart McCall = \n \n Andrew Stuart Murray McCall ( born 10 June 1964 ) , usually known as Stuart McCall , is a football manager and former player who is the current manager of Bradford City .",
"He made a total of 763 league games and in 40 full international matches for Scotland during his playing career ."... | [
"At the start of the following season , Motherwell lost only one match in their first six making them joint leaders of the Scottish Premier League , which led to McCall being named the <unk> Bank Premier League manager of the month for July and August .",
"As a result , McCall won <unk> Bank Manager of the Year .... | [
" = Stuart McCall = \n \n Andrew Stuart Murray McCall ( born 10 June 1964 ) , usually known as Stuart McCall , is a football manager and former player who is the current manager of Bradford City .",
"He made a total of 763 league games and in 40 full international matches for Scotland during his playing career ."... | river |
[
" = Baltimore mayoral election , 1999 = \n \n On November 2 , 1999 , the city of Baltimore , Maryland , elected a new mayor , the 47th in the city 's history .",
"Primary elections were held to determine the nominees for the Democratic Party and Republican Party on September 14 .",
"<unk> mayor Kurt Schmoke , a... | [
"The city saw decreases in heavy @-@ manufacturing by 40 percent , distribution jobs by 35 percent , retail positions by 34 percent , and banking jobs by 28 percent .",
"O 'Malley promised to enforce provisions of the Community <unk> Act of 1977 , which require banks to invest in poor neighborhoods ."
] | [
" = Baltimore mayoral election , 1999 = \n \n On November 2 , 1999 , the city of Baltimore , Maryland , elected a new mayor , the 47th in the city 's history .",
"Primary elections were held to determine the nominees for the Democratic Party and Republican Party on September 14 .",
"<unk> mayor Kurt Schmoke , a... | finance |
[
" = Arikamedu = \n \n Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Southern India , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> .",
"It is 4 kilometres ( 2 @.",
"@ 5 mi ) from the capital , Pondicherry of the Indian territory of <unk> .",
"Sir Mortimer Wheeler 1945 , and Jean @-@ Marie <unk> conducted <unk> excavations there in 19... | [
"It is located on the bank of the <unk> River ( for most part of the year the river is considered a <unk> ) , also known as Virampattinam River , which forms the northern outlet of the <unk> River as it joins the Bay of Bengal .",
"In 1765 , when he visited the ruins at the site , he found the people of the villa... | [
" = Arikamedu = \n \n Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Southern India , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> .",
"It is 4 kilometres ( 2 @.",
"@ 5 mi ) from the capital , Pondicherry of the Indian territory of <unk> .",
"Sir Mortimer Wheeler 1945 , and Jean @-@ Marie <unk> conducted <unk> excavations there in 19... | river |
[
" = Hurricane Ingrid = \n \n Hurricane Ingrid was one of two tropical cyclones , along with Hurricane Manuel , to strike Mexico within a 24 ‑ hour period , the first such occurrence since 1958 .",
"Ingrid was the ninth named storm and second hurricane of the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season .",
"It formed on Sept... | [
"The <unk> River in Tamaulipas rose above its banks , flooding two poor towns along its path and damaging adjacent roads .",
"The Mexican food bank sent about 800 tons of food to the hardest @-@ hit parts of the country in Guerrero , Veracruz , and <unk> ."
] | [
" = Hurricane Ingrid = \n \n Hurricane Ingrid was one of two tropical cyclones , along with Hurricane Manuel , to strike Mexico within a 24 ‑ hour period , the first such occurrence since 1958 .",
"Ingrid was the ninth named storm and second hurricane of the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season .",
"It formed on Sept... | river |
[
" = Hurricane Felicia ( 2009 ) = \n \n Hurricane Felicia was the third strongest tropical cyclone of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season , as well as the strongest storm to exist in the eastern Pacific at the time since Hurricane Daniel in 2006 .",
"Forming as a tropical depression on August 3 , the storm supported... | [
"A portion of Kamehameha Highway was shut down around 11 : 00 pm HST when the <unk> Stream overflowed its banks ."
