Popular Science

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MacPaw

Teen turns his suburban home into elaborate haunted house every October

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What is it?

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MacPaw is best known for its all-in-one Apple maintenance suite, CleanMyMac. Moonlock spins off CleanMyMac’s dedicated security features into a standalone app that’s cheaper and lighter than the full suite. For readers new to private connections, our PopSci explainers on how a VPN works and how to use a VPN are a good primer before diving in.

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Moonlock’s headliners are its VPN and real-time malware protection. Beyond that, it can restrict data from flowing to specific countries, walk you through a guided audit of your Mac’s built-in defenses, and encourage better security habits overall. If you’ve ever used mainstream antivirus on a PC, Moonlock provides a similar safety net for Mac users.

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Pros

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Extremely easy to use
Fast scans, even on large drives
Doesn’t slow down the computer when running
VPN is easy to configure and effective
Complies with major agencies and standards
Regularly updates threat databases with help from other trustworthy organizations
Transparent data policies
Guided setup process is quick and addresses built-in security settings

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Cons

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Mac malware is growing, but still isn’t that widespread
VPN may slow internet speeds on some connections
VPN may take longer to connect than others on some networks
Interface may seem a little too casual for some users

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Setup and installation

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The setup screens are very slick and polished. MacPaw

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MacPaw aims for simplicity and largely nails it from the start. A quick download and install lead into a guided setup: an initial scan and enabling automatic protections, both of which took me under ten minutes. It scanned my built-in 2TB drive and found no threats, which is always reassuring.

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After the scan, Moonlock walks you through macOS’s built-in security features—useful if you haven’t recently reviewed Apple’s own guidance on protecting your Mac from malware or the newer Rapid Security Responses. In my case, it recommended nine changes; I applied six immediately, and left three minor ones because they conflicted with software I knowingly use.

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Using Moonlock on a regular basis

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The graphic styling is friendly, but feels a bit dated sometimes. MacPaw

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Once installed, automatic protection can run continuously in the background, scanning each file as you interact with it. If you’d rather not keep it always-on, you can schedule periodic scans instead. There are three depths—quick, balanced, and deep—and even the deep scan only took a few minutes to churn through my 2TB of files. If you ever do get into cleanup mode, our guides to removing malware from your computer and giving your system a digital spring-clean pair nicely with Moonlock’s tools.

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While malware may not top most Mac users’ to-do lists, peace of mind is valuable. Even if Moonlock never flags a threat, you get the reassurance of active protection plus thoughtful touches like the guided macOS audit and built-in VPN. For anyone who wants a simple, set-and-forget solution without spelunking through endless menus, Moonlock is an appealing choice.

The post MacPaw’s Moonlock offers a full suite of Mac security tools in a slick, simple package appeared first on Popular Science.

This mosquito death trap is all-natural and very deadly

Laura Baisas — Fri, 31 Oct 2025 13:33:00 -0400

Never underestimate the power of fungi. It can turn ants into “zombies,” help fictional plumbers grow, and even look like creepy fingers. One newly engineered strain of fungus uses the power of smell to kill Earth’s deadliest animal—mosquitoes.

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Mosquito-borne diseases, including malaria and dengue, kill thousands of people per year. In 2023 alone, malaria killed over 500,000 people in 83 countries. These illnesses are often difficult to control, and mosquitoes have gotten better at resisting chemical pesticides that used to work.

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However, fighting nature with nature could be one solution. A fungus called Metarhizium can be used to deactivate mosquito sperm, keeping the deadly ones from spreading disease. It may also help catch and kill the deadly insects.

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Since mosquitoes are drawn to flowers, a team of researchers created a new strain of the Metarhizium fungus that imitates a flower’s sweet scent. That natural aroma comes from a chemical called longifolene in many types of flowers. The lab-grown fungus in this study essentially uses the longifolene to lure the bloodsucking mosquitoes to their deaths and is described in a study recently published in the journal Nature Microbiology.

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“Mosquitoes need flowers because they provide nectar, a crucial source of food for them, and they are drawn to flowers through their scents,” Raymond St. Leger, a study co-author and entomologist at the University of Maryland, said in a statement.

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“After observing that some types of fungi could trick mosquitoes into thinking they were flowers, we realized we could turbo-charge the attraction by engineering fungi to produce more longifolene, a sweet-smelling compound that’s already very common in nature,” St. Leger said. “Before this study, longifolene wasn’t known to attract mosquitoes. We’re letting nature give us a hint to tell us what works against mosquitoes.”

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Once the fungus spores are put into a container, the longifolene chemicals are released instantly. They can be effective for months because they also come out gradually and not in one initial burst.

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Mosquitoes placed in a container. Image: Mark Sherwood and Raymond St. Leger.

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As soon as the mosquitoes encounter the fungus, they become infected and die within a few days. In lab tests, the fungus killed 90 to 100 percent of mosquitoes, even when it was placed in a large room and had to compete with the scents of humans and real flowers. While this fragrant fungus is deadly to mosquitoes, it does not hurt humans. Longiflorine is actually commonly used in perfumes.

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“This makes it much safer than many chemical pesticides. We’ve also designed the fungus and its containers to target mosquitoes specifically rather than any other insects and longifolene breaks down naturally in the environment,” said St. Leger.

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Using a natural alternative like this fungus may also make it difficult or impossible for mosquitoes to outsmart or avoid, as they have with chemical alternatives.

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“If mosquitoes evolve to avoid longifolene, that could mean they’ll stop responding to flowers,” St. Leger explained. “But they need flowers as a food source to survive, so it would be very interesting to see how they could possibly avoid the fungus yet still be attracted to the flowers they need. It’ll be very difficult for them to overcome that hurdle, and we have the option of engineering the fungus to produce additional floral odors if they evolve to specifically avoid longifolene.”

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Other forms of Metarhizium are already used around the world to ward off mosquitoes on cheap materials such as chicken droppings, rice husks, and wheat scraps. The affordability and simplicity of the fungus could be key to reducing mosquito disease-related deaths in many parts of the world, particularly in poorer regions in the global south where mosquito-borne diseases are expected to rise due to climate change. The same diseases that are currently limited to tropical regions could also begin to threaten other places due to rising global temperatures.

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The team from this study is currently working on larger-scale outdoor trials of the new mosquito control method to submit for regulatory approval.

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“It’s not as if you’re going to necessarily find a silver bullet to control mosquitoes everywhere, but we’re trying to develop a very diverse and flexible set of tools that people in different parts of the world can use and choose from,” St. Leger said. “Different people will find different approaches work best for their particular situation and the particular mosquitoes they’re dealing with. In the end, our goal is to give people as many options as possible to save lives.”

The post This mosquito death trap is all-natural and very deadly appeared first on Popular Science.

Beware, beachgoers: New spider discovered in California’s sand dunes

Margherita Bassi — Fri, 31 Oct 2025 12:08:00 -0400

Just in time for Halloween, researchers have identified a new species of trapdoor spider. The newly discovered Aptostichus ramirezae is about the size of a quarter, brown, and pretty chunky. It’s the fourth known species of trapdoor spiders in California whose habitat is limited to sandy coastal dunes.

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Female trapdoor spiders are basically vampires. They spend their entire lives in underground, silky burrows behind a hinged, camouflaged door. They only leave their lair for lunch, when they feel vibrations indicating the passing above of an unfortunate prey. Good thing these tarantula relatives are small.

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In a study recently published in Ecology and Evolution, a team from the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) discovered that this new trapdoor species is closely related to Aptostichus simus.

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“While there are over 50,000 species of spiders worldwide, there are probably hundreds of thousands left to be discovered,” Jason Bond, senior author of the study and a biologist at UC Davis, said in a statement, “even along the coast where new spider species may be hiding just underfoot of California beachgoers.”

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Emma Jochim digs into a coastal sand dune in search of trapdoor spider burrows. Image: Emma Jochim / UC Davis.

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Suspecting that Aptostichus simus was hiding some cryptic species—visually similar but genetically distinct species—the team analyzed the genomic DNA of different specimens from across its range, as well as their distributions.

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“Based on what we know about their natural history and lifestyles, they’re not going to be able to disperse to different coastal dunes to reproduce and ‘mix’ with each other,” said Emma Jochim, a UC Davis doctoral student and study co-author.

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Bond named the new species Aptostichus ramirezae in honor of Martina Giselle Ramirez, an esteemed arachnologist known for his work on trapdoor spider population genetics and dean of the College of Science at California State University, Stanislaus. Previously, Bond has found inspiration for new species names among celebrities and musicians, among others, with examples being Aptostichus stephencolberti, Myrmekiaphila neilyoungi, and Aptostichus barackobamai.

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Unfortunately, Aptostichus simus and Aptostichus ramirezae are vulnerable species. They live in limited and shrinking habitats—coastal dunes from central California to northern Baja California, Mexico, and some in the Channel Islands. According to Jochim, the Aptostichus simus lineage is particularly at risk. Researchers have realized that the species today is mostly only found in San Diego, where sea-level rise estimates don’t paint a pretty picture. What’s more, the spiders don’t adapt quickly to new environments.

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Investigating their genetic differences helps scientists recognize the most vulnerable populations. More broadly, tracking spider species sheds light on our planet’s diversity.

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“If we don’t know how many species are in an area or understand the patterns of genetic diversity between populations, we don’t really know what areas would be most important for conservation efforts.”

The post Beware, beachgoers: New spider discovered in California’s sand dunes appeared first on Popular Science.

This tiny bat is one of the world’s deadliest hunters

Andrew Paul — Fri, 31 Oct 2025 11:00:00 -0400

The lion is an undisputed contender for the planet’s most iconic predator, but a new study indicates there is an underdog contender coming for its top spot. Or, more accurately, an under-bat. According to researchers at Aarhus University in Denmark and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, small flying mammals such as the fringe-lipped bat (Trachops cirrhosus) aren’t only comparable to a lion in terms of efficient hunting. They’re also often far more successful at getting the job done. The proof is laid out in a study appropriately published on October 31 in the journal Current Biology.

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The findings come from data collected by miniature biologging tags that were attached like backpacks to 20 fringe-lipped bats in the rainforests of Panama. These sensors recorded each wearer’s every sound and movement, as well as similar information from its surrounding environment. Biologists discovered that the winged hunters tracked comparatively large prey like birds, frogs, and other small mammals by adopting a “hang-and-wait” strategy. Using their acute sense of hearing, the bats could then zero-in on their unsuspecting targets as they neared, then quickly attack while expending very little overall energy. Bats spent 89 percent of their time hanging in place, and typically spent less than three minutes flying. By comparison, a hunting excursion only lasted eight seconds on average.

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The bats spend most of their time hanging in wait for prey to come near them. Credit: Grant Maslowski Grant Maslowski

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The size of their prey also surprised the study’s authors. An average meal for a fringe-lipped bat weighed about seven percent of its own body weight. That’s similar to a 154 pound person consuming an 11 pound meal. In some instances, however, prey like the roughly 20 gram Rosenberg’s gladiator tree frog weighed nearly as much as its devourer. Those dining sessions took time, too. The longest meal recorded by the biologgers tallied 84 minutes. Like many big cats, the bats then spent most of the remainder of the night resting.

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“It was incredible to discover that these bats hunt like big predators trapped in tiny bodies,” study co-author Leonie Baier said in a statement. “Instead of spending the night constantly on the wing, they wait patiently, strike with high precision, and sometimes end up catching enormous, energy-rich prey. The discovery that an animal this small can do this really turned our assumptions upside down.”

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When it comes to success rates, there simply is no comparison. Fringe-lipped bats caught their prey about half the time. For reference, lions only catch around 14 percent of their prey, while polar bears can grab as little as two percent of their targets. The bats also often improved with age, suggesting that they hone their hunting skills over time. Researchers have previously confirmed that the species recognizes specific frog calls for years at a time, and gains new strategies by watching their fellow bats.

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“We wanted to understand what these bats are actually doing out there in the dark–so we listened in, much like the bats themselves listen to their prey,” said study co-author Laura Stidsholt.

The post This tiny bat is one of the world’s deadliest hunters appeared first on Popular Science.

The world’s largest plane will transport wind turbines blades and fighter jets

Mack DeGeurin — Fri, 31 Oct 2025 10:00:00 -0400

A little-known company based in Boulder, Colorado, is pursuing an ambitious, borderline outlandish goal: creating the world’s largest airplane. When completed, the incredibly long 108-meter plane (roughly the length of an NFL football field) is expected to have a wingspan of over 260 feet and could offer 12 times the cargo space of Boeing C-17 Globemaster III. It would also be roughly 1.5 times the size of the largest commercial airplane currently in operation.

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But you won’t find any cramped airplane seats or flight attendants carts within that space. In fact, you probably won’t see any humans in the “cabin” at all. Instead, all of that open space was initially designed for a single primary purpose: transporting lengthy, cumbersome wind turbine blades. Radia, the company building this “WindRunner,” is betting that its gas‑guzzling behemoth will drive an uptick in large wind-power projects, both in the U.S. and abroad, especially in rural, developing countries where the infrastructure needed to move turbine blades is limited or nonexistent.

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Radia CEO Mark Lundstrom told Popular Science that he views his company’s behemoth as “a platform to move the world’s biggest things to the hardest-to-reach locations.”

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“Our main goal when we started Radia was to take 10% of the CO2 out of the world,” Radia writes on its website. This remains our intent. The product we have been designing happens to also be spot-on to fill the under-investment in strategic airlift.”

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Radia, which has received funding from a number of investors including Caruso Ventures and ConocoPhillips, started work on the project in 2017 and is projecting its first flight in 2029. While that date is fast approaching, external forces may create new turbulent obstacles for the world’s largest airplane. Shifting political priorities in the U.S. and elsewhere could make the once enticing economic allure of supplying wind energy less appealing. Steep tariffs on everything from the steel used to build turbine blades to the critical minerals powering them add yet another layer of complication for wind turbine manufacturers. And if recent announcements are any guide, the plane’s more immediate money maker may come from a different albeit more controversial source: transporting tanks and planes.

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What a WindRunner parked in a hangar could look like. Image: Courtesy of Radia

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Why making massive onshore wind turbines is so tricky

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Wind, like other renewable energy sources, has seen massive growth in recent years. An analysis by the nonprofit group Climate Central estimates that overall wind energy capacity in the U.S. alone doubled between 2014 and 2023. By the end of 2023, wind accounted for roughly 10 percent of all energy produced in the U.S. Globally, the International Energy Agency estimates that wind will make up 14 percent of all generated energy, with roughly two-thirds of that coming from China.

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But transporting the materials needed to build those turbines isn’t straightforward. Ideally, when constructing a wind turbine, the optimal strategy would be to design it with tremendously long blades. Longer blades can catch more wind, which means more energy generated from a single turbine. This is largely the current approach for offshore wind farms, where single blades can span upwards of 230 feet.

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That approach becomes much trickier when building onshore turbines, which accounts for the overwhelming majority (around 93 percent) of wind energy generated. The massive blades required for larger installations, which Radia refers to as “GigaWind” projects, are simply too big to transport over typical roads and bridges. Interstate highway clearances, which are around 16 feet, aren’t tall enough to allow a large turbine blade to pass through.

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Can the world’s largest airplane actually make wind energy greener? Image: Courtesy of Radia

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Add in various physical obstacles, like overhead power lines and street signs, and the process becomes even more dicey—and expensive. All that constant back-and-forth transporting of blade components on commercial trucks and cargo ships also consumes considerable amounts of gasoline, which is potentially counterproductive if the ultimate goal is to reduce fossil fuel emissions.

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“If you could put an offshore size turbine on shore, you can triple the capacity,” Lundstrom said. “You can reduce the cost of the electron by a third.”

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That’s where the WindRunner comes in. The plane’s 344-foot payload length and 261-foot wingspan contribute to a total payload volume of about 270,000 cubic feet. That means it can safely transport a single blade over 300 feet long, or possibly several smaller ones. (For a sense of scale, it could reportedly hold the equivalent of three Olympic-sized swimming pools.) Despite its absurd size, the WindRunner is actually relatively light. That’s due to the company’s decision to optimize internal space over weight. Once fully loaded, it would carry a payload of about 160,000 pounds, which is slightly less than the much smaller Boeing C-17. Radia claims the aircraft will have a range of roughly 1,200 miles (about the distance from New York City to Miami) and can cruise at Mach 0.6, or about 396–400 mph, depending on environmental conditions.