] | [
" = Hurricane Felicia ( 2009 ) = \n \n Hurricane Felicia was the third strongest tropical cyclone of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season , as well as the strongest storm to exist in the eastern Pacific at the time since Hurricane Daniel in 2006 .",
"Forming as a tropical depression on August 3 , the storm supported... | river |
[
" = If I Never See Your Face Again = \n \n \" If I Never See Your Face Again \" is a song by American pop rock band Maroon 5 from the June 2008 re @-@ release of the group 's second studio album , It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) .",
"It was also included on the June 2008 re @-@ release of Rihanna 's album ... | [
"It was recorded by \" Spike \" Stent at Conway Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , CA and Phantom Studios , Westlake Village , CA .",
"= = Formats and track listings = = \n \n \n = = Credits and personnel = = \n \n Recording \n Recorded at Conway Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Glenwood Plac... | [
" = If I Never See Your Face Again = \n \n \" If I Never See Your Face Again \" is a song by American pop rock band Maroon 5 from the June 2008 re @-@ release of the group 's second studio album , It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) .",
"It was also included on the June 2008 re @-@ release of Rihanna 's album ... | river |
[
" = Plunketts Creek ( Loyalsock Creek ) = \n \n Plunketts Creek is an approximately 6 @.",
"@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 10 @.",
"@ 0 km ) tributary of Loyalsock Creek in Lycoming and Sullivan counties in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania .",
"Two unincorporated villages and a hamlet are on the creek , and its waters... | [
"The source is a pond just north of Pennsylvania Route <unk> ( the road between the villages of Proctor and Hillsgrove ) and Plunketts Creek crosses the road twice , then receives two unnamed tributaries on the right bank as it flows generally southwest about 1 @.",
"The creek continues southwest as it enters Plu... | [
" = Plunketts Creek ( Loyalsock Creek ) = \n \n Plunketts Creek is an approximately 6 @.",
"@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 10 @.",
"@ 0 km ) tributary of Loyalsock Creek in Lycoming and Sullivan counties in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania .",
"Two unincorporated villages and a hamlet are on the creek , and its waters... | river |
[
" = Eva Perón = \n \n María Eva Duarte de Perón ( 7 May 1919 – 26 July 1952 ) was the second wife of Argentine President Juan Perón ( 1895 – 1974 ) and served as the First Lady of Argentina from 1946 until her death in 1952 .",
"She is usually referred to as Eva Perón ( Spanish : [ <unk> <unk> ] ) , or by the aff... | [
"Members of the Peronist opposition speculated that the true purpose of the European tour was to deposit funds in a Swiss bank account . \"",
"The opposition in Buenos Aires \" , write Fraser and Navarro , \" assumed that the genuine purpose of the whole European visit was for Eva and her husband to deposit money... | [
" = Eva Perón = \n \n María Eva Duarte de Perón ( 7 May 1919 – 26 July 1952 ) was the second wife of Argentine President Juan Perón ( 1895 – 1974 ) and served as the First Lady of Argentina from 1946 until her death in 1952 .",
"She is usually referred to as Eva Perón ( Spanish : [ <unk> <unk> ] ) , or by the aff... | finance |
[
" = Boise National Forest = \n \n Boise National Forest is a <unk> protected area covering 2 @,@ 203 @,@ 703 acres ( 8 @,@ 918 @.",
"@ 07 km2 ) of the U.S. state of Idaho as part of the national forest system .",
"<unk> on July 1 , 1908 from part of Sawtooth National Forest , it is managed by the U.S. Forest Se... | [
"Over half of the 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) Wildlife Canyon Scenic Byway , which travels between highway 55 and Lowman , passes through the forest , parallels the South Fork of the Payette River , and is signed as the Banks @-@ Lowman Road ."