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“I think this is the first time that an aircraft has ever been designed to optimize volume versus mass,” Lundstrom added.

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But besides maximizing volume, Radia didn’t necessarily want to reinvent the wheel when it came to airplane design. In fact, Lundstrom says they approached the design with a philosophy of “do nothing new.” That means no new engines, or avionic flight controls. Though it might look quite different from other planes visually, the CEO says WindRunner was intentionally designed around parts and technologies in aircraft already flying today. In addition to making things simpler, that tactic cuts down on production costs and lengthy timelines.

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“The novelty here is probably not necessarily designing something new, but the novelty perhaps is designing an airplane around the supply chain of stuff that already exists,” Lundstrom said.

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Despite all that size (the cockpit alone is about the size of a Gulfstream private jet) the WindRunner is being built to have some flexibility in terms of where it can land. It can land at local airports when available, but more often the more sensible option will be to arrive in “semi-prepared” fields near turbine factories. To do that, the WindRunner will have massive rugged tires. It’s also being designed in a way that keeps the engine high off the ground to prevent it from sucking up any dirt or debris that might pop up during landing. That ability to land away from airports could be particularly useful when serving newer power plants constructed in remote areas with limited infrastructure.

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Still, relatively light or not, actually flying a football-field-sized aircraft requires jet fuel– and lots of it. Though Radia hasn’t specified exactly how much fuel the WindRunner will use, the world’s next largest plane, the recently destroyed Ukrainian Antonov An-225 Myrida, reportedly burned through more than 50 liters of jet fuel per hour. The fact that something intended to cut back on emissions is itself creating them, of course, can seem like a contradiction. That’s a point not lost amongst a handful of skeptics online and on social media.

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“All that jet fuel wasted for something that may never generate more energy than it takes to create,” one critical Reddit user wrote.

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Defending its approach, Radia argues that transportation—which the EPA estimates accounts for about 29 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions—is a “negligible contributor to the carbon footprint” once large onshore GigaWind turbines are factored in. The company says that transporting components to and from wind farms currently represents only about 7 percent of a wind farm’s total carbon footprint, with the vast majority of emissions coming from manufacturing.

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Radia hopes that future GigaWind turbines, made possible in part by the WindRunner, will generate enough additional clean energy to “mitigate” the emissions impacts from both transportation and manufacturing. The ends, in other words, justify the means. Eventually, Radia says it plans to operate the aircraft on 100% sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), which would theoretically further reduce its carbon footprint.

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“Larger turbines equate to a substantial reduction in the wind farm’s CO2e emissions footprint,” Radia writes on its website. “And over time, the initial negative impact is balanced and will indeed become net positive.”

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How shifting policy preferences could chart WindRunner’s course

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Years into development, Radia now faces another challenge: the Trump administration. A substantial portion of the recent growth in the renewable energy sector was catalyzed by tax incentives and infrastructure legislation enacted during Joe Biden’s presidency. President Trump is now making good on his promise to reverse course. Earlier this year, he signed multiple executive orders aimed at curbing “preferential treatment” for wind power expansion. At the same time, his administration has declared a national energy emergency and called for increased domestic energy production—particularly from fossil fuel sources.

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When asked about the challenges presented by shifting presidential policies, Lundstrom told Popular Science he believes their vision for larger, efficient turbines may align with where the administration wants to go in terms of simply creating large base loads of energy. He also expects the current unpredictability to “stabilize” by the time the WindRunner is up and flying. Lundstrom also said he sees an opportunity for additional wind power to help meet the soaring energy needs associated with new, power-hungry AI data centers.

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Trump, who regularly refers to turbines as “windmills,” has called them “the worst form of energy.”

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Uncertainty surrounding on-again, off-again tariff policies may also play a significant role in the WindRunner’s development costs and timeline. Though difficult to quantify given their volatility, a report from the research and consulting firm Wood Mackenzie estimates various tariffs proposed earlier this year against Canada, Mexico, and China could increase U.S. onshore wind turbine costs by about 7 percent. While that might sound like a relatively modest impact, it could lead to major shifts in decision-making among wind turbine operators, Radia’s target clients, when considering expanded development. When asked about the tariff issue, Lundstrom said it’s less of an issue for them compared to turbine manufacturers.

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As with many world record-smashers before it, the Patons’ prize pumpkin was an Atlantic Giant, a variety of Cucurbita maxima first developed in the 1970s. The seeds for these behemoths are only slightly larger than that of a regular jack o’ lantern, and they grow at alarming speeds. Once the plants get going, the vines sprawl a foot a day in every direction. Early on, the grower must choose his or her fighter from the baby pumpkins on the vine. By culling the smaller ones, they force the plant to focus all of its energy on one.

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“Our pumpkins can grow 70 pounds a day, so 700 pounds in 10 days,” Paton says with pride, then adds slyly, “People say what do you feed them and I say, ‘A small child everyday!’”

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Jokes aside, pumpkin-growers feed these monstrosities an alarming amount of water—in the case of the Patons’ pumpkins, about 130 gallons a day. “They’re thirsty,” Paton says. “They need no more fertilizer [per square foot] than your normal tomato plant would—just bulked up, since it’s about 1,200 times your tomato plant.”

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+ Related Hobby Stories

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A dedicated son brings Fenway Park to his dad’s backyard

In Vermont, one man is bringing pay phones back to life

Illinois man has spent 40 years rebuilding a WWII-era B-17 bomber

A life-long car lover recreated the Griswold’s famous station wagon

Amateur paleontologist opens fossil museum in rural Minnesota

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Although growing giant pumpkins is certainly an art, the champions insist that there’s no real magic bullet or secrets to it. Travis Gienger, a horticulture teacher at Anoka Technical College in Minnesota, attributes his success to genetics, patience, and careful plant-management techniques. Each year, he carefully hand-pollinates his plants to combine the genes of the pumpkin with a large circumference with a pumpkin with an exceptionally thick shell.

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“You need a thick shell to win,” Gienger says, citing the fact that champions are usually ranked on weight. He would know. A four-time winner of the Half Moon Bay Pumpkin Festival Contest, Gienger set the North American record in 2022. In 2023, his 2,749-pound goliath nicknamed Michael Jordan set the previous world record.

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Like the Patons, Gienger has been obsessed for almost his entire life. “My dad was raising little pumpkins, say, maybe 100-pounders that we put in a wheelbarrow as a kid,” he says. “Then I went to the state fair and saw some big ones, and I’m like, ‘I wonder if I can do that.’ Nearly three decades later, I had the world record.”

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Gourd glory and riches

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The road to pumpkin fame and fortune is fraught with peril. A single, tiny hole in the side of Gienger’s prospective entry this year allowed air to enter the main cavity. The entire gourd rotted. “There’s a lot of factors that are out of your control,” Gienger says. “Weather, obviously, the big one. If we get smoked with rain, that’s no good. If we’re too hot or too cold, too cold is usually the problem around here. Halestorms, that’s your enemy.”

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Giant pumpkin grower Travis Gienger (left) poses along his family with his 2,560-pound gourd during the pumpkin parade at the Half Moon Bay Pumpkin Festival in 2022. Image: Anadolu / Contributor / Getty Images Anadolu

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Even once the pumpkins make it to maturity, there are still hurdles to cross. Just hoisting a 2000-plus-pound fruit requires a special harness. Last year, Gienger drove his winning pumpkin more than 2,000 miles over 35 hours to California for the weigh-off. After the contest, it had to journey all the way to New York, where it took three growers five days to hack it apart.

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It was all worth it though. A single seed from Michael Jordan goes for $349. Gienger also took home $30,000, plus a weekend at The Ritz-Carlton in Half Moon Bay. “It’s a pretty sweet deal,” he says. “You get a coat and an engraved ring. And they put you on a pumpkin float for the big parade.”

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For most growers, the pride of winning far outweighs the cash. As Paton points out, it costs a small fortune just to grow these pumpkins. “We call it the friendliest sport in the world, because we all help each other out,” Paton says. “Ultimately, your competition is yourself. A battle of wits against Mother Nature.”

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For decades, Popular Science has highlighted the work of hobbyists. If you or someone you know is a DIY hobbyist working on a project, we’d like an introduction. Fill out this form and tell us more.

The post Giant pumpkin growers face off for world gourd domination appeared first on Popular Science.

18th century lead ammo found in Scottish Highlands

Andrew Paul — Thu, 30 Oct 2025 16:10:34 -0400

Archaeologists in Scotland have excavated over 100 weapon projectiles, including cannon shot and lead musket balls from one of the country’s most famous battlefields. With these new finds, experts say they can better contextualize the Battle of Culloden, as well as highlight some of the conflict’s lesser known participants.

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The Battle of Culloden

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In July 1745, Charles Stuart arrived in Scotland seeking to return his father to the British throne. For the next nine months, Stuart proceeded to lead thousands of supporters, militiamen, and conscripted soldiers in a military campaign now known as the Jacobite rising of 1745. While short-lived, the uprising had far-reaching consequences across England and mainland Europe.

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Stuart’s attempt to take the throne was ultimately doomed, and the Battle of Culloden proved his final attempt at the throne. On April 16, 1746, he and upwards of 6,000 fighters met around 7,000 British loyalists near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. Between 1,500 and 2,000 of Stuart’s men were killed or wounded in less than an hour, forcing the Jacobites to retreat and effectively ending the revolt.

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In the years since, the battle’s decisive tactics have been closely studied, but archaeologists from the University of Glasgow and the National Trust for Scotland recently discovered an array of physical relics from the deadly conflict.

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Metal detecting was one of three different, but complementary, techniques used to investigate the area. Credit: National Trust for Scotland

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Fighting (and digging) on boggy ground

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Although previous surveys of the same section of battlefield failed to yield any artifacts, experts recovered the various ammunition using two strategies called trial trenching and test pitting. Both techniques allow archaeologists to quickly assess an area without the need to dig too deep into the ground. Metal detectors then helped pinpoint the likely locations for more extensive examinations. Experts believe the prior surveys likely failed because the boggy landscape was first forested in the 19th century, then recently cleared.

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Archaeologist Tony Pollard said that initial analysis indicates their finds were some of the last shots fired during the skirmish.

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“Musket balls fired by Jacobite and government troops, including pistol balls fired by government dragoons, likely relate to one of the last actions in the battle,” he said in a statement. “This fight took place between the initial battle lines, at a location where boggy ground slowed the Highland charge, and this in combination with heavy fire from Cumberland’s line helped to seal the fate of the Jacobite cause.”

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‘Valiant action’

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Pollard explained that the munitions likely didn’t come from the Jacobites themselves, but from an Irish battalion enlisted by their French allies.

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“[The battalion] made a brave stand against hundreds of mounted men… advancing from the right of Cumberland’s line,” he recounted. “The job of these horsemen was to cut down the disordered Jacobites, and we have recovered some of the shot fired from their heavy pistols.”

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Historical accounts say about 150 men under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Walter Stapleton blocked these horsemen. After retreating behind the walls of Culloden Parks, the remaining fighters soon surrendered. However, Stapleton was not among them. He died at some point during the cavalry onslaught. As regular troops in French service, the British treated them as prisoners of war instead of Jacobite rebels, and eventually repatriated them to France.

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“This valiant action helped thousands of Jacobites get away from the field, but it gets only brief mentions in most of the history books,” said Pollard.

The post 18th century lead ammo found in Scottish Highlands appeared first on Popular Science.

Neanderthals used ‘crayons’ to color

Andrew Paul — Thu, 30 Oct 2025 14:58:26 -0400

Neanderthals are getting a well-deserved scientific rewrite. A growing body of paleoarchaeological evidence indicates that our extinct cousins were far from the lumbering oafs we initially believed them to be. Recent discoveries show the one-time Homo sapien competitors were creative enough to craft stone multitools and even collect small trinkets. A recent study published in the journal Science Advances now adds a more colorful dimension to the early hominins. Pigment materials discovered at known Neanderthal sites indicate they possessed an artistic streak, as well.

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The latest Neanderthal art discovery comes from a team led by Francesco d’Errico, a researcher of early sapiens at France’s University of Bordeaux. The archaeologists traveled to multiple locations across Crimea and Ukraine known for their troves of Neanderthal artifacts. They collected 16 pieces of ochre dating as far back as 70,000 years. Ochre is an orange pigment that is made from iron-rich minerals.It was utilized across many ancient civilizations for artwork, as well as preserving and tanning animal hides. The team then used scanning electron microscopes and portable X-ray scanners to examine their finds.

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Archaeological ochre pieces from Crimea. Credit: d’Errico et al.

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Many of the ochre fragments showed signs of being used for making marks, such as polished, sharpened, and engraved surfaces. One piece of yellow ochre particularly stood out from the rest, however. A close analysis showed that the item was purposefully shaped into a crayon-like object for drawing. Researchers also noticed that the tip had been resharpened and reused multiple times. This likely means the ochre wasn’t worn down and discarded, but intentionally fashioned into an artistic tool.

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“While practical applications (e.g., hide processing) remain plausible for other specimens, the evidence supports symbolic use among some Crimean Neanderthals,” the study’s authors wrote, adding that the cumulative findings “support the conclusion that at least some ochre materials were involved in symbolic activities.”

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If true, this implies Neanderthals engaged in similar cultural activities to those pursued by some of their contemporary Homo sapiens. Unfortunately, crayons don’t exactly factor very heavily into natural selection and evolution. Both early humans and their distant hominin relatives may have both enjoyed making their marks, but only we survived to still enjoy a good coloring session today.

The post Neanderthals used ‘crayons’ to color appeared first on Popular Science.

Shark’s pet-friendly air purifier is cheaper than ever at Amazon for a limited time

Stan Horaczek — Thu, 30 Oct 2025 14:17:07 -0400

Have you turned your home’s heat on for the winter yet? I finally gave in and switched my thermostat over to heat only to find myself smelling the familiar dusty scent emanating through my vents. The air quality in your home is important and that’s why we’re so enthusiastic about recommending air purifiers. Right now, Amazon has Shark’s powerful HP201 Air Purifier for its cheapest price of the year

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Shark HP102PET Air Purifier (Bedroom/Nursery, PET) $149

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+ + Even the cutest pets can make very un-cute smells. + +

Shark

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Sized for small rooms where quiet matters, the HP102PET targets pet dander, hair, and everyday allergens with a sealed HEPA-level filter and an odor-fighting carbon layer to tame litter-box or wet-dog smells. It monitors air quality and auto-adjusts the fan, so you can set it in a corner and let it run while you sleep. A dedicated Sleep mode dims the display and hushes the motor, while a simple filter indicator takes the guesswork out of maintenance. Its compact footprint fits on a dresser or in a nursery beside the rocker, and a top-facing intake/exhaust helps circulate clean air without a draft. If your cat claims the bed or the dog sneaks afternoon naps in the crib room, this is an easy, low-fuss way to keep the air fresher overnight and during naps.

This tiny T. rex is actually a new species

Andrew Paul — Thu, 30 Oct 2025 12:00:00 -0400

For decades, paleontologists have argued about size. Specifically, whether or not certain fossils found in Montana belonged to a young Tyrannosaurus rex or a completely separate, smaller species. Researchers at North Carolina State University and Ohio University now say they can settle the debate. Tyrannosaurus rex did, in fact, have a diminutive relative in North America. While Nanotyrannus lancensis was comparatively small, a study published on October 30 in Nature makes it clear that they remained a fearsome Cretaceous era predator.

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Tyrannosaurus rex earned its “Tyrant King” status partly due to its enormous size. An adult T. rex could easily grow over 42-feet-long and weigh more than nine tons.Even juveniles weighed in at around 4,000 pounds. With that in mind, it’s understandable why a small skull discovered in 1946 at Montana’s fossil-rich Hell Creek Formation has been such a controversial specimen. Initially described as a species of Gorgosaurus, some paleontologists later asserted it actually belonged to an entirely separate Tyrannosaur. This initial categorization was met with pushback by an opposing camp of researchers, who claimed the skull simply possessed a combination of immature tyrannosaurid and T. rex characteristics. The truth had larger implications—if Nanotyrannus was actually its own species, that would end T. rex’s reign as the only widely accepted tyrannosauroid roaming North America during the late Cretaceous.

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The skull of Nanotyrannus differs from T. rex. Nanotyrannus has different nerve patterns, sinus structures, and more teeth. Credit: NC Museum of Natural Sciences MATT ZEHER

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“In the years since, Nanotyrannus has become a hot-button issue, and the debate has often been acrimonious,” paleontologists Lindsay Zanno and Lawrence Witmer explained in their study.

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During an expedition back to the Hell Creek Formation, Zanno and Witmer’s team discovered an “exceptionally preserved, skeletally complete tyrannosauroid specimen.” After a close examination of the approximately 67-million-year-old remains, the study’s authors concluded that their find—as well as the 1946 skull—belong to Nanotyrannus.

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The key piece of evidence came from the new specimen’s age. A morphological analysis of its bones indicates they were nearly fully grown. If they were a juvenile, then their skeleton would still be developing. Additional modelling also led the paleontologists to believe Nanotyrannus displayed different bone-growth trajectories than T. rex, further supporting the argument. With this in mind, the study authors reexamined the previously discovered specimens, and determined the Nanotyrannus genus possessed at least two distinct species: Nanotyrannus lancensis and Nanotyrannus lethaeus.

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An NCMNS infographic of a T. Rex vs the Nanotyrannus. Credit: North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences

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In contrast to the T. rex, an adult Nanotyrannus only grew to a length of around 18 feet and weighed about 1,550 pounds. Where its larger cousin evolved for brute strength with thick legs and a bone-crushing bite, Nanotyrannus took a different approach to hunting prey. Its longer legs and strong arms made it both agile and fast, allowing it to quickly ambush its targets.

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The confirmation of Nanotyrannus’ existence means that Tyrannosaurus likely had some company for at least around one million years leading up to the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event. This further supports the theory that dinosaurs weren’t already on the decline prior to their demise.If anything, the diversity suggests that they were doing just fine.

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“Our results undermine a nearly uniform consensus among theropod specialists and rectify a significant taxonomic error underpinning decades of research,” the authors wrote. “The impact is beyond our ability to summarize here.”

The post This tiny T. rex is actually a new species appeared first on Popular Science.

Listen up: The Popular Science ‘Ask Us Anything’ podcast is back

Popular Science Team — Thu, 30 Oct 2025 11:41:11 -0400

Do fish fart? Why do we have toenails? How do airplane toilets actually work?

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For more than 150 years, Popular Science has answered your questions—from the serious to the outlandish. Now, we’re bringing back our Ask Us Anything podcast to satiate your curiosity about our weird and wonderful world. Based on our wildly popular written series of the same name, the audio version features host Sarah Durn and the Popular Science editors discussing everything from goose bumps to human composting.

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New episodes launch November 12 wherever you get your podcasts, so be sure to subscribe and follow on your favorite platform. We guarantee you’ll learn something new. And if you have a question for us, ask away.

The post Listen up: The Popular Science ‘Ask Us Anything’ podcast is back appeared first on Popular Science.

Caught on camera: Rats hunting bats mid-flight

Sarah Durn — Thu, 30 Oct 2025 11:11:54 -0400

It’s a bird! It’s a plane! No, it’s a rat-grabbing-bat!

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For the first time, a brown rat has been caught on camera actively hunting bats. The never-before-seen footage shows the rat grabbing a snack at hibernation sites in northern Germany. While it’s undeniably impressive that rats can grab their supper mid-air, the new footage does not bode well for the bats. According to a study recently published in the journal Global Ecology and Conservation, rat predation may cause enough damage to significantly threaten local bat populations.

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Brown rats are, in fact, the very same rats that scurry around New York City subway stations and drive tiny cars. Also called the Norway rat, these rodents are highly adaptive and excellent breeders. And wherever humans are, you can bet brown rats are living there, too. Despite their bad rap, rats are incredibly smart. They can think ahead, imagining solutions to problems, beat AI at recognizing hidden objects, and can even learn their own names. But their superior rodent brains can also make them excellent little hunters.

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For this study, researchers set up thermal and infrared cameras to keep tabs on two bat hibernation sites in the towns of Segeberg and Lüneburg-Kalkberg, Germany. The two main species at the sites are the furry, short-eared Daubenton’s bat (Myotis daubentonii) and the lighter-colored Natterer’s bat (Myotis nattereri).

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The team analyzed camera footage captured over several months between 2021 and 2024, during times when the bats were most active. The footage revealed a new apex predator in the brown rat. (We’re only mostly kidding.)

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The researchers observed two distinct bat-hunting strategies. Some rats stood upright as they grabbed the unfortunate bats mid-air. Others closed in on the unsuspecting bats as they rested on the ground.

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Capture and predation of a landed Daubenton’s bat by a brown rat. Video: Gloza-Rausch et al. (2025) Global Ecology and Conservation.

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In Segeberg, the team captured 13 of these astonishing kills on camera. The researchers also catalogued a total of 52 rat-ravagged bat carcasses scattered across the cave. Similar findings were also documented in Lüneburg-Kalkberg.

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While that might not seem like a ton of bats, the team calculated that even a small rat colony (roughly 15 rats) could kill upwards of seven percent of the roughly 30,000 bats that spend their winters in Segeberg. And that’s a problem—both for bats and for people.

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“Management of invasive rodents at important bat hibernation sites supports biodiversity conservation,” the team wrote in the study. Managing these bat-murdering rats also, “reduces potential public health impacts as part of a One Health strategy (an approach that considers the health of humans, animals and the environment together).”

The post Caught on camera: Rats hunting bats mid-flight appeared first on Popular Science.

The best electric commuter bikes for 2026, tested and reviewed

Heather Kuldell-Ware — Thu, 30 Oct 2025 10:15:31 -0400

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I started riding an electric commuter bike out of necessity. Living in the suburbs of D.C. means our Metro lines sometimes shut down for weeks (or even months) for repairs, and driving into the city can easily run $20 or more each way once you add tolls, hot lanes, and parking. When I crunched the numbers, an e-bike—in my case, my first Specialized Turbo Vado—started to look downright economical. What I didn’t expect was how this one piece of outdoor gear would transform my commute into the best part of my day: a chance to decompress after stressful work hours, sneak in a workout, and actually enjoy the ride.

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The beauty of e-bikes is that pedal-assist power helps close the gap between your fitness level and the distance between home and office. They make long commutes feel shorter, tough hills less intimidating, and everyday riding way more doable. And the latest generation of commuter e-bikes is smarter than ever: think longer battery life, improved torque and cadence sensors (plus the ability to switch between them), integrated security features, and more throttles for when you need a cheat code.

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The goal? A bike—like our best overall, the Priority Current Plus—that keeps your bum happy, makes commuting easier, and during a great promotion doesn’t cost so much you’ll be working extra shifts to pay it off. We’ve updated our list of the best electric commuter bikes to do exactly that.

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Best overall e-bike for long commutes: Priority Current Plus
Best value commuter e-bike for most people: Ride1Up Roadster v3
Best compact e-bike for last-mile commuters: JackRabbit OG2
Best Dutch-style electric commuter bike: Trek Verve+ 1 LowStep LT
Best lightweight electric commuter bike: Tenways CGO600 Pro
Best gravel e-bike for commuting: Salsa Confluence Drop-Bar GRX 600 2x
Best for fitness buffs who secretly love a shortcut: Trek FX+ 7S
Best premium electric commuter bike: Specialized Turbo Vado 4.0 Step-Through
Best folding e-bike for multimodal commuters: Brompton Electric G Line
Best long-range folding e-bike: Velotric Fold 1 Plus

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How we selected the best electric commuter bikes

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As a long-time bike commuter, I know how riding the same roads—smacking into the same roots, rattling over the same cracks, and climbing the nemesis hill—can really do a number on your backside. That’s why I test these bikes in the wild, not on some cushy closed course. Think city streets with sketchy bike lanes, suburban roads where drivers forget bikes exist, and trails that are smooth one minute and out to sabotage you the next.

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To test the battery’s range, I take each e-bike on a 16-mile loop with about 1,300 feet of elevation changes. The route is part obstacle course, part endurance test: stoplights, crosswalks, runners with earbuds, stroller-pushing parents, and plenty of other cyclists jockeying for space. I set the pedal-assist to max, turn on the lights, and ride until the battery taps out to figure out the low end of the range. But don’t picture me rocketing along at 28 mph like some Tour de France hopeful. Between the traffic stops and trail chaos, my average speed is a much more mortal 12 to 15 mph. The point is to see how far you can get without being drenched in sweat—exactly what you’d want going back and forth on work days.

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The best electric commuter bikes: Reviews & Recommendations

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Sure, any e-bike can technically get you from A to B. But a great commuter bike makes the ride something you’ll actually look forward to, even when the weather is meh and traffic is worse. Here’s what matters most:

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Lights: Not optional, though you may want supplemental lights. They help you see and make sure cars, buses, and daydreaming drivers see you.
Fenders: Say no to the dreaded stripe of road filth up your backside. (It’s as gross as it sounds.)
Racks: Let the bike carry your stuff. Backpacks are great, but they mean showing up to work sweaty in warmer temps. Instead, check out our tips for how to carry stuff on your bike.
Comfort: The real secret sauce. If the bike feels good, you’ll ride it even when it’s humid, chilly, or drizzly.

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Bonus tip: Part of the fun is finding the bits and bobs that make your bike yours. Take your pick, grab some of the best electric bike accessories, and off you go. A helmet isn’t an accessory; it’s a necessity. Get the best one you can, especially when your e-bike tops out at 20 to 28 mph.

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I recommend checking out the options below to find what matches your use case, reading our guide on what to expect on your first ebike ride, and going from there.

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All prices may fluctuate based on tariffs and other factors.

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Best overall e-bike for long commutes: Priority Bicycles Current Plus

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Tony Ware

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+ Pros

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Mid-step frame offers easy on-and-off for riders of all sizes
Grippy 650b x 50mm Goodyear touring tires deliver confident handling and comfort
Choice of fast-changing 5-speed Shimano hub or smooth Enviolo trekking hub
Hydraulic disc brakes with motor cut-off
Low-maintenance, whisper-quiet carbon belt drive system
Impressive torque for quick acceleration and hill starts
Thumb throttle for instant power boost on demand
Practical commuter setup with half front and full rear fenders, integrated 600-lumen front light, and rear fender light

+ Cons

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Enviolo hub shifting requires a short learning curve to perfect timing
Bike weight is manageable but could challenge smaller riders when lifting
Need to retighten fenders from time to time to prevent rattle

+ Specs

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+ + Motor: + + + 500W mid-drive motor w/ 140Nm torque +
+ + Battery: + + + 720Wh capacity +
+ + Removable battery: + + + Yes, with lock +
+ + Compliance: + + + UL 2849 and UL 2271 +
+ + Riding range: + + + 20 to 75 miles (in Class 2 mode) +
+ + Class: + + + Ships as Class 2, can be unlocked to Class 3 +
+ + Throttle: + + + Yes +
+ + Top speed: + + + 28 mph +
+ + Bike weight: + + + 55 pounds +
+ + Frame sizes: + + + S, M, and L fit riders from 5’ to 6’3” +

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At first glance, the Priority Bicycles Current Plus may look like many typical e-bikes, but on first ride, you realize it’s a feature-packed powerhouse. The 2025 Current 2.0 takes everything riders loved about the original belt-drive model and turns it up a notch. It’s smoother, stronger, and smarter, packed with refinements born from real-world feedback. Riders begged for a convenient thumb throttle for effortless riding, and this one hauls.

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The Current Plus packs the power of some moped-styled e-bikes with battery capacity bumped up to an eye-popping 720Wh (up from 500Wh), supporting longer rides for the 500w mid-drive motor and hill-flattening 140Nm of torque. The Current Plus hits Class 3 speeds of 28 miles per hour with five selectable assist modes to align with your pedaling, so riders can quickly accelerate to keep up with cars on shared roads, easily maintain consistent speeds, and confidently stop with upgraded hydraulic brakes and an electric cut-off. I felt like I had killer quads and unflappable fitness, which is sadly not true. There’s no suspension, but 650b x 50mm tires smoothed out bumpier stretches of my boosted personal best.

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The drivetrain still couples a low-maintenance Gates Carbon Belt (less grease, less grief) with either an internal 5-speed Shimano hub or a stepless Enviolo trekking hub for $3,299 or $3,499, respectively. I’ve been testing the Enviolo with a continuously variable transmission, aka no set gears. To shift, you twist the right handle to make a rider’s figure either steepen up a hill or flatten out. It took a bit of practice to get the timing right for when you need to ease off pedaling and adjust. Once I got a feel for how to avoid shifting under load, riding the Current Plus felt more like I had superpowers, not a motor helping me out.

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The Current Plus enhances the original’s strengths while adding subtle but practical improvements to geometry and ergonomics for more stability on rough roads, like redesigned handlebars that sweep back slightly. The upright stance keeps creases out of work outfits and visibility enhanced. The motor controls remain well-positioned by the left thumb, now including the new throttle feature—simply press the button down and easily catch up. The backlit display, meanwhile, stays centered to keep your eyes on the road. The 600-lumen bike-powered front light casts wide and is shockingly bright—it actually illuminates dark bike lanes/trails—and the rear tail light adds to safety.

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Touchpoints like the ergonomic grips and wide, gel-cushioned saddle are better than average, too. The frame is multi-height friendly with what the company calls a “mid-step frame” that’s lower than a traditional triangle but higher than most low-step or step-thru options (another contributor to keeping clothes crisp). The removable battery features a lock and a button-release that prevents it from falling out before you’re ready during removal (though on-bike charging is also an option). For the price point, I might like cleaner, more internal cable management around the handlebars, but it’s a small quibble.

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Priority is a direct-to-consumer brand, and its analog bikes aren’t hard to finish yourself, even if you’re not a regular wrencher. But the company encourages you to have your local bike shop assemble e-bikes, which will be an additional fee (shoutout to Alexandria, VA’s Strictly eBikes for preparing my Current Plus). The bike—available in charcoal and white—also ships as a Class 2 e-bike with a top speed of 20 miles per hour, so if you’re wondering why you’re not getting the output I’ve described, it’s because you need to unlock Class 3 in the settings. However, check local laws before you do.

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I’ve used the Priority Current Plus to haul packages and my pet, and just haul at high speed to get to appointments, and it’s proven to be the perfect bike for rush hour or just to get a rush while cruising bike trails without worrying about hills or headwinds.

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Really want to max out your performance and smooth out your ride? The $3,999 Skyline SMART.SHIFT E-Bike ups the motor to 750w and adds a suspension fork plus a Pinion Smart.Shift C1.12i gearbox for seamless shifting.

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Best value commuter e-bike for most people: Ride1Up Roadster v3

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Heather Kuldell-Ware

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+ Pros

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Fast-rolling 700 × 45c Schwalbe G-One RS gravel tires that grip confidently on pavement or smooth dirt
Strong hydraulic disc brakes that stop smoothly and predictably
Handy throttle for effortless launches or quick boosts through traffic
Intui-Drive torque sensor delivers responsive, natural-feeling pedal assist
Bright 120-lux front light and integrated rear fender light for nighttime visibility
Chainguard stay helps protect pants and drivetrain
Optional PIN to unlock motor

+ Cons

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Shorter riders should check the standover height carefully when choosing between low-step and medium frames
Very stiff, non-suspension frame can transmit road vibration on rough pavement
Rear-rack mounts work best with Ride1Up’s proprietary rack

+ Specs

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+ + Motor: + + + 500w angled gear MIVICE hub motor w/ 50Nm torque +
+ + Battery: + + + 10Ah Samsung 50GB +
+ + Removable battery: + + + Yes, lockable +
+ + Compliance: + + + UL 2849 and UL 2271 +
+ + Riding range: + + + 25 mph (belt drive) or 28 mph (chain) +
+ + Class: + + + 1-3 +
+ + Throttle: + + + Yes +
+ + Top speed: + + + 25 mph (belt drive) or 28 mph (chain) +
+ + Bike weight: + + + 40 pounds +
+ + Frame sizes: + + + Low-step, M and L fit riders from 5’2” to 6’4” +

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The Ride1Up Roadster v3 packs a surprising amount of premium features into an extremely reasonable price tag of $1,395. It’s not the -est in most categories, but all the practical, souped-up features turn this lightweight e-bike into an appealing match for most riders—and potentially leaves some room in the budget for some smart upgrades.