] | [
" = Boise National Forest = \n \n Boise National Forest is a <unk> protected area covering 2 @,@ 203 @,@ 703 acres ( 8 @,@ 918 @.",
"@ 07 km2 ) of the U.S. state of Idaho as part of the national forest system .",
"<unk> on July 1 , 1908 from part of Sawtooth National Forest , it is managed by the U.S. Forest Se... | river |
[
" = Laurence Olivier = \n \n Laurence Kerr Olivier , Baron Olivier , <unk> ( / <unk> <unk> <unk> / ; 22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989 ) was an English actor who , along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud , dominated the British stage of the mid @-@ 20th century .",
"He also worked in films throug... | [
"The British government agreed to release funds for a new building on the South Bank of the Thames .",
"In 2007 , the centenary of Olivier 's birth , a life @-@ sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank , outside the National Theatre ; the same year the BFI held a retrospective season of his film work ."... | [
" = Laurence Olivier = \n \n Laurence Kerr Olivier , Baron Olivier , <unk> ( / <unk> <unk> <unk> / ; 22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989 ) was an English actor who , along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud , dominated the British stage of the mid @-@ 20th century .",
"He also worked in films throug... | river |
[
" = Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruiser = \n \n The Derfflinger class was a class of three battlecruisers ( German : <unk> ) of the Imperial German Navy .",
"The ships were ordered for the 1912 – 13 Naval Building Program of the German Imperial Navy as a reply to the Royal Navy 's three new Lion @-@ class battlec... | [
"All three of the ships saw active service with the High Seas Fleet during World War I. Derfflinger was commissioned shortly after the outbreak of war , and was present at most of the naval actions in the North Sea , including the battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland .",
"She was also present during the battle of D... | [
" = Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruiser = \n \n The Derfflinger class was a class of three battlecruisers ( German : <unk> ) of the Imperial German Navy .",
"The ships were ordered for the 1912 – 13 Naval Building Program of the German Imperial Navy as a reply to the Royal Navy 's three new Lion @-@ class battlec... | river |
[
" = Tropical Storm Brenda ( 1960 ) = \n \n Tropical Storm Brenda was the second named storm of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season .",
"It developed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 28 , and after moving ashore over the Florida Peninsula , it attained tropical storm status .",
"Brenda accelerated north... | [
"Tides along the Outer Banks of North Carolina were generally reported at 2 ft ( 0 @."
] | [
" = Tropical Storm Brenda ( 1960 ) = \n \n Tropical Storm Brenda was the second named storm of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season .",
"It developed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 28 , and after moving ashore over the Florida Peninsula , it attained tropical storm status .",
"Brenda accelerated north... | river |
[
" = Alice in Chains = \n \n Alice in Chains is an American rock band formed in Seattle , Washington , in 1987 by guitarist and songwriter Jerry Cantrell and original lead vocalist Layne Staley .",
"The initial lineup was rounded out by drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr , who was replaced in 1993 by Mike ... | [
"Staley met guitarist Jerry Cantrell while working with Alice N ' Chains at Music Bank rehearsal studios .",
"However , one day before the band was due to record at the Music Bank studio in Washington , police shut down the studio during the biggest cannabis raid in the history of the state .",
"Originally inte... | [
" = Alice in Chains = \n \n Alice in Chains is an American rock band formed in Seattle , Washington , in 1987 by guitarist and songwriter Jerry Cantrell and original lead vocalist Layne Staley .",
"The initial lineup was rounded out by drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr , who was replaced in 1993 by Mike ... | river |
[
" = Khoo <unk> @-@ <unk> = \n \n Khoo <unk> @-@ <unk> ( Chinese : <unk> ; pinyin : <unk> <unk> ; <unk> <unk> h @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> : <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> ; born 2 March 1956 ) is a Malaysian author and speaker on contemporary application of the 500 BC Chinese military treatise , The Art of War , by renowned milita... | [