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Ride1Up also has one of the better direct-to-consumer experiences. The Roadster v3 arrived mostly assembled, with a thoughtful toolkit—a hex key set, seat post paste, and a torque wrench—and clear instructions that link to helpful YouTube videos. It was my second time tightening a Ride1Up bike to spec, and both builds were quick and frustration-free.

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At around 40 pounds, its lightweight build remains one of its most compelling features. I can carry it upstairs solo and easily lift it onto my car rack or the higher racks in my building’s bike storage room. The frame is slim like a non-electric bike, making it easy to lock to racks with U-locks (which you can’t say about all ebikes).

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From the first few miles, I was smitten with the nearly silent ride of the v3: the carbon belt and motor are whisper-quiet, and the fenders rarely rattle. The v3 has since worked its way into my regular rotation, and I’m approaching 500 miles on this model. I’ve been consistently impressed with the 500w hub motor that easily takes me up even my most formidable hills, the smooth, responsive pedaling enabled by the Intui-Drive torque sensor, and the bright-enough front light. This bike is for someone who plans to pedal most of the time, but occasionally wants to tap the throttle for a break or to power through a series of errands.

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I happen to like the moderate riding position and the agility of a stiff frame, but eventually, I opted for some comfort upgrades. I swapped out the saddle for something with cutouts and added a Redshift ShockStop suspension post—both were huge improvements that let me ride longer in plain clothes rather than wearing padded bike shorts. I also added Ride1Up’s compatible rear rack, and came to appreciate a few features I initially overlooked, such as the optional PIN required to start the motor. Without it, a potential thief has to pedal the bike without any motor assistance, which, while possible, is a pain.

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The battery life is still impressive. Just for funsies, I did a ride on Boost (the highest setting) with the lights on just to see how long it would last. On my test loop, it did 25.5 miles despite headwinds for several miles. That’s a solid performance. I usually ride around on the Eco, the lowest assist level, which sips at the battery, and I’ve gotten into the 40s. While going from 100% to 90% takes forever, anything under 30% seems to fly by. While that could be anxiety, the display blinks as a warning, and the bike becomes noticeably harder to pedal around 10%. As someone who gets lazy about chain maintenance, I happen to love the single-speed carbon belt drive. However, riders in hillier areas may want to consider the 9-speed Microshift Advent drivetrain v3 version with a traditional chain (with or without a suspension fork).

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Need to haul stuff but don’t want a standard cargo bike? You can also consider the $1,595 Ride1Up Vorsa, the company’s “SUV of e-bikes.”

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Best compact e-bike for last-mile commuters: JackRabbit OG2

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Heather Kuldell-Ware

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+ Pros

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The lightest, most compact e-bike I’ve tested
Swappable batteries extend range
Handlebars fold flat for easy transport
20-inch all-terrain tires
Black and white digital display
Foldable foot pegs
Comfortable saddle
Tons of accessories available for additional purchase
Available in black, white, blue, or yellow

+ Cons

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No alternative to the throttle
Lights and fenders are sold separately
Would prefer hydraulic disc brakes for the speed that this can go
Steep hills can seriously slow you down, or in some cases, stop you

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Motor: + + + 300W rear hub brushless electric motor +
+ + Battery: + + + 151.2Wh battery +
+ + Removable battery: + + + Yes, but locks are an additional purchase +
+ + Compliance: + + + UL2271 and 2272 +
+ + Riding range: + + + Up to 10 miles +
+ + Class: + + + 2 +
+ + Throttle: + + + Yes +
+ + Top speed: + + + 20 mph +
+ + Bike weight: + + + 25 pounds +
+ + Frame size: + + + One size that fits 4’9” to 6’2” +

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When you live in a city, thinking about transportation can take up a surprising amount of energy in a day. You wanna go somewhere, but are you walking, taking a bus or train, calling a ride-share or taxi, or driving yourself? Is there even parking if you drive, or will you end up essentially back where you started to find a spot? When you’re taking a train, how long are you walking on each side of the ride? How many transfers? Even owning a bike isn’t that simple. Where can you store it? Does your building have an outdoor bike rack or a storage room? Or are you carrying it up a multistory walk-up and hosting it in your living room?

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Enter the JackRabbit OG2, a mold-breaking micro e-bike that only weighs 25 pounds and sells for $1,250. This small package is one of the most fun and somehow practical “bikes” I’ve ever taken on a commute. Instead of pedaling, the OG2 relies entirely on the 300W rear hub motor and the throttle, which can go a surprisingly fast 20 mph for a range of about 10 miles.

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Despite the small size (even smaller than the typical e-scooter, as you can see above), the OG2 accommodates riders as short as 4’9” and up to 6’2”, which I admit I was skeptical about. However, this has quickly become a favorite of my 6-foot-tall son for one very simple reason: It hauls. The OG2 is an e-bike in looks but not in operation. It’s more like a scooter you can sit on but with more stable steering and larger, more forgiving wheels. Instead of standing up super straight, you’re low to the ground for better balance. Picture a tall dude on a BMX, and you’re in the right ballpark. But with stationary pegs instead of pumping pedals, your legs don’t feel cramped. You might feel silly at first, but for me, this quickly morphed into what I think Toad feels like passing other drivers in “Mario Kart.”

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The OG2’s diminutive size is the main appeal. It’s less than 49 inches long, and the handlebars and front wheel can “fold flat” to save a little more space if you need to walk it through a busy subway station, carry it onto a bus, or pack it into a car or RV. They even sell a bag to help you carry it (or ship it if you’re flying somewhere).

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I’ve found I use it most for short errands near my house—like going up to the CVS about a mile away—or to tackle the last few miles left after riding public transportation. I’m lucky the Metro and the various bus lines cover as much as they do, but I still often have a few miles to go to get to my destination. The OG2 easily closes this gap, and when batteries start to fade, I can easily swap them out for backups roughly the size and shape of VHS tape (and, because of their compact size and capacity, you can pack them in your carry-on if flying).

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If batteries die, though, I’m out of luck and walking unless I happen to be on top of a hill. And hills can be a problem. A long, steep hill can slow the OG2 to just a few miles per hour, even when the throttle is pressed all the way down. I haven’t had to walk yet, but I’ve come close.

+ + + +

For hilly areas, the OG2 Pro and its 500W / 17A / 50NM motor adds some extra pep. But you really want to upgrade to the more powerful and slightly larger JackRabbit XG with nearly twice the motor power, battery capacity, and range (and the XG Pro brings even a little more). These microbikes (or seated electric scooters, if you will) are hella fun. While many JackRabbit fans love personalizing their rides with the many accessories offered (as well as stock third-party components that fit the custom frame), it should be noted that adding racks and packs compromises their portability. I like the grab-and-go nature of them—and if I need to carry something, I put it in my backpack.

+ + + +

Best Dutch-style electric commuter bike: Trek Verve+ 1 LowStep LT

+ + + + +

+ +

Tony Ware

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Step-thru frame makes for easy on and off
27.5-inch x 2-inch wheels
8-speed drivetrain
Hydraulic brakes
Wide and cushiony enough saddle
Comes commuter-ready with integrated front and rear lights, and half fender in front and full rear fender
MIK-compatible rear rack
Two sets of bosses on frame for water bottle cages, etc.
Multiple colors available

+ Cons

+ +

Wide but slightly squirrely handlebars
Integrated battery means plugging in the whole bike to charge
Can be hard to tell when the charger is properly plugged in due to deep charging port
Sluggish first pedal assist level
Step-thru frame can be harder to lift and carry than a standard triangle

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Motor: + + + 250w mid-drive motor w/ 40Nm torque +
+ + Battery: + + + 250Wh capacity +
+ + Removable battery: + + + No +
+ + Compliance: + + + UL 2849 +
+ + Riding range: + + + Not listed +
+ + Class: + + + 1 +
+ + Throttle: + + + No +
+ + Top speed: + + + 20 mph +
+ + Bike weight: + + + 42 pounds +
+ + Frame sizes: + + + S, M and L fit riders from 5’1” to 6’1” +

+ + + +

I’ve owned several Trek models over the years, and the Verve+ 1 Lowstep LT e-bike reminded me of what this American bicycle maker does best. Trek is all about better-than-average components that make the $2,300 price tag feel like a steal, like cables that tuck in to the frame, commuter accessories including a chainguard, and Bontrager touchpoints like ergonomic handle grips and a wide, squishy-enough saddle that lets you skip padded cycling shorts. It was also perfectly tuned thanks to assembly by the pros at Trek Bicycles in Clarendon, VA.

+ + + +

The 8-speed Verve+ channels some Dutch commuter bike vibes, with an extremely upright riding position. I’m a shorty who usually opts for more aggressive postures, but I appreciated the improved road visibility from this taller vantage point. Even though I was sitting up higher than normal, the step-thru frame is an excellent option for shorter riders or anyone who doesn’t want to swing a leg over a saddle anymore. I particularly like it for the frequent stops and starts of city riding, and at 44 pounds, it’s a lighter-weight option, and easier to control and handle.

+ + + +

The simple control skips the screen and opts for red and green LEDs to indicate battery life and assist level. This e-bike isn’t about metrics: It’s for casual riders and commuters who want to hop on and confidently get to their destination. That said, I found the first assist level a little low; I had to put some work in to get going and get up hills, but the second level had considerably more oomph, and the third was practically a sweat-free ride even though I was still pedaling.

+ + + +

And by the way, the hydraulic brakes work. In an unexpected real-world test, an SUV turned into my bike lane and came to a dead stop. I’m pleased to say I didn’t crash into the side door, nor did I skid. I may have had a mild heart attack, but that’s not on the bike.

+ + + +

Best lightweight commuter e-bike: Tenways CGO600 Pro

+ + + + +

+ +

Heather Kuldell-Ware

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Very lightweight
Moderate riding position
Nimble handling
CST puncture-proof 700 x 45C tires
Half-size fender in front and full fender in rear
Included bell
Adjustable stem
Minimal, monochrome controls
Integrated front light
Carbon belt drive
TEKTRO Hydraulic Disc Brakes
Optional Tenways app
Optional PIN to start motor
Extremely quiet ride
Multiple colors

+ Cons

+ +

No built-in tail light, though it does come with a battery-operated one
No bosses for water cages or other accessories
Uncomfortable saddle
Handles are grippy but could use more cushion
No suspension features to soften road chatter
Some unproductive pedaling as assist kicks in

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Motor: + + + Mivice M080 350W rear hub motor w/ 45 Nm torque +
+ + Battery: + + + 360Wh capacity +
+ + Removable battery: + + + Yes, lockable +
+ + Compliance: + + + EN 15194:2017 + A1:2023 +
+ + Riding range: + + + Up to 53 miles +
+ + Class: + + + 1 +
+ + Throttle: + + + No +
+ + Top speed: + + + 20 mph +
+ + Bike weight: + + + 37 pounds +
+ + Carrying capacity: + + + Not listed. +
+ + Frame sizes: + + + M, L, and XL fit riders from 5’7” to 6’5”. +
+ + Connectivity: + + + Tenways app +

+ + + +

The Tenways CGO600 Pro converted me from a single-speed skeptic to a full-fledged fan. For me, it takes me back to simpler childhood bikes instead of thinking when the right moment is to downshift before a big hill. If I want to go faster, it’s up to my legs or increasing the assist level. At only 37 pounds, it feels a lot like a nimble, non-electric fitness bike rather than the tanks many e-bikes are. The aluminum frame is incredibly responsive, while the single-speed carbon belt drive version replaces the clackety-clackety-clackety of a chain coasting with a near-silent ride. No gears or derailleur also means far less maintenance and less tangling on bike racks (though there is now a Shimano 8-speed Chain Drive version, if you’re so inclined, particularly for inclines).

+ + + +

Within easy reach of my left thumb is a minimal LED screen that controls three pedal-assist levels powered by a sufficiently strong 350W rear hub motor. While changing levels is intuitive, more advanced functions like turning on the headlights or setting security passwords require reading the manual.

+ + + +

I thought this thing would choke on some of the larger hills and twisty corkscrew turns I encountered, but the 45Nm of torque was plenty. But in fairness, these are East Coast hills that the CS600 Pro handled. Tenways’ site lists the bike’s climbing range as up to 15 degrees, so keep that in mind if you live in proper mountains.

+ + + +

The bike’s range is listed as up to 53 miles, and for plenty of rides, I’ve gotten into the 40s on a single charge. On a particularly blustery day, strong headwinds cut my range down to about 20 before I needed to remove and recharge the 360Wh locking battery. This model does equally well with longer commutes as it does with shorter city rides that need to dodge pedestrians and cars, or lift onto a bus bike rack. Tenways also sells a power bank separately, which adds 180Wh, if you want to ride longer.

+ + + +

There are trade-offs for CS600 Pro’s lightweight build. The bike’s stiff aluminum frame is easy to maneuver on and off the saddle, but there’s also no suspension to absorb any of the bumps and cracks in the road. What you hit, you feel. The touchpoints weren’t great, either. After about a week of riding, I upgraded the rock-hard saddle to a softer gel version and the OK handlebar grips to ergonomic ones. The regular price is $1,899, though I’ve seen multiple end-of-season deals that knock up to $400 off. For that price, I don’t mind spending on a few upgrades.

+ + + +

Tenways can be found in local bike shops or sent directly to consumers. I built my mostly assembled CGO600 Pro in less than an hour, but that’s really best for people who are confident in their bike part knowledge and have a torque wrench to secure bolts and screws properly.

+ + + +

Best gravel-style bikepacking e-bike: Salsa Confluence Drop-Bar GRX 6000 2x

+ + + + +

+ +

Tony Ware

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Comfortable geometry despite the aggressive position
Drop bars have a nice flare
Internal cable routing prevents tangles
Compatible with internal dropper post routing but not included
High-quality components from well-known cycling brands like WTB saddle, Shimano, etc
Range extender battery available from MAHLE for total capability of 458Wh
700c x 42mm tires, which will fit fenders or tires up to 700c x50mm for something cushier
Compatible with racks and fenders
Tons of extra mounts for accessories
Optional MAHLE MySmartBike app connects via Bluetooth to allow customizations, metrics, mapping, etc. Also supports Ant+ connectivity for other devices.

+ Cons

+ +

No lights or fenders built-in
Battery is only removable for service, which means charging the whole bike between rides
No kickstand included but that is standard for gravel bikes
Somewhat of a learning curve for position and color-coding of ebike controller, plus orange and red can be hard to tell apart

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Motor: + + + MAHLE X35+ rear hub-drive system w/ 40 Nm torque +
+ + Battery: + + + 250Wh capacity +
+ + Removable battery: + + + No +
+ + Compliance: + + + UL 2849 and UL 2271 +
+ + Riding range: + + + Up to 40 miles +
+ + Class: + + + 1 +
+ + Throttle: + + + No +
+ + Top speed: + + + 20 mph +
+ + Bike weight: + + + About 33 pounds +
+ + Frame sizes: + + + 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 60 cm. +

+ + + +

With its comfortable but far from cruiser geometry and only Class 1/40Nm of assist torque, Salsa’s Confluence isn’t necessarily designed for traditional commuting, unless your commute is regularly along the road less taken. But this option from the brand’s electric gravel lines appeals to my need to get to and from the office quickly and my weekend warrior side that wants to log in some time bikepacking. It’s an e-bike for people who love spending time in the saddle, customizing components to their exact liking, and still getting a workout in. The Confluence is for riders who want to go faster and farther, not just get from point A to B.