"Khoo has \" <unk> \" thousands of \" pupils \" of his clients , among whom were well @-@ known corporations like <unk> , <unk> Systems , Citibank , <unk> @-@ <unk> , Intel , Johnson & Johnson , Port of Singapore Authority , among many others , and also government bodies such as the Prime Minister 's Office of Sing... | [
" = Khoo <unk> @-@ <unk> = \n \n Khoo <unk> @-@ <unk> ( Chinese : <unk> ; pinyin : <unk> <unk> ; <unk> <unk> h @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> : <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> ; born 2 March 1956 ) is a Malaysian author and speaker on contemporary application of the 500 BC Chinese military treatise , The Art of War , by renowned milita... | river |
[
" = Hydnellum peckii = \n \n Hydnellum peckii is an inedible ( though not toxic ) fungus , and a member of the genus Hydnellum of the family Bankeraceae .",
"It is a hydnoid species , producing spores on the surface of vertical spines or tooth @-@ like projections that hang from the <unk> of the fruit bodies .",
... | [
" = Hydnellum peckii = \n \n Hydnellum peckii is an inedible ( though not toxic ) fungus , and a member of the genus Hydnellum of the family Bankeraceae .",
"= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = = \n \n The species was first described scientifically by American mycologist Howard James Banker in 1913 .",
"Ita... | [
"It is a hydnoid species , producing spores on the surface of vertical spines or tooth @-@ like projections that hang from the <unk> of the fruit bodies .",
"It is found in North America , Europe , and was recently discovered in Iran ( 2008 ) and Korea ( 2010 ) .",
"Hydnellum peckii is a mycorrhizal species , a... | finance |
[
" = New York State Route 38 = \n \n New York State Route 38 ( NY 38 ) is a north – south state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States .",
"Its southern terminus is at an intersection with NY 96 in the town of Owego in Tioga County .",
"The northern terminus is at a junction with NY ... | [
"At Water Street , NY 38 becomes North Main Street ; however , from this point north , most of the village is situated on the opposite bank of Owego Creek ."
] | [
" = New York State Route 38 = \n \n New York State Route 38 ( NY 38 ) is a north – south state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States .",
"Its southern terminus is at an intersection with NY 96 in the town of Owego in Tioga County .",
"The northern terminus is at a junction with NY ... | river |
[
" = History of artificial intelligence = \n \n The history of artificial intelligence ( AI ) began in antiquity , with myths , stories and rumors of artificial beings endowed with intelligence or consciousness by master craftsmen ; as Pamela McCorduck writes , AI began with \" an ancient wish to forge the gods . \"... | [
"AI had solved a lot of very difficult problems and their solutions proved to be useful throughout the technology industry , such as data mining , industrial robotics , logistics , speech recognition , banking software , medical diagnosis and Google 's search engine ."
] | [
" = History of artificial intelligence = \n \n The history of artificial intelligence ( AI ) began in antiquity , with myths , stories and rumors of artificial beings endowed with intelligence or consciousness by master craftsmen ; as Pamela McCorduck writes , AI began with \" an ancient wish to forge the gods . \"... | river |
[
" = Cyclone Graham = \n \n Cyclone Graham of the 2002 – 03 Australian region cyclone season was a weak tropical storm that affected Australia during late February and early March 2003 .",
"Graham originated from an area of convection that emerged onto water after sitting over Australia on 23 February .",
"The i... | [
"The heavy rain caused flooding and road closures , and swelled a river passing through <unk> Crossing , though the river only topped its banks slightly ."
] | [
" = Cyclone Graham = \n \n Cyclone Graham of the 2002 – 03 Australian region cyclone season was a weak tropical storm that affected Australia during late February and early March 2003 .",
"Graham originated from an area of convection that emerged onto water after sitting over Australia on 23 February .",
"The i... | river |
[
" = Silver Bullet ( roller coaster ) = \n \n Silver Bullet is a western @-@ themed steel inverted roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard located at Knott 's Berry Farm , an amusement park in Buena Park , California .",
"The $ 16 million roller coaster was announced on December 1 , 2003 and opened on Dece... | [
"After exiting the loop , the train makes a banked right turn leading into the cobra roll .",
"Then , the train enters the first of two <unk> which are separated by a banked left turn ."
] | [
" = Silver Bullet ( roller coaster ) = \n \n Silver Bullet is a western @-@ themed steel inverted roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard located at Knott 's Berry Farm , an amusement park in Buena Park , California .",
"The $ 16 million roller coaster was announced on December 1 , 2003 and opened on Dece... | river |
[
" = Strand , London = \n \n Strand ( or the Strand ) is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster , Central London .",
"It runs just over 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar , where the road becomes Fleet Street inside the City of London , and is part of the <unk> , a ma... | [
"The road 's name comes from the Old English <unk> , meaning the edge of a river , as it historically ran alongside the north bank of the River Thames .",
"Initially it referred to the shallow bank of the once much wider Thames , before the construction of the Victoria <unk> .",
"Gaiety Theatre was demolished ,... | [
" = Strand , London = \n \n Strand ( or the Strand ) is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster , Central London .",
"It runs just over 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar , where the road becomes Fleet Street inside the City of London , and is part of the <unk> , a ma... | river |
[
" = Track and field = \n \n Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running , jumping , and throwing .",
"The name is derived from the sport 's typical venue : a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and jumping events take p... | [
"The track can be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably ."
] | [
" = Track and field = \n \n Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running , jumping , and throwing .",
"The name is derived from the sport 's typical venue : a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and jumping events take p... | river |
[
" = Bath Assembly Rooms = \n \n The Bath Assembly Rooms , designed by John Wood , the Younger in 1769 , are a set of elegant assembly rooms located in the heart of the World Heritage City of Bath in England which are now open to the public as a visitor attraction .",
"They are designated as a Grade I listed build... | [
"John Wood , the Younger raised funding for the construction of the Assembly Rooms by the use of a <unk> , an investment plan that is named after the Neapolitan banker Lorenzo de <unk> , who is credited with <unk> it in France in 1653 ."
] | [
" = Bath Assembly Rooms = \n \n The Bath Assembly Rooms , designed by John Wood , the Younger in 1769 , are a set of elegant assembly rooms located in the heart of the World Heritage City of Bath in England which are now open to the public as a visitor attraction .",
"They are designated as a Grade I listed build... | finance |
[
" = Tropical Storm Olaf ( 1997 ) = \n \n Tropical Storm Olaf was an erratic and long @-@ lived tropical cyclone that brought heavy rainfall to regions of Mexico , which would be devastated by Hurricane Pauline a week later .",
"The sixteenth named storm of the 1997 season , Olaf formed on September 26 off the sou... | [
"The precipitation flooded many buildings across the region , including 30 houses in the Chiapas capital of <unk> Gutiérrez , when a river exceeded its banks ."
] | [
" = Tropical Storm Olaf ( 1997 ) = \n \n Tropical Storm Olaf was an erratic and long @-@ lived tropical cyclone that brought heavy rainfall to regions of Mexico , which would be devastated by Hurricane Pauline a week later .",
"The sixteenth named storm of the 1997 season , Olaf formed on September 26 off the sou... | river |
[
" = Spanish Hill = \n \n Spanish Hill is a hill located in the borough of South Waverly , Pennsylvania .",
"The hill is controversial among historians and archaeologists ; opinions regarding the origin of structures found on the site vary from embankments created by early farmers , to the remnants of a Native Ame... | [
"The hill is controversial among historians and archaeologists ; opinions regarding the origin of structures found on the site vary from embankments created by early farmers , to the remnants of a Native American village and <unk> , due to the site 's similarity to the description found in the account of Étienne Br... | [
" = Spanish Hill = \n \n Spanish Hill is a hill located in the borough of South Waverly , Pennsylvania .",
"The area in the hill 's vicinity was previously occupied by <unk> Native Americans .",
"It was a common site for both amateur and professional archaeology , as well as relic hunting .",
"The source of t... | finance |
[
" = History of Bradford City <unk> = \n \n Bradford City Association Football Club — also known informally as Bradford City — are an English football club founded in Bradford in 1903 to introduce the sport to the West Riding of Yorkshire , which until then had been almost entirely inclined towards rugby league .",
... | [
"New manager Colin <unk> missed out on guiding the club to an immediate promotion when they finished sixth , but at the end of the season the players had not been paid and the bank was unable to advance any more money because of the club 's <unk> ."