+ + + +

Based on the brand’s tried-and-true Journeyer gravel bike line, the Confluence is peppered with plenty of mounts on the frame and the forks for fenders, racks, and pretty much any cargo accessory you can imagine to attach, so you can easily transport a change of clothes for when you get to (or back from) the office. The Confluence’s frame is only slightly thicker than its analog counterpart, though the MAHLE X35+ hub-drive system in the rear wheel is the giveaway that you’re getting assistance.

+ + + +

Most e-bikes have handlebars cluttered with wires, screens, and assist controls. Not the Confluence. Internal cable routing keeps things clean, as does the screen-free interface. An iWOC One Controller sits on the top tube, which is a single button that does everything from powering up the bike to changing assist levels. This interface isn’t intuitive—you have to memorize what the colors mean, for example—but you can also connect your phone through the MySmartBike app or Ant+-supported third-party devices for a more traditional display. Still, there’s something liberating about not having stats and metrics in your face, especially during something as routine as commuting.

+ + + +

At only 33 pounds, the Confluence flies on roads and paths thanks to three levels of assistance. While the 40Nm of torque is plenty to boost speed, you’ll still need enough legs and cardio to get up hills using 11 gears and nominal help from the motor. As the sun sets earlier, you’ll also need to add some lights for visibility. We tried the top-of-the-line version with a price tag of $3,699, but Confluence options are available for less with two flat-bar options and two drop-bar options.

+ + + +

Best for fitness buffs who secretly love a shortcut: Trek FX+ 7S

+ + + + +

+ +

Tony Ware

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Built-in Quad Lock wireless phone charger
Bontrager Verse Comp split saddle
Lightweight frame that’s easy to carry upstairs
Integrated fenders and MIK rear rack and integrated rear light
700c x 40mm Bontrager H2 Hard Case Lite tires
Optional 160Wh Range Extender
Compatible with Trek Central app

+ Cons

+ +

250W motor might feel underpowered
Stock headlight could be brighter for extra-dark commutes
Requires a Quad Lock case to use the phone charger mount

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Motor: + + + 250W TQ HPR50 mid-drive motor w/ 50Nm of torque +
+ + Battery: + + + 360Wh internal battery +
+ + Removable battery: + + + No +
+ + Compliance: + + + UL 2849 +
+ + Riding range: + + + Not published +
+ + Class + + + 1-3 +
+ + Throttle + + + No +
+ + Top speed + + + 28 mph +
+ + Bike weight + + + About 40 lbs. +
+ + Frame sizes + + + S, M, L, XL fits riders from 5’1” to 6’6” +

+ + + +

The Trek FX+ 7S feels like the electrified version of your favorite do-it-all fitness bike—and it rides like one, too. It’s not twitchy like a race-hungry road bike, and it’s definitely not a heavy trail bruiser either. Instead, it nails the sweet spot: nimble enough for your morning commute, chill enough for a weekend park loop.

+ + + +

Trek loaded this model with tech borrowed from their top-tier machines, including the whisper-quiet TQ HPR50 mid-drive motor with harmonic pin ring transmission. Translation: smooth, silent, and subtly powerful. It’s an ebike that enhances your ride, not one that takes over and turns you into a passenger.

+ + + +

Sure, the motor’s 250 watts and 50Nm of torque are modest by today’s throttle-heavy ebike standards. But that’s the point: You’re still pedaling, still feeling the effort, just with a delicious, wind-at-your-back boost. If you’re expecting a lazy no-sweat rocket ship, look elsewhere.

+ + + +

Where the FX+ 7S really shines is in the thoughtful details. Integrated front and rear lights? Standard. A Quad Lock mount on the stem that doubles as a wireless phone charger? Genius. (You’ll need a Quad Lock case—but there are options for iPhone, Samsung, Google, and even universal fits.) A sleek top tube display keeps your speed and battery life in check without cluttering your handlebars. Shifting is silky smooth thanks to Shimano’s CUES Linkglide system, and the lightweight frame keeps the ride lively whether you’re climbing hills or threading through traffic.

+ + + +

And bless Trek for the rattle-free fenders and MIK rear rack—cargo-ready without sounding like a busted shopping cart.

+ + + +

Of course, no bike’s perfect. The motor’s mellow output won’t make you king of the steep grocery-haul hill, and while the front light is pretty bright, it’s not going to light your way down a pitch-black backroad. A backup light wouldn’t hurt. The carrying handle is a good idea that needs to be easier to grip in the next version.

+ + + +

Bottom line: The FX+ 7S is for riders who want versatility without overkill. Light commuters, casual city cruisers, weekend adventurers—this is your jam. Trek clearly obsessed over the little things—cockpit cleanliness, rider comfort, everyday usability—and it shows. But like a finely tailored suit, these details come at a higher price tag (about $4,400).

+ + + +

Best premium electric commuter bike: Specialized Turbo Vado 4.0 Step-Through

+ + + + +

+ +

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Integrated front headlight and rear lights
Internal cable management
Front suspension fork
Front and rear fenders
Built-in rear rack holds up to 59 pounds
Hydraulic disc brakes
11-speed drivetrain
App offers additional controls
Anti-theft local built-in to motor that unlocks with PIN or connected phone
Multiple colors offered

+ Cons

+ +

Magnetic battery charger can be difficult to connect
Battery is removable but can be hard to get in and out
Specialized’s apps come and go
Long wheelbase can be hard to move when walking the bike

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Motor: + + + 250w Hyena hub drive motor +
+ + Battery: + + + 250Wh capacity +
+ + Removable battery: + + + Yes, lockable +
+ + Compliance: + + + UL 2849 and UL 2271 +
+ + Riding range: + + + Up to 90 miles +
+ + Class: + + + 3 +
+ + Throttle: + + + No +
+ + Top speed: + + + 28 mph +
+ + Bike weight: + + + 58 pounds +
+ + Frame sizes: + + + S, M, L, and XL to fit riders from 5’1” to 6’4” +
+ + Connectivity: + + + Specialized app +

+ + + +

Specialized is an American company that has been making bicycles since 1974 and has launched several e-bike models under the Vado name. For a while, the company marketed the e-bike line with the phrase, “It’s you, but better,” which captures how riding the Specialized Turbo Vado 4.0 Step-Through feels. The latest iteration of the Turbo Vado features an upright riding position on high-volume 650b tires, which helps smooth out road unpleasantries when coupled with the front suspension fork. The battery is discreetly tucked into the downtube, and the powerful 250w mid-drive motor is housed between the pedals, which helps keep the weight in the center of the bike for agile handling. This Class 3 bike relies on a Brose motor tuned to proprietary Specialized standards that get the rider up to top speed in a snap without requiring much effort. The bike has three levels of pedal assist—eco, sport, and turbo—and an 11-speed drivetrain. There’s no throttle, but you don’t need one.

+ + + +

The Turbo Vado isn’t cheap at the usual retail price of $4,000. However, the extra dollars go to higher-quality grips, saddle, a very sturdy kickstand with a foot, and technology. The motor includes an anti-theft device that only allows power when unlocked by a PIN or an authorized phone. The Bluetooth connectivity allows the bike to be updated over the air and connected with my Garmin watch to track my rides, though I’m not sure which device initiated the connection. Though a rider can rely exclusively on the very bright handlebar display to control the Turbo Vado, Specialized apps unlock additional features like the ability to input your route and automatically budget battery power so it lasts the whole ride. As far as range, the website says up to 90 miles, but the farthest I’ve gotten on one charge is 50-ish miles using mostly eco mode. Still, that’s on the longer side of ranges.

+ + + +

This brings me to some downsides. You can charge the bike with the battery in or out, but either way, it can be awkward to get the magnetic charger to align with the little pins. The battery can be removed, but it requires unlocking with a key, releasing a lever, and unhooking it from a bar you can never see. That’s not even as awkward as reinstalling it.

+ + + +

The full-size Turbo Vado weighs about 58 pounds—depending on which of the four frames fits you—and has a long wheelbase. Those specs create confident handling during rides, but for a smaller rider like me, the bike is hard to get in and out of elevators and subway cars. If you’re looking for something lighter weight, Specialized also offers a Turbo Vado SL 4.0 Step-Through that only weighs 36 pounds. The tradeoff is skinnier wheels, no front suspension, and a smaller battery capacity. Don’t mind the weight, but want even fancier components? Then add another $1K and look no further than the Turbo Vado 5.0 Step-Through.

+ + + +

Tony Ware

+ + + +

And, at the pinnacle of price and performance in the line, the $6,399 Specialized Turbo Vado SL 2 6.0 Carbon has a 240W motor and 35Nm of torque for a ride that’s subtle and responsive, amplifying your pedaling without ever overpowering it. The 36-pound carbon-framed beauty is an investment, but it holds its speed like a dream, giving you that “kid again” feeling when coasting. The Future Shock 3.2 system dramatically cuts down on wrist fatigue by absorbing road chatter at the stem. And the rack attachments range from weatherproof pannier to mobile cooler (both shown above), so it can be as professional or party as you wanna be. If you’re looking to splurge, any of Specialized’s carbon fiber offerings are among the best (the hours my husband has spent on the S-Works Turbo Creo 2 have been some of his favorite times).

+ + + +

Best folding e-bike for multimodal commuters: Brompton Electric G Line

+ + + + +

+ +

Heather Kuldell-Ware

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Compact tri-fold design folds smaller than nearly any other e-bike
Built for multimodal commuting with roller wheels for easy transport between train, bus, and office
Removable battery housed in a front bag that doubles as handy storage for daily essentials
Equipped for commuting with integrated front and rear lights, fenders with mudflaps, rear rack, and a bell
Balance and handling like a full-size bike with a smooth-shifting 4-speed drivetrain
20-inch Schwalbe G-One Allround tires provide excellent grip and comfort on pavement and light gravel
Available in three colors: adventure orange, forest green, traildust white

+ Cons

+ +

Heavier than classic Bromptons (about 43 lb); easier to roll than carry
Rocker-style PAS controls are less intuitive than standard buttons
Folding requires practice due to larger 20-inch wheels
No throttle or suspension, so rough roads send more feedback through the bars

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Folded size + + + 28.3 inches deep × 26.2 inches tall × 16 inches wide +
+ + Motor + + + 250W rear-hub motor +
+ + Battery + + + 345Wh capacity +
+ + Removable battery + + + Yes (housed in front-mounted bag) +
+ + Compliance + + + UL 2849 certified +
+ + Riding range + + + Up to 45 miles +
+ + Class + + + 1 +
+ + Top assisted speed + + + 20 mph +
+ + Throttle + + + No +
+ + Bike weight + + + About 43 pounds +
+ + Frame sizes + + + Small, medium, and large, fits riders from 5’ to 6’6” +
+ + Connectivity + + + Brompton Electric app (iOS and Android) +

+ + + +

The Brompton Electric G Line is the Swiss Army knife of e-bikes for riders who want one machine that can do it all, whether that’s commuting across town, tucking neatly into a closet, or sneaking in a weekend ride off-road. Compact, clever, and unmistakably British, it’s the ultimate e-bike for people short on space but unwilling to compromise on capability.

+ + + +

Brompton has long set the folding-bike standard, but the G Line takes that ingenuity electric. A whisper-quiet 250 W rear-hub motor, removable 345 Wh battery, and larger 20-inch wheels make it smoother and more stable than any Brompton before it. It rides and handles like a full-size bike—balanced, planted, and quick—even though it folds in seconds into a compact, briefcase-sized package.

+ + + +

It’s also one of the few e-bikes truly designed to move seamlessly between modes of transport. The rear rack includes built-in roller wheels, letting you pull or push the folded bike through stations, sidewalks, or office halls without lifting it. That small touch makes a huge difference for commuters juggling trains, elevators, and tight corridors.

+ + + +

Security and practicality come built in. Instead of locking it outside, you can roll the G Line indoors or under your desk. The removable battery pops off easily for recharging or safekeeping, making the bike far less appealing to would-be thieves. And since it’s fully equipped with front and rear lights, fenders with mudflaps, a bell, and a rear rack, it’s ready to ride straight out of the box.

+ + + +

On the road, it’s a lovely ride: thoughtful, composed, and more comfortable than you’d expect from a folder. The high-volume tires and well-judged geometry soften city streets and smooth out cracks and seams, even without suspension. Shifting feels crisp, and the assist blends naturally. It’s happiest on pavement and bike paths, but capable enough for the occasional detour onto gentler gravel. Even at the highest pedal assist level and the lights on, the G Line traveled a respectable 27 miles before running out of juice. (Read our full review here.)

+ + + +

At roughly $4,950, the Electric G Line is an investment for people who see a bike as a lifelong companion and an essential part of their lifestyle.

+ + + +

Best long-range folding e-bike: Velotric Fold 1 Plus

+ + + + +

+ +

Heather Kuldell-Ware

Why you get goosebumps when you’re scared—or inspired

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Class-leading 68-mile range
Adjustable between Class 1, 2, and 3, with customizable top speed up to 28 mph
Switchable torque and cadence sensors let you fine-tune responsiveness and efficiency
Low 15-inch standover height makes mounting easy and stable under load
Front suspension and 3-inch puncture-resistant tires smooth out city streets and trails
Fully equipped for commuting: 130-lux adjustable headlight, brake light with turn signals, fenders, and sturdy rear rack (120-pound capacity)
Apple Find My integration and USB-C phone charging port
Available in Mango, Electric Blue, Stone Gray, and Pearl White

+ Cons

+ +

At 63 lb, it’s better rolled or driven than carried
Fold is compact but still bulky for train or subway commutes
Battery insertion can be awkward for shorter riders
Motor noise increases on high assist levels
Folding pedals take practice

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Folded size + + + 37.8 inches long x 19.7 inches wide x 33.5 inches high +
+ + Motor + + + 750W (1,100W peak) rear hub +
+ + Torque + + + 75Nm +
+ + Battery + + + 624Wh +
+ + Removable battery + + + Yes, lockable +
+ + Compliance + + + UL 2271 and UL 2580 +
+ + Range + + + Up to 68 miles through pedal assist or 45 miles using throttle +
+ + Class + + + 1-3 +
+ + Top assisted speed + + + 28 mph +
+ + Throttle + + + Yes (removable) +
+ + Bike weight + + + 63 pounds +
+ + Frame sizes + + + One size, fits riders from 4’9” to 6’5” +
+ + Connectivity + + + Velotric app, Apple Find My +

+ + + +

The Velotric Fold 1 Plus proves that a folding e-bike doesn’t have to compromise on power or endurance. With a 68-mile range and a 750W motor, it’s built to go the distance—whether that means a long daily commute or a few hours of weekend exploring. I see these bikes out in the wild all the time, especially around the Pentagon, usually piloted by camo-clad riders who look very happy to be heading home.

+ + + +

This thing is made for commuters (and you can read our full review here). It comes ready to roll with full fenders, a bright front light, a brake light with turn signals, and a sturdy rear rack that can carry up to 120 pounds—groceries, gear, or even a kid seat. The 20-inch wheels keep that weight close to the ground, giving the bike a stable, planted feel when starting, stopping, or turning.

+ + + +

It’s also impressively adaptable for a one-size-fits-all frame. The step-through design fits riders from 4’9” to 6’5”, with a low standover height that inspires confidence at lights or when carrying extra weight. The upright riding position, front suspension, and cushy saddle make it one of the most comfortable folders around.

+ + + +

Where the Fold 1 Plus really shines is in its ride customization. You can swap between torque and cadence sensors, tweak the assist levels, and even set the top speed or e-bike class. It’s a feature more brands are adding, but Velotric executes it especially well—making the bike easy to share among family members without compromising anyone’s preferred feel.

+ + + +

While some folding bikes are designed for train hopping, the Fold 1 Plus is more about easy storage and transport. It fits neatly in a hatchback or SUV (I’ve slipped it into a Honda Fit), though sedan owners should measure before committing. Velotric also adds two smart touches most folders skip: a long Velcro strap to keep everything closed when folded and a built-in stand that protects delicate components.

+ + + +

The Fold 1 Plus doesn’t make you choose between fun and practicality. It’s laid-back when you want to cruise and powerful when you need to hustle—and at about $1,500, it’s one of the most capable long-range folding e-bikes you can buy.

+ + + +

What to consider when searching for the best electric commuter bikes

+ + + +

Before you fall in love with a shiny new e-bike, think about what you really want out of your commute. Do you want a workout that makes you feel like a superhero, or a sweat-free cruise that gets you to work fresh as a daisy? Pedal-assist gives you “super legs,” throttles let you coast scooter-style, and many bikes now offer both so you can switch by mood or hill.

+ + + +

But here’s the catch that most first-time buyers don’t consider: e-bikes are heavy. The average commuter model tips the scales at 50 to 65 pounds, and moped-style or fat-tire versions can be 70+. That’s fine if you’ve got a garage or ground-floor storage, but not so fun if you’re wrestling it into an elevator or up a flight of stairs after a long day. Lightweight options in the 30 to 40 pound range are hitting the market, making them easier to handle, though you often give up suspension and a cushy ride. Folding e-bikes add another stow-and-go option for tight spaces.

+ + + +

Bottom line: Decide first how you want to ride and then be realistic about where you’ll store it and how much bike you actually want to haul around.

+ + + +

Classes

+ + + +

At their core, e-bike classes are meant to give you a quick snapshot of what a bike can (and can’t) do—especially how fast it’ll go with motor assist, and whether you need to pedal to make that happen. Many states also use these classes to set rules for where and how you’re allowed to ride, though that’s the wild west right now. In many states, e-bikes are treated like bicycles, but in others, like Alaska and New Mexico, they’re regulated more like mopeds or motor-driven cycles. (Check out the non-profit advocacy group People for Bikes’ guide for state laws.)

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Here’s the breakdown:

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Class	How it works	Assist limit	What it means for you
Class 1	Pedal-assist motor only	Stops assisting at 20 mph	Usually allowed on bike paths and trails
Class 2	Throttle and pedal assist	Stops assisting at 20 mph	Throttle use may be restricted in some areas
Class 3	Pedal-assist motor only	Stops assisting at 28 mph	Sometimes banned from shared-use paths and may have age and/or helmet rules

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Not every e-bike fits neatly into these categories. Some models ship as one class but can be changed to another via on-bike controls or an app. And while 20 mph might not sound especially fast on paper, it feels very different when you’re hitting that speed on two wheels in traffic.

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Mid-drive vs. hub motor

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The motor is the heart of an e-bike, and it completely changes how the ride feels. First, you’ll want to decide where the motor lives—hub or mid-drive—since that affects how the bike handles and climbs. Then, look at how big the motor is. Power is measured in watts, and while 250W used to be standard, it’s now the baby of the bunch. Most commuter bikes land in the 350 to 500W sweet spot, giving you plenty of push for city riding. 750W is the legal ceiling in the U.S.—any bigger and you’re in moped/motorcycle territory with licenses and insurance to match.

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Mid-drive motors sit at the pedals and feel the most like riding a “real” bike—just with bionic legs. They’re more efficient because they use your gears to deliver extra torque, which makes them awesome for hills and longer rides. But here’s the catch: you’ve got to be comfortable shifting. If you’re not, mid-drives can be a little intimidating. I’ve seen newbies stall out or, worse, lurch forward when the gearing’s off. For confident riders who want maximum power for their effort, though, they’re hard to beat.

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Hub motors, on the other hand, live in the wheel (usually the rear) and are all about simplicity. They’re slower to kick in, but the assist feels like that gentle push you got from a parent when you were first learning to ride. I actually love hub motors for beginners who struggle with gears because they don’t magnify your shifting errors.

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Riding range

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Step one: know your commute distance (round trip!) and what kind of terrain you’ll face. Every e-bike promises an “estimated range,” but the key word there is “estimate.” Your weight, your cargo, how steep your hills are, how much pedal assist you use, and even the weather all change how long that battery actually lasts. Flat road + low assist = you’ll cruise forever. Steep hills + max assist + headwind = you’ll be hunting for an outlet a lot sooner.

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Pick a bike with a range that easily covers your ride there and back with extra miles to spare. Running out of juice halfway home is character-building, but not fun.

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Batteries generally come in two flavors. Integrated batteries are sleek and theft-resistant because they can’t be pulled out, but the trade-off is that you’ll need to roll the whole bike to an outlet when it’s time to recharge. Removable batteries, on the other hand, are wonderfully convenient: You can pop them out to charge indoors or even carry a spare for longer rides. The downside? More seams and openings mean more opportunities for dust and water to sneak in.

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Battery safety

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Cheap batteries cause fires—and not just little sparks, but full-on, apartment-burning, news-making fires. That’s why certifications matter. UL 2849 is the gold standard, covering the entire electrical system—battery, motor, charger, and controller—to make sure everything works safely together. UL 2271 focuses only on the battery pack, testing it for durability and resistance to overheating or impact. Sometimes you’ll see EN 15194, the European equivalent.

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If you see either certification, it means the bike has gone through rigorous testing. And in New York City and New York State, certification is required by law after a rise in fires tied to low-quality, uncertified e-bikes.

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Security and tracking

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Any e-bike is an investment, and nothing spikes your blood pressure like leaving it locked up on the street or even in the “secure” office bike room. A solid lock (or better yet, two) is still your first line of defense. But more and more manufacturers are baking security right into the bikes themselves.

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Some motors won’t even turn on without a PIN code or Bluetooth connection to your phone, making them a lot less tempting for joyriders. Others integrate with Apple’s Find My network or GPS, so you can track your bike’s location if it disappears. (That said, if mine got swiped, I’m not about to show up at its “new home” solo.)

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FAQs

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Q: What’s the difference between Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3 e-bikes?

E-bike classes are shorthand for how much assistance you get, how fast the motor will take you, and where you’re legally allowed to ride. Class 1 and 2 both cap out at 20 mph—Class 1 requires pedaling, while Class 2 adds a throttle. Class 3 ups the ante to 28 mph with pedal assist only, making it a favorite for commuters who want to keep pace with traffic.

But here’s the catch: not every trail, bike path, or park welcomes faster Class 3 bikes, and local rules can vary wildly.

Q: How far can a 500Wh e-bike battery go?

There’s no single answer. It depends on how much you weigh, what you’re hauling, how you ride, and yes, even the weather.

On a mild, wind-free day with flat terrain and low pedal assist, you’ll squeeze out the longest range. But if your commute feels like it’s uphill both ways, into a headwind, with the assist cranked to max? That battery won’t last nearly as long. Cold temps don’t help either—they can sap power before you even start pedaling.

Published ranges are usually 20 to 50 miles, and my own experience backs that up. Just remember: headwinds can chew through both your energy and your battery faster than you think.

Q: Should I buy an e-bike with UL 2849 or UL 2271 certification?

Yes. If you don’t see any mention of certification, move on. In places like New York City and New York State, it’s even required by law. Those rules came after a rise in fires and injuries linked to low-quality, uncertified lithium-ion batteries in e-bikes and scooters.

Manufacturers do have to pay to get certified, and you’ll sometimes see a mix of labels. Here’s what they mean:

UL 2271: Tests whether the battery pack is safe, durable, and resistant to overheating or impact.
UL 2849: The comprehensive option. It certifies the entire electrical system: battery, motor, controller, charger, and how they all work together under real-world conditions.
EN 15194: The European standard. It ensures e-bikes meet strict safety, electrical, mechanical, and performance criteria before they’re sold.

Q: Which is better for hills: hub-drive or mid-drive e-bikes?

For steep climbs, mid-drive motors are the clear winners. They use your bike’s gears for extra torque and efficiency, so you get more power uphill without draining the battery as fast.

But don’t count out hub motors—they’re cheaper, simpler, and feel like a steady push from behind. They’re also more forgiving if you’re still working on shifting timing.

Q: What are the best e-bike tires and tire pressures for riding in potholes and rain?

Think of tires as your e-bike’s shoes: grip, cushion, and stability matter. Stick to the pressure range printed on the sidewall, but on rough or wet roads, drop pressure about 10% for better contact. If you ride at 60 psi on a dry day, try around 54 when it’s rainy or bumpy.

Tire type makes a difference, too. Wider tires = more grip and cushion. Slimmer tires = lighter and faster. And don’t forget tread: slick or lightly grooved tires roll fastest on dry pavement, while tires with more pattern give you extra bite when it’s wet. Knobby treads are better for off-road rides.

No matter what, corner carefully and leave more braking room in the rain.

Q: How can I increase the range of my electric bike?

Some little things you can do are maintain proper tire pressure, use lower pedal assist modes, and avoid relying exclusively on the motor for throttle bikes. Occasionally, I have pushed the edge of my range and ended up with just 10 percent of battery life but a few miles to go. In those times, I grit my teeth and turn off assistance, saving whatever juice remains for hills.

Alternatively, you could carry a second battery as backup, though they will add significant weight to the ride. Some bike models also offer higher-capacity batteries as an additional purchase.

Q: Is it difficult to assemble an e-bike?

Plenty of e-bikes are sold as direct-to-consumer products that will arrive directly at your door. The best of these companies ship mostly assembled bikes with good literature, how-to videos, and send the tools you will need. Can you build your own bike? Probably. But the right question is, “Should you?” If you are familiar with bike parts or building traditional bikes, know how to properly use torque wrenches, and have some patience and confidence, go right ahead. If you aren’t, many local bike shops will receive your delivery and assemble the bike for you. Around the D.C. area, the going rate for assembly is about $200.

Q: How much does an electric commuter bike cost?

E-bikes can cost anywhere from $1,000 to more than $10,000; however, plenty of well-outfitted models fall between $1,500 and $3,000. Expect to see more premium features in the $4,000 and $6,000 price range. Yes, e-bikes start at higher price points than traditional bicycles, plus they require charging and weigh more. And they still require maintenance; eventually, batteries will degrade and need replacing. But they have their advantages. However, if you’re on a budget and feeling handy, there are kits to convert a bike to an e-bike.

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Final thoughts on the best electric commuter bikes

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Best overall e-bike for long commutes: Priority Current Plus
Best value commuter e-bike for most people: Ride1Up Roadster v3
Best compact e-bike for last-mile commuters: JackRabbit OG2
Best Dutch-style electric commuter bike: Trek Verve+ 1 LowStep LT
Best lightweight electric commuter bike: Tenways CGO600 Pro
Best gravel e-bike for commuting: Salsa Confluence Drop-Bar GRX 600 2x
Best for fitness buffs who secretly love a shortcut: Trek FX+ 7S
Best premium electric commuter bike: Specialized Turbo Vado 4.0 Step-Through
Best folding e-bike for multimodal commuters: Brompton Electric G Line
Best long-range folding e-bike: Velotric Fold 1 Plus

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Much like cars, there’s an e-bike model for nearly every type of rider, ranging from people who haven’t touched a pedal since childhood to longtime, hardcore cyclists. If tooling around occasionally is your thing, a budget electric bike may work. If you like to kick up some dirt, consider a fat-tire bike. But for commuting, we recommend investing in one of our picks above, which can withstand the wear and tear of regular riding in all sorts of weather.

The post The best electric commuter bikes for 2026, tested and reviewed appeared first on Popular Science.

November Stargazing: Supermoon number two, meteors galore, and ‘naked’ Saturn.

Tom Hawking — Thu, 30 Oct 2025 09:00:00 -0400

November 5	Full Beaver Supermoon
November 5 through 12	Taurids Meteor Showers Predicted to Peak
November 17 through 19	Leonids Meteor Shower Predicted Peak
November 23	Saturn Visible Without Rings

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A bull, a lion, a beaver and a raving lunatic walk into a bar…This month’s stargazing comes with a rich cast of characters, manifesting as two (or three?) separate meteor showers, the most super of moons, and a rare glimpse of Saturn without its most famous accessory.

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November 5: Full Beaver Supermoon

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“Full beaver supermoon” is not a combination of words that one encounters often, but this month brings the second of three consecutive supermoons. November’s moon also brings our orbital friend closest to us. That makes it a sort of … super supermoon?

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An actual genuine supermoon—i.e. an exact correspondence between the moon’s full illumination and it being at its closest point to the Earth—is relatively rare. The superlative term is used more generally to describe a full moon where the moon is at or near its perigee, or point where it is closest to Earth. This explains how we have three in a row at the end of 2025, and how, November’s is the most super among the trio.

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As per the Farmer’s Almanac, you can appreciate the full glory of this most super of moons on November 5 at 8:19 a.m. EST. Native American culture provides many fascinating alternative names for November’s moon: some particularly poetic monikers include the Cree nations’ “Rivers Begin to Freeze Moon,” the Haida nations’ “Bears Sleep Moon,” and the Hopi nations’ “Fledgling Hawk Moon.”

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November 5 through 12: Taurids Meteor Shower(s) Predicted Peak

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The annual celestial event referred to as the Taurids Meteor Shower is actually two separate showers–the Northern and Southern Taurids. The Northern Taurids originate from the debris shed by an asteroid, referred to as Asteroid 2004 TG10. Meanwhile, the Southern Taurids, come from the trail left by Comet 2P/Encke. The two showers are grouped together because scientists believe that both the asteroid and the comet are fragments of a single, much larger object that broke up some 20,000 years ago, leaving a collection of debris known collectively as the Encke Complex.

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The Southern Taurids are predicted to peak around November 5, but the aforementioned supermoon might make them difficult to see, making their Northern cousins a better bet for fireball spotting.

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The peak of the Northern shower is predicted for the night of November 9 into the early hours of November 12. The radiant point—the point from which meteors appear to originate—is just to the right of the constellation Taurus. As per NASA, the best time to look is after midnight, when Taurus is high in the sky.

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Both Northern and Southern showers are famous for yielding bright, slow-moving fireballs, and there may be plenty of them on show.

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November 17 through 19: Leonids Meteor Shower Predicted Peak

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The Taurids aren’t the only meteor shower to see in November. The Leonids are also in town, peaking over the course of three days in the middle of the month. The shower’s radiant point is in the constellation Leo, the lion—specifically in the lion’s neck,right between the stars Algieba and Rasalas. Leo doesn’t rise until after midnight, but once it does, the nights of November 16 and 17 should provide plenty of meteors to see.

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You’ll have to be sharp-eyed, though.In contrast to the stately Taurids, the Leonids are speedsters, rocketing through the Earth’s atmosphere at hundreds of thousands of miles an hour. They even get a mention in the Guinness Book of World Records in the category of “Fastest Meteor Shower”.

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Thankfully, this year provides favorable viewing conditions for Leonid-spotting, as it falls a full two weeks after the full moon. The moon will be but a skerrick of a crescent, meaning that its light won’t interfere with the show. Look east, find the lion in the sky, and then wish upon a shooting star.

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November 23: Saturn Devours Its Rings

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There’s no doubt that Saturn’s defining feature is its glorious rings. Made almost entirely of water ice, the rings extend out in a startlingly flat plane perpendicular to the planet’s orbital axis. They start 4,300 miles from Saturn and extend out to a distance of 50,000 miles—but they’re barely 30 feet wide at some points,

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But this month, the Solar System’s worst father is going bare. The Earth has spent much of the year bobbling in the vicinity of the plane of the Saturnian ring system, and on November 23 we’ll be pretty much perfectly aligned with that plane. This means that the rings will be almost invisible. If you look at the planet through a telescope, you might see them only as a thin line—or you might not see them at all, just Saturn laid bare in all his gaseous, filiphagic glory.

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To spot it, look to the south and then crane your neck to look about 45° from the horizon. Saturn will be there, lurking between the constellations of Pisces and Aquarius.

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Whatever you’re looking for in the sky, remember that you’ll get the best experience if you get away from any sources of light pollution and let your eyes acclimatize to the darkness—and you check out our stargazing tips before you head off into the night.

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Until next month!

The post November Stargazing: Supermoon number two, meteors galore, and ‘naked’ Saturn. appeared first on Popular Science.