] | [
" = History of Bradford City <unk> = \n \n Bradford City Association Football Club — also known informally as Bradford City — are an English football club founded in Bradford in 1903 to introduce the sport to the West Riding of Yorkshire , which until then had been almost entirely inclined towards rugby league .",
... | finance |
[
" = Territorial era of Minnesota = \n \n The territorial era of Minnesota covers the history of the land that is now the modern US state of Minnesota from the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 , to its achieving statehood in 1858 .",
"The Minnesota Territory itself was formed only in 1849 but the area had a rich history... | [
"The American Fur Company went bankrupt in 1842 , though the Missouri Fur Company and other operations kept the trade from collapsing entirely .",
"Later in 1854 , Stevens <unk> the city of Minneapolis on the west bank ."
] | [
" = Territorial era of Minnesota = \n \n The territorial era of Minnesota covers the history of the land that is now the modern US state of Minnesota from the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 , to its achieving statehood in 1858 .",
"The Minnesota Territory itself was formed only in 1849 but the area had a rich history... | finance |
[
" = Kakapo = \n \n The kakapo ( Māori : kākāpō or night parrot ) , <unk> <unk> ( Gray , 1845 ) , also called owl parrot , is a species of large , flightless , nocturnal , ground @-@ dwelling parrot of the super @-@ family <unk> endemic to New Zealand .",
"It has finely blotched yellow @-@ green plumage , a distin... | [
"<unk> are often created next to rock faces , banks , or tree trunks to help reflect sound - the bowls themselves function as <unk> to enhance the projection of the males ' booming mating calls ."
] | [
" = Kakapo = \n \n The kakapo ( Māori : kākāpō or night parrot ) , <unk> <unk> ( Gray , 1845 ) , also called owl parrot , is a species of large , flightless , nocturnal , ground @-@ dwelling parrot of the super @-@ family <unk> endemic to New Zealand .",
"It has finely blotched yellow @-@ green plumage , a distin... | river |
[
" = Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman = \n \n Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman ( March 18 , 1845 – February 27 , 1863 ) was an American Union Army soldier of Native Hawaiian descent .",
"Considered one of the \" Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War \" , he was among a group of more than one hundred documented Native Hawaiian and Hawai... | [
"In the 1850s the family moved to the capital of Honolulu where Benjamin Pitman took up banking and built a beautiful two @-@ story house that he named <unk> ( \" <unk> water \" ) at the corner of <unk> and <unk> Streets ."
] | [
" = Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman = \n \n Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman ( March 18 , 1845 – February 27 , 1863 ) was an American Union Army soldier of Native Hawaiian descent .",
"Considered one of the \" Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War \" , he was among a group of more than one hundred documented Native Hawaiian and Hawai... | finance |
[
" = Journey ( 2012 video game ) = \n \n Journey is an indie video game developed by Thatgamecompany and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 .",
"It was released on March 13 , 2012 , via the PlayStation Network .",
"In Journey , the player controls a robed figure in a vast desert , tra... | [
"Awards in 2013 , Chen admitted that the company had indeed been driven to bankruptcy in the final months of development , and that some of the developers had gone unpaid at the time ."
] | [
" = Journey ( 2012 video game ) = \n \n Journey is an indie video game developed by Thatgamecompany and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 .",
"It was released on March 13 , 2012 , via the PlayStation Network .",
"In Journey , the player controls a robed figure in a vast desert , tra... | finance |
[
" = Gold Beach = \n \n Gold , commonly known as Gold Beach , was the code name for one of the five areas of the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 , during the Second World War .",
"Gold , the central of the five areas , was located between Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin... | [
"The area immediately behind the beach was marshy , with open ground and <unk> ( small fields surrounded by <unk> and embankments ) further inland ."
] | [
" = Gold Beach = \n \n Gold , commonly known as Gold Beach , was the code name for one of the five areas of the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 , during the Second World War .",
"Gold , the central of the five areas , was located between Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin... | finance |
[
" = Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery = \n \n Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery ( 27 July 1851 – 19 November 1890 ) was a British <unk> , the daughter of Baron Mayer de Rothschild and the wife of Archibald , Earl of Rosebery .",
"After <unk> her father 's fortune in 1874 , she became the richest woman i... | [
"She was the granddaughter of Baron Nathan Mayer Rothschild , who had founded N M Rothschild & Sons , the English branch of the Rothschilds ' banking empire ."
] | [
" = Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery = \n \n Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery ( 27 July 1851 – 19 November 1890 ) was a British <unk> , the daughter of Baron Mayer de Rothschild and the wife of Archibald , Earl of Rosebery .",
"After <unk> her father 's fortune in 1874 , she became the richest woman i... | finance |
[
" = Gaboon viper = \n \n <unk> gabonica , most commonly known as the Gaboon viper , is a viper species found in the rainforests and <unk> of sub @-@ Saharan Africa .",
"Like all vipers , it is venomous .",
"It is not only the largest member of the genus <unk> , but also the world 's heaviest <unk> , and it has ... | [
"Originally a name given by the Portuguese , Gabon ( <unk> ) refers to the estuary on which the town of <unk> was built , in Gabon , and to a narrow strip of territory on either bank of this arm of the sea ."
] | [
" = Gaboon viper = \n \n <unk> gabonica , most commonly known as the Gaboon viper , is a viper species found in the rainforests and <unk> of sub @-@ Saharan Africa .",
"Like all vipers , it is venomous .",
"It is not only the largest member of the genus <unk> , but also the world 's heaviest <unk> , and it has ... | river |
[
" = Jin – Song Wars = \n \n The Jin – Song Wars were a series of conflicts between the Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) and Han Chinese Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) .",
"In 1115 , the Jurchens rebelled against their overlords , the <unk> Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) , and declared the formation of the Jin .",
... | [
"After a coup in Hangzhou almost <unk> him , in May 1129 he moved his capital back north to Jiankang ( modern @-@ day <unk> ) on the south bank of the Yangtze .",
"The latter even inflicted a major defeat on Jurchen forces and tried to prevent Wuzhu from crossing back to the north bank of the Yangtze .",
"1217 ... | [
" = Jin – Song Wars = \n \n The Jin – Song Wars were a series of conflicts between the Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) and Han Chinese Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) .",
"In 1115 , the Jurchens rebelled against their overlords , the <unk> Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) , and declared the formation of the Jin .",
... | river |
[
" = Chagas disease = \n \n Chagas disease , also known as American <unk> , is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the <unk> Trypanosoma cruzi .",
"It is spread mostly by insects known as Triatominae or kissing bugs .",
"The symptoms change over the course of the infection .",
"In the early stage , symptoms... | [
"Blood transfusion was formerly the second @-@ most common mode of transmission for Chagas disease , but the development and implementation of blood bank screening tests has dramatically reduced this risk in the 21st century ."
] | [
" = Chagas disease = \n \n Chagas disease , also known as American <unk> , is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the <unk> Trypanosoma cruzi .",
"It is spread mostly by insects known as Triatominae or kissing bugs .",
"The symptoms change over the course of the infection .",
"In the early stage , symptoms... | river |
[
" = <unk> and development of the Everglades = \n \n The history of draining and development of the Everglades dates back to the 19th century .",
"During the Second Seminole War beginning in 1836 , the United States military 's mission was to seek out Seminole people in the Everglades and capture or kill them .",
... | [
"= = = Broward 's \" Empire of the Everglades \" = = = \n \n Despite the sale of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) to Disston and the <unk> price of land , by the turn of the 20th century the IIF was bankrupt due to <unk> ."
] | [
" = <unk> and development of the Everglades = \n \n The history of draining and development of the Everglades dates back to the 19th century .",
"During the Second Seminole War beginning in 1836 , the United States military 's mission was to seek out Seminole people in the Everglades and capture or kill them .",
... | finance |
[
" = DuMont Television Network = \n \n The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) <unk> / <unk> / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , <unk> NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA .",
"It b... | [
"By 1951 , ABC was badly <unk> and on the verge of bankruptcy ."