This drone’s wingspan rivals a 737—but it’s lighter than an NFL linebacker

Mack DeGeurin — Wed, 29 Oct 2025 16:27:17 -0400

Back in the mid-2010s, some of the world’s biggest tech companies were racing to launch lightweight, solar-powered drones to hover above remote areas and beam down internet connectivity. Meta (then called Facebook) and Google, the two companies most heavily investing in the technology at the time, abruptly exited the space following a series of mishaps. In Google’s case, its “Titan” prototype crashed in New Mexico just four minutes after takeoff.

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Now, nearly a decade later, a much smaller company is attempting to pick up where those giants left off. This week, Seattle-based startup Radical revealed it has successfully tested a full-scale prototype of its super-thin, solar-powered drone, “Evenstar.” The boomerang-shaped aircraft has a massive wingspan of 120 feet, larger than that of a Boeing 737, but weighs only 240 pounds (less than an average player in the NFL).

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And while it’s still a long way from completion, Radical believes its lightweight, solar-powered frame could eventually operate autonomously in the stratosphere for months at a time without interruption. That could make it attractive for weather monitoring, mobile internet connectivity, and aerial surveillance. But Radical will first have to actually get its bizarre drone up in the sky. The most recent test, initially reported by GeekWire, flew only at low altitudes and at speeds just over 15 miles per hour.

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“Our goal is to make stratospheric flight as routine as satellite operations, but faster, cheaper, and at higher resolutions,” Radical CEO James Thomas told Popular Science.

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Leveraging the stratosphere to observe, forecast, and communicate with unmatched precision. pic.twitter.com/74VSBM6r1U
— Radical (@RadicalAero) October 20, 2025

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‘StratoSats’ are middle ground between satellites and drones

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The Evenstar is one example of what Radical calls a “StratoSat.” These are essentially satellite-like, lightweight devices designed to “provide persistent, high-performance infrastructure” in the stratosphere. StratoSats are powered by solar panels mounted on their wings, allowing them to theoretically remain airborne for weeks or even months. And unlike conventional satellites that need to stay in orbit indefinitely, a StratoSat can come back down when it needs to change out whatever it’s carrying onboard.

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Given their limited size, that cargo would most likely consist of sensors, cameras, or lightweight mobile telecommunications equipment. The Evenstar, specifically, can carry a 33-pound payload and does so with full autonomous capability. Thomas said the ability to operate autonomously is crucial for ensuring the drone can operate without interruption during long flights.

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The Radical CEO told Popular Science the most recent Evenstar test flight occurred in Tillamook, Oregon. The flight was completed autonomously, but a human pilot was available to intervene if necessary. The company told GeekWire that the prototype lifted off from the back of a Subaru before conducting a low-altitude flight. Radical says it hopes to conduct higher altitude tests next year.

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Notably, this version wasn’t powered by solar energy but instead relied on a battery. (Radical said it outfitted the drone with a ballast to simulate the added weight the final version would have once equipped with solar panels.) The company did not provide details, either to GeekWire or Popular Science, regarding the flight’s total duration, maximum altitude, or whether the drone experienced any issues.

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“The purpose of this flight was to validate Evenstar’s core systems in real-world conditions, including the airframe design, AI controller, telemetry, and communication links,” Thomas told Popular Science. “The test confirmed our design and simulation tools and provided valuable performance data ahead of high-altitude testing.”

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Introducing S-1 Evenstar: Our new autonomous StratoSat that will provide persistent, high-performance infrastructure from the stratosphere. pic.twitter.com/gKqOIAEFG5
— Radical (@RadicalAero) October 14, 2025

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Radical is pitching this category of aircraft as a kind of jack-of-all-trades that can fill gaps left by satellites, drones, and conventional planes. In the case of satellites, they’re often capable of providing either wide coverage areas or high-resolution imagery—but not both at the same time. They also move at high speeds, meaning they pass over a given target for only a few minutes each day. The process of getting a satellite up into space is also extremely expensive, something most obviously demonstrated by the estimated $10 billion Elon Musk’s SpaceX has spent to build up its constellation of Starlink satellites in recent years.

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Conventional drones address some of those issues but are limited in the amount of time they can spend in the air without refueling. Refueling and running continuous missions can get expensive. All of those drawbacks, Radical argues, is limiting the quality and scale of data that’s being captured from the sky.

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Superlight, solar-powered drones could straddle the stratosphere for months. Image: Radical

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“It’s never really made sense to get a better look at something by moving further away from it,” Thomas said in a video posted on X. “It has never made sense to accept a snapshot once every 90 minutes as our view of the world.”

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Radical, whose co-founders previously worked on Amazon’s Prime Air drone program, envisions Evenstar one day assisting with long-term wildfire monitoring. Like Google and Meta before it, the company also sees potential in using its lightweight, hovering drone to beam down 5G connectivity to rural or remote areas currently underserved by traditional ISPs. The company’s website also references possible military applications though it didn’t respond to our request for comment on whether it intends to offer its technology for surveillance or law enforcement purposes. The Radical CEO told Popular Science Evenstar is “designed to suit the needs of customers across a range of use cases – both commercially and for the government.”

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They also aren’t the only ones racing towards the stratosphere. Airbus has an even lighter (around 165 pounds) solar powered drone called Zephyr, which has already demonstrated it can spend 26 consecutive days in the stratosphere consecutively. US startup Skydweller is pursuing a similar solar powered drone it claims can carry up to 800 pounds of cargo. Radical’s approach is considerably smaller in scale, as is its team. GeekWire notes the Seattle company has just six employees. For now, Thomas said, their path forward is pretty straightforward.

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“Our mission is simple.” Thomas said. “Get there [to the stratosphere] stay there.”

The post This drone’s wingspan rivals a 737—but it’s lighter than an NFL linebacker appeared first on Popular Science.

New asphalt could make potholes extinct

Andrew Paul — Wed, 29 Oct 2025 15:14:46 -0400

The results of a literally groundbreaking trial in the United Kingdom suggest that graphene-infused roads may pave the way into the future. According to Essex County officials, a pilot test outside of London indicates that lanes imbued with one of the world’s strongest known materials outperforms and outlasts traditional asphalt. The name of the new super-street combination? Gipave.

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Road maintenance remains one of the most costly issues facing local, state, and federal governments. In 2021, an estimated $206 billion was spent on highway and street repairs. That’s nearly six percent of all available funds—and far from enough. According to Pew Research, the United States is also eyeing at least $105 billion in deferred upkeep projects.

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One of the most recognizable and frequent problems is comparatively mundane. Cracks are inevitable in any road due to weakening materials and repeated stress over time. Once enough cars have sped over these fissures, chunks begin breaking off to create those infamous potholes that pop tires and ruin shocks. Aside from municipal patching costs, the average pothole-related vehicle repair is about $600, with car owners in the US collectively annually shelling out around $26.5 billion.

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Asphalt is typically made from a mixture of stone aggregates held together with viscous, petroleum-based substance called bitumen. However, engineers recently began experimenting with adding the graphite-derived material graphene into the mix. First adopted commercially in the early 2000s, graphene is made from a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in honeycomb-like lattices, that make it incredibly resilient and superconductive. At one million times thinner than a single human hair, it’s also the thinnest known two-dimensional structure.

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Graphene is already being harnessed in the manufacturing of electric batteries, semiconductors, and other products, but with 200 times the strength of steel, urban planners also see its potential as a construction additive. In 2022, Essex County announced plans to test asphalt combined with graphene to form a paving material called Gipave. Workers subsequently laid over 165 tons of Gipave for a lane on a new highway entrance road near London. They also added a second lane using traditional asphalt for a control. The Gipave was then exposed to thousands of car and truck tires throughout every season’s changing weather and temperatures over the next three years.

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At the end of the experiment, third-party engineers extracted core samples from both lanes for lab testing and analysis. More specifically, they measured how much pressure it took to distort each dry sample, then tested them again after a 72-hour immersion in water. The graphene-enhanced asphalt performed 10 percent better in stiffness tests, as well as 20 percent better when it came to water sensitivity. They also noticed that when Gipave did fracture, it was the stone aggregate that cracked, and not the bitumen or bond between the two ingredients. This means the graphene truly strengthens the pavement’s overall resilience to make it a safer, likely more eco-friendly option.

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If there is any immediately obvious weakness to Gipave, it’s the price tag. Engineers estimate it costs around 30 cents per square foot to use Gipave. Less than one dollar might not seem like a lot at first glance, but road repair costs increase exponentially. In the US, a single mile of four-lane highway contains a minimum of about 253,000 square feet. The nation contains about 4.2 million miles of highway, much of which is far wider than only four lanes. In this (extremely conservative) scenario, it would cost around $124.3 billion to repave all US highways with Gipave. Then again, simply starting to fill existing potholes with the graphene-strengthened asphalt would be a promising start.

The post New asphalt could make potholes extinct appeared first on Popular Science.

Spiders ‘decorate’ their webs to help trap dinner

Laura Baisas — Wed, 29 Oct 2025 14:00:00 -0400

One of nature’s most beautiful natural wonders, spider webs sometimes feature little extra bits of flair called stabilimenta. Stabilimenta are highly-reflective UV structures. Basically, think of them like spidey bike reflectors scattered throughout a web. While stabilimenta are still shrouded in mystery, some new research is opening up a new window into this silky world. The stabilimenta may help move vibrations throughout the web, helping the arachnids find their captured prey. The findings are detailed in a study published today in the journal PLOS One.

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Several spider species build orb webs. These spiral wheel-shaped webs that often dot plants in the forest and the corners of our homes capture flying prey. They’re the iconic spider web shape you see Spider Man rock and Halloween decorations embrace.

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Some spider species incorporate stabilimenta throughout their web’s structure. The stabilimenta in these enhanced, extra-reflective webs often appear like zig-zagging threads that span the spaces between two adjacent “spokes,” or like threads arranged in a circle around the center of the web.

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The purpose of stabilimenta within the web is unclear. They could help collect water, regulate a spider’s body temperature, or even deter predatory wasps or birds to help the arachnids collect more insects. They also may help the spiders pinpoint where their prey is located by helping vibrations move throughout the web.

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In this new study, the team looked at the different stabilimenta patterns that wasp spiders (which really do look like wasps) build into their webs. The team then ran numerical simulations to explore how these stabilimenta-enchanced webs are affected when prey, say a mosquito, gets trapped.

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The team saw that the vibrations in a web without stabilimenta differently affected the web, depending on the angle of the vibrations generated by the prey’s impact. For example, in vibrations generated at angles that were perpendicular to the web surface or perpendicular to the threads coming out from the web’s center (like the spokes on a wheel), the stabilimenta did not create noticeable changes on how the vibrations moved.

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The stabilimentum in Argiope bruennichi. a) The production of aciniform silk by A. bruennichi when wrapping a prey. b) A juvenile A. bruennichi in the centre of its web with the stabilimentum (courtesy of Letizia Alleruzzo, Aracnofilia – Italian Association of Arachnology). c– h) The different types of stabilimentum observed in the webs: normal (N), juvenile (J), reduced (R), platform (P), drafted (D), and absent (A, i.e., without stabilimentum). Image: Greco et al., 2025, PLOS One.

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However, if the waves were generated in the same direction as the spiral threads, vibrations in webs with stabilimenta moved further across the web, where a spider might be able to sense them from anywhere within the web. According to the team, this suggests that stabilimenta may boost a spider’s ability to zero in on the location of prey caught in its web.

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If the “bone devourer” zombie worm isn’t there to perform its ecological role, other species may be unable to colonize on the whale remains and use the critical nutrients in the whale carcass.

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De Leo likens whale falls to islands that are a “stepping-stone habitat” for the worms and many other species that specialize in whale bones. Adult Osedax generally grow on whale bones and their larvae are dispersed over large distances to populate other whale fall ecosystems hundreds of miles away.

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“Basically, we’re talking about potential species loss,” said De Leo. “So, this connectivity, these island habitats, will not be connected anymore, and then you could start losing a diversity of Osedax species across regional spatial scales.”

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The team also found that another ecosystem engineer–Xylophaga–also appears affected by low-oxygen stress. These bivalves burrow into wood that sinks and help it decompose. While they did see Xylophaga on the experiment’s submerged wood samples, they colonized at much lower rates than in ocean areas with more oxygen.

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“It looks like the OMZ [oxygen minimum zone] expansion, which is a consequence of ocean warming, will be bad news for these amazing whale-fall and wood-fall ecosystems along the northeast Pacific Margin,” added Craig Smith, a professor emeritus from University of Hawaii, who co-led the experiment.

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The team will continue to monitor other sights with high-definition video and remotely operated vehicles to collect environmental data.

The post Zombie worms have gone missing appeared first on Popular Science.

Why you ‘see’ things in the dark, according to an ophthalmologist

Diana Hubbell — Wed, 29 Oct 2025 09:00:00 -0400

In 1999, Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez shot one of the definitive horror films of the era on a budget of roughly $60,000. The Blair Witch Project is a study in omission, in the conspicuous absence of the visual effects characteristic to the genre. In lieu of baroque prosthetic gore and over-the-top CGI effects, the movie leans into silence and darkness for much of its 81-minute run time.

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Watch it on a small screen and much of the magic evaporates, but watch it in a pitch-black theater, as rapt audiences all over the U.S. once did, and the effect is terrifying. It’s effective in large part because of the way our brains fill the negative space. In the absence of light, we conjure up the worst.

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Offscreen, there are good reasons why so many kids (and some grown-ups) are scared of the dark: Our eyes really do play tricks on us. Turn off the lights and you’ll still see faint colors and flickers of shapes moving. In low light, you might suddenly find yourself more aware of movement at the edge of your peripheral vision. Throw in an overactive imagination and it’s easy to picture witches, monsters under the bed, or the jumpscare of your choice lurking in the gloom.

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Popular Science spoke with Dr. Scott E. Brodie, a professor of clinical ophthalmology at the Columbia University Medical Center, about the science behind why we see things in the dark.

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Don’t believe everything you see

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It’s tempting to view the information feed that comes through our retinas as the reality of the world around us. “We ordinarily think of our vision as very faithful—what we see is what is really there,” Brodie says. But that’s not always the case. “There is neurology, there’s biochemistry in it—and [our vision] can be fooled.”

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There’s an easy way to witness the limitations of our visual systems. “There are so-called optical illusions, which help illustrate that there are actual physical and chemical processes that underlie vision,” Brodie says. German vision scientist Michael Bach has a whole host of optical illusions on his website. Scroll through and you’ll see an illusory color appear out of nowhere in Benham’s Top, or chromatic afterimages dot the screen in Hinton’s Lilac Chaser.

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Vision depends on your brain as much as it does on your eyes. Video: The Visual System: How Your Eyes Work, National Eye Institute, NIH

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For a DIY demonstration, close your eyes, then very gently press your index finger against the upper edge of the bony socket of one eye. Move the pressure down towards your eyeball, then move your finger from side to side. You should see a bright-rimmed black circle moving in the opposite position from where your finger is.

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“That’s an example of your eye seeing something visual, something that you would interpret as a light phenomenon when there’s no light there at all,” Brodie says. “It’s just the mechanical distortion of the retina, triggering nerve cells in the retina to do things that your brain interprets as that circular pattern.”

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This particular visual phenomenon of seeing light in the absence of a light source is called phosphenes. The term phosphenes is derived from the Greek words for “light” and “to show.” Phosphenes are usually a reaction to mechanical pressure or some sort of specific external stimulation. They also crop up in response to physical trauma. If you’ve ever whacked your head hard and found yourself “seeing stars, that’s what’s really going on”

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Your eyes try to see in the dark—with mixed results

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Even when the lights go down, your retina never really stops working. In dim lighting, your rod cells, which are highly light-sensitive photoreceptors, become more active. Because they’re clustered more toward the edges of your retina, you may find yourself more aware of your peripheral vision.

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“In the dark, the retina is just as active, more or less as in the light,” Brodie says. “It’s just that more of the activity is dominated by the off cells than by the on cells. And very slight variations or quantum variations in the activation will stimulate the circuitry, even though there’s no light around.”

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In short, there’s a lot going on chemically and neurologically, which means you can “see” things that aren’t really there. Maybe you even “see” things (or at least think you do) in the dark. Those seemingly random bits of color and light are really closed-eye hallucinations, also known as closed-eye visualizations (CEV).