] | [
" = DuMont Television Network = \n \n The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) <unk> / <unk> / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , <unk> NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA .",
"It b... | finance |
[
" = Waterfall Gully , South Australia = \n \n Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide .",
"It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.",
"@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre .",
"For the most part , the subu... | [
"An early settler of the neighbouring suburb of Beaumont , James Milne Young , described the local <unk> : \" At every creek and gully you would see their <unk> [ simple Aboriginal homes made out of twigs and grass ] and their fires at night ... often as many as 500 to 600 would be camped in various places ... some... | [
" = Waterfall Gully , South Australia = \n \n Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide .",
"It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.",
"@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre .",
"For the most part , the subu... | river |
[
" = Noisy miner = \n \n The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , <unk> , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia .",
"This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips ... | [
"It <unk> within the colony 's territory throughout the year , usually in groups of five to eight birds although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees such as banksia .",
"In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens , the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia , grevillea and eucalypt... | [
" = Noisy miner = \n \n The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , <unk> , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia .",
"This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips ... | river |
[
" = Florida Atlantic University = \n \n Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbo... | [
"Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David <unk> , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto <unk> , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida ."
] | [
" = Florida Atlantic University = \n \n Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbo... | river |
[
" = Missouri River = \n \n The Missouri River is the longest river in North America .",
"Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri .",
"The river takes drainage fro... | [
"Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the <unk> belt ; every time the river changed course , it would <unk> tons of soil and rocks from its banks .",
"In 1945 , the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project , which would permanently increase th... | [
" = Missouri River = \n \n The Missouri River is the longest river in North America .",
"Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri .",
"The river takes drainage fro... | river |
[
" = Condom = \n \n A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS .",
"It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks <unk> semen f... | [
"Collection condoms may also be used where semen is produced at a sperm bank or fertility clinic ."
] | [
" = Condom = \n \n A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS .",
"It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks <unk> semen f... | river |
[
" = Islais Creek = \n \n Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du <unk> Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California .",
"The name of the creek is derived from a <unk> Native American word \" <unk> \" or \" <unk> \" , the name for the <unk> <unk> wi... | [
"In fact , the abandoned five @-@ story high <unk> crane , used to transport large amount of <unk> from ships to the plant as late as 1974 , still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark ."
] | [
" = Islais Creek = \n \n Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du <unk> Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California .",
"The name of the creek is derived from a <unk> Native American word \" <unk> \" or \" <unk> \" , the name for the <unk> <unk> wi... | river |
[
" = Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) = \n \n Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 .",
"It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolina... | [
"While moving slowly off the North Carolina coast , Alpha caused heavy beach erosion , destroyed one house , and threatened the foundation of several other homes in the Outer Banks ."
] | [
" = Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) = \n \n Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 .",
"It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolina... | finance |
[
" = Max Mosley = \n \n Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of <unk> organisations and car users worldwide .",
"The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and o... | [
"On his mother 's side they are merchant banker Jonathan Guinness , 3rd Baron <unk> ( born 1930 ) , and Irish <unk> Desmond Guinness ( born 1931 ) .",
"His father told him that the company \" would certainly go bankrupt , but it would be good training for something serious later on . \""
] | [
" = Max Mosley = \n \n Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of <unk> organisations and car users worldwide .",
"The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and o... | finance |
[
" = Verpa bohemica = \n \n Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family <unk> .",
"Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a \" false morel \" .",
"The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ sha... | [
"It is often found along riverbanks , near <unk> , willows and <unk> , often buried in plant litter ."
] | [
" = Verpa bohemica = \n \n Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family <unk> .",
"Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a \" false morel \" .",
"The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ sha... | river |
[
" = Varanasi = \n \n Varanasi ( <unk> pronunciation : [ <unk> ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , or Kashi ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilo... | [
" = Varanasi = \n \n Varanasi ( <unk> pronunciation : [ <unk> ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , or Kashi ( <unk> [ <unk> ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilo... | [
"The spiritual capital of India , it is the <unk> of the seven sacred cities ( <unk> Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism .",
"Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , <unk> , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junc... | river |
[
" = Cyclone Herbie = \n \n Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record .",
"The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the <unk> Islands on 17 May .",
"The following d... | [
"The Irwin and <unk> Rivers overflowed their banks , <unk> parts of <unk> ."
] | [
" = Cyclone Herbie = \n \n Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record .",
"The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the <unk> Islands on 17 May .",
"The following d... | river |
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