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Unlike phosphenes, you don’t need to bang your head to see these—you don’t need to do anything at all.

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Not quite blackness

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Contrary to what you might think, when we’re plunged into total darkness or when we close our eyes, what we see isn’t actually blackness, but rather a very specific uniform dark gray known as eigengrau. The word, which comes from the German for “intrinsic gray,” was invented by physicist Gustav Fechner, who explored the phenomenon in his Method of Limits experiment in the 1800s. In it, he tried reducing variable stimuli (light, in this case) and seeing how it impacted human perception.

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+ Related Ask Us Anything Stories

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Is fear contagious?

Can dogs really smell fear? A vet weighs in.

Yes, the moon really can affect your sleep

Can dogs sense ghosts?

What makes a place seem ‘haunted’?

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The reason why we don’t see utter blackness is once again because of that visual noise, which come from signals from our optic nerve that our brain reads as flickers of light. Think of it as a kind of static coming from your own optical system rather than the world around you.

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“The bottom line is that there’s noise in the visual system, which becomes a predominant sensation in the absence of light,” Brodie says. That’s not to say visual noise only exists in the dark; it’s just that when our retinas are taking in so much information about the world around us, we can’t really see the noise overlaid on top. Turn off everything else though, and all of a sudden it’s hard to ignore.

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It’s worth noting that there are other factors beyond our visual system that may make it feel like there’s something out there in the dark. When our retinas aren’t taking in much information, our other senses kick into high gear, meaning you suddenly hear every little bump in the night.

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You might also note that you feel more aware of your body itself. You can feel where your hands are even if you can’t see them exactly. That’s thanks to proprioception, which allows your brain to keep tabs on movement and spatial location throughout the body.

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So the next time you’re feeling jumpy in the dark, pay close attention to your other senses, try to keep calm, and always remember that your eyes can, in fact, deceive you.

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This story is part of Popular Science’s Ask Us Anything series, where we answer your most outlandish, mind-burning questions, from the ordinary to the off-the-wall. Have something you’ve always wanted to know? Ask us.

The post Why you ‘see’ things in the dark, according to an ophthalmologist appeared first on Popular Science.

The quest to find Shackleton’s ship uncovered an Antarctic mystery

Andrew Paul — Wed, 29 Oct 2025 00:00:00 -0400

The Antarctic Ocean’s brutal conditions ultimately doomed Ernest Shackleton’s famed 1915 expedition aboard the Endurance. Although the icy environment has quickly turned fatal for many unfortunate explorers, it’s not an entirely inhospitable place. While attempting to locate Shackleton’s sunken ship in 2019, researchers unexpectedly documented a strange sight–a sprawling, geometric complex of over 1,000 icefish nests. The fish nests are described in a study published on October 29 in the journal Frontiers.

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The initial discovery occurred six years ago aboard the polar research vessel SA Agulhas II during its visit to the Western Weddell Sea. Although one of the expedition’s primary aims was locating the Endurance, researchers also intended to study the region’s thinning ice shelves. These floating barriers hold back the Antarctic Ice Sheet’s expansive ice flows, and their disappearance directly ties to rising global sea-levels.

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In 2019, the expedition passed through the 656-foot-thick ice shelf that had opened only two years earlier. The 2,240-square-mile A68 iceberg broke off from the Larsen C Ice Shelf in a process known as calving, creating an entryway for Lassie, the research vessel’s remotely operated vehicle (ROV).

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Pilots guided Lassie and additional autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) through the murky, frigid depths in hopes of spotting indications of the shipwreck. However, it didn’t take long for nature to exert its pressure on the vessels. To avoid a similar fate as the Endurance, the crew ultimately retreated from the multiyear ice packs surrounding them.

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The team didn’t return with the ship’s suspected location, but they did manage to collect extensive video from the bottom of the Weddell Sea. As they reviewed their footage, they counted over 1,000 of nests belonging to the yellowfin notie (Lindbergichthys nudifrons), or icefish. A species in the rockcod family, the notie makes its home in the frigid Antarctic waters. What makes them especially peculiar is how they incubate and raise their young. Each parent fish constructs a circular nest after clearing the area of plankton detritus. The notie then lays their eggs in these abodes and guard them until they hatch.

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Instead of random scatterings along the seafloor, their nests are arranged in intentionally geometric clusters. The study’s authors believe this to be an example of the “selfish herd” theory, where weaker icefish in the center of these communities are shielded by their neighbors. Meanwhile, nests on the outskirts of each notie neighborhood are generally occupied by the largest and strongest fish.

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Nests of the yellowfin notie (Lindbergichthys nudifrons). Each nest would have been guarded by a parent fish, protecting their eggs from predators. This remarkable organization is thought to be a survival strategy. Some are singular, bottom right, some are in curves, centre top, and others in clusters, top left. All have been cleared of the carpet of phytoplankton detritus that covers surrounding areas–seen starkly in the centre top picture. Credit: Weddell Sea Expedition 2019

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The team’s discovery reinforces the work of a previous expedition to the Weddell Sea in 2022, that documented icefish living in one of the planet’s largest fish breeding colonies. Taken together, the two studies offer clear evidence that the region meets the definition of a Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem, and further supports the need to designate the Weddell Sea as a Marine Protected Area.

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+ + They call it that because “humidifier” is better than “room moistener.” +

+ + + + + See It + + +

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This quiet (28 dB) humidifier runs up to 36 hours on one fill and doubles as a nightlight. It’s a great way to relieve dry indoor air as heating season ramps up, keeping your skin and sinuses happier.

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Dreo Tower Fan for Bedroom, 25ft/s Velocity — Save 15% With strong airflow, four speeds, and quiet operation, this sleek fan works just as well for air circulation in winter as it does for cooling in summer. The included remote and oscillating design make it a year-round favorite.

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Heaters

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Dreo Space Heater 1500W, 60° Adjustable Tilt — 10% off (now $44.95, was $49.99)
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Humidifiers

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Dreo Humidifiers for Bedroom, 4L Top Fill — 10% off (now $35.97, was $39.99)
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Fans & Air Circulators

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Dreo Tower Fan for Bedroom, 25ft/s Velocity Nomad One — 15% off (now $67.99, was $79.99)
Dreo Smart Tower Fan with WiFi Voice Control — 11% off (now $79.96, was $89.99)
Dreo Tower Fan Cruiser Pro T1, 42-Inch Bladeless — 10% off (now $89.96, was $99.99)
Dreo Pilot Pro S Tower Fan, 12 Speeds — Save with coupon (now $129.99)
Dreo Pedestal Fan with DC Motor — 11% off (now $89.45, was $99.99)

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Ceiling Fans & Air Conditioners

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Dreo Ceiling Fan with Lights, 52-Inch Reversible DC Motor — 13% off (now $139.99, was $159.99)
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Dreo Portable Air Conditioner, 8000 BTU Smart AC318S — 15% off (now $373.99, was $439.99)
Dreo Portable Air Conditioner, 12000 BTU Smart AC515S — 58% off (now $229.99, was $549.99)

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Kitchen & Specialty Appliances

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Dreo ChefMaker Combi Fryer, 6-QT Smart Air Fryer — 25% off (now $269, was $359)
Dreo Milk Frother [Upgraded], 15oz Foam Maker — 11% off (now $88.99, was $99.99)
Dreo Milk Frother, 8-in-1 BaristaMaker Air — 10% off (now $53.99, was $59.99)

The post Dreo space heaters are on sale at Amazon just in time for the cold weather to roll in appeared first on Popular Science.

The best portable power stations for 2026, tested and reviewed

Nick Hilden — Tue, 28 Oct 2025 16:15:02 -0400

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Portable power stations have become increasingly capable and can be a game-changer, whether you’re camping, in need of backup electricity, or simply want a convenient, mobile power source. But they certainly aren’t cheap, so you want to make sure you choose a model you can count on. We named the Bluetti Elite 200v2 our best overall because it’s such a well-rounded, versatile unit, but there are several other great options out there depending on your needs.

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Best overall: Bluetti Elite 200v2
Best for camping: Anker Solix C800 Plus
Best for off-grid living: Bluetti Apex 300
Best for home backup: Jackery HomePower 3000
Best budget: Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2
Best for high capacity: EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus
Best for extreme cold: Bluetti Pioneer Na
Best for rugged use: Generac GB2000

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How we selected the best portable power stations

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We’ve been using portable solar gear since the 1990s, when it was just barely usable. But over the past decade, the tech has progressed by leaps and bounds. Today, we regularly use portable power stations for a wide range of purposes, from camping to home backup to powering work devices on the go, so we know what makes one model stand out from another. This firsthand experience has informed over a decade of reviewing power stations and solar equipment for top consumer guides like Popular Science.

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For this list, we tested dozens of units from top brands as well as many up-and-coming ones, checking how they performed for tasks such as charging a laptop, powering lights, using a portable fridge in a van conversion, and operating power tools off the grid. These first-hand impressions were bolstered by input from Popular Science editors, as well as reviews from actual customers. The models below were selected based on factors such as capacity, performance, features, portability, and durability, and are the best portable power stations across various categories.

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The best portable power stations: Reviews & Recommendations

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The power stations included on this list span a wide range of budgets, from a few hundred dollars to several thousand. We have picks to suit a variety of scenarios, from charging a few devices to off-grid camping to emergency home backup. Based on extensive testing, we are confident that these are the best portable power stations for 2026.

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Best overall: Bluetti Elite 200v2

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Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Exceptionally portable
High output
Ports a’plenty
Compact design
Excellent build quality
One of the most usable apps out there

+ Cons

+ +

Not large enough for RV or whole home backup
A few pounds heavy for its size

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 2,073Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,800W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 2,600W (3,900W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 13.8 × 9.8 × 12.7 in +
+ + Weight + + + 53.4 pounds +
+ + Price + + + $1,699 +

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Why it made the cut: Small but powerful, the Bluetti Elite 200v2 delivers the capability and versatility to suit just about any mobile power need.

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Bluetti has been among the leaders of the portable power space for a while now, but with the Elite 200v2 they’ve surged to the head of the pack, providing a station that is about as well-rounded as it gets. In terms of performance, the Elite 200v2 is impressively cutting-edge. Its 2,073Wh LiFePO4 battery offers plenty of capacity for general use, from charging a few devices to keeping a high-draw appliance going for impressively long: it kept my electric grill going for about an hour.

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It provides ample output, and its TurboBoost fast charge will have it from flat to 100% in a little over 90 minutes via wall socket. Bluetti’s new Charger 1 DC adapter makes car port charging far faster and more effective than with most competitors, charging the unit over 4 hours of driving. And 1000W solar input capacity means it can handle as large a solar array as you’re likely to throw at it.

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I’m also a big fan of its compact, perfectly boxed design. It’s easy to fit into a trunk or van conversion, and while it is surprisingly heavy for its size, sturdy integrated handles make it easy to move around. App control allows for monitoring and adjustment from afar, and it has no shortage of ports spanning AC, USBs A and C, and a 120W car port.

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This is a real “no notes” situation. The vast majority of people looking for a reliable, intuitive, and moderately capable power station will be more than satisfied with the performance and portability of the Elite 200v2.

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Best for camping: Anker Solix C800 Plus

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+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Very compact
Good capacity and output
Variable-setting camp lamp

+ Cons

+ +

Way too small for RV needs

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 768Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,440W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 1,200W (1,600W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 14.61 x 8.07 x 9.96 in +
+ + Weight + + + 24 lbs +
+ + Price + + + $649.99 +

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Why it made the cut: Compact and lightweight with a decent capacity and a unique lantern, the Anker Solix C800 Plus is perfect for camping.

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If you’re looking for a decent-sized solar power bank that will keep a few devices going while venturing into the great outdoors, the Anker Solix C800 Plus offers an excellent balance between portability and capacity, along with some camp-friendly features. Its shoebox size and slight 24-pound weight make it easy to pack along, yet its 768Wh capacity is plenty to keep a few devices charged and your camp lit. Speaking of which, its nifty collapsible lantern makes for a great addition to your campsite. Multi-setting and stored in the station body, it’s a smart feature we haven’t seen anywhere else.

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With good port offerings, a quality app for remote control, and relatively high input and output rates, it checks pretty much all the boxes. You’ll need to look for something larger if you’re hoping to power an RV, but for general camping purposes, it’s a very well-thought-out power box.

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Best for off-grid living: Bluetti Apex 300

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Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

About as expandable as it gets
Massive input/output rates
SolarX accessory is a solar game-changer

+ Cons

+ +

Very expensive
Very heavy

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 5,529.6Wh (expandable up to 58KWh) +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,800W (expandable up to 30KW) +
+ + Output capacity + + + 3,800W (expandable up to 11.5KW) +
+ + Dimensions + + + Inverter 20.67 × 12.87 × 12.6 in / Battery 20.67 x 12.87 x 8.23 in +
+ + Weight + + + Inverter 83.78lbs / Battery 65.4 lbs +
+ + Price: + + + $3,499 +

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Why it made the cut: Big expandability, reliable performance, and uber-massive solar capability make the Bluetti Apex 300 perfect for going off-grid.

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Most portable power stations are designed for short-term, low-wattage use and don’t offer the capacity, output, and solar gathering capability to go truly off-grid. The Bluetti Apex 300 goes hard the other direction, allowing you to expand capacity to as much as a massive 58,000Wh, and its 5,529.6Wh standalone capacity is pretty huge to begin with. The output wattage starts at 3,800W and expands up to 11,500W. And the solar input can expand up to a wild 30,000W, meaning it can handle an off-grid-level solar array.

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To achieve that solar expansion, you must install the company’s new SolarX 4K charge controller, which boosts the Apex 300’s solar input up to 4,000W. That by itself is impressive, but if you are aiming for full solar electrification, multiple Apex, SolarX, and batteries can be chained to reach the 30,000W input threshold, which is plenty to power a whole home. And even without the SolarX, the Apex’s standard dual 1,200W solar input is already excellent. If you’re looking to go off-grid, some combination of Apex units and accessories will certainly get the job done.

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Still worth considering: EcoFlow Delta Pro Ultra

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+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Super expandable
Huge input/output rates
Fits into wider EcoFlow ecosystem

+ Cons

+ +

Very, very expensive

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 6,144Wh (expandable up to 90kWh) +
+ + Input capacity + + + 5,600W (expandable up to 16.8kW) +
+ + Output capacity + + + 7,200W (expandable up to 21.6kW) +
+ + Dimensions + + + Inverter 27.2 × 18.9 × 8.4 in / Battery 26 × 18 × 8 in +
+ + Weight + + + Inverter 70 lbs / Battery 111.8 lbs +
+ + Price + + + $6,299 +

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Why it made the cut: With massively expandable capacity, the EcoFlow Delta Pro Ultra is for serious off-grid living.

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While portable power stations have been marketed as a renewable electricity alternative for a while now, their ability to truly power an off-grid lifestyle was largely overhyped—they simply didn’t offer the performance necessary for reliable long-term electrification. The EcoFlow Delta Flow Ultra, however, is more than capable of delivering on the promise. Expandable up to a whopping 90kWh capacity with input rates of up to 16.8kW and outputs up to 21.6kW, it can gobble up as much solar as you can throw at it, power appliances of any draw, and provide backup power for over a month to the average-sized household. It also integrates into the wider EcoFlow smart home, off-grid ecosystem, which can allow you to build an off-grid setup of unrivaled capability.

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But none of that comes cheap. The base inverter/battery combo starts out with a high price tag, and expanding it to its full potential will make costs soar. But if you’re serious about building a reliable, capable off-grid system, it’s a worthwhile investment.

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Best for home backup: Jackery HomePower 3000

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+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

ZeroDrain ensures it works when you need it
Excellent capacity
Very compact

+ Cons

+ +

Pricey
Somewhat heavy

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 3,072Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1440W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 3,600W (7,200W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 16.4×12.8×12 in +
+ + Weight + + + 59.52lbs +
+ + Price + + + $2,499 +

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Why it made the cut: The Jackery HomePower 3000 has all-around solid numbers, but ZeroDrain tech makes it an especially reliable backup.

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When the lights go out and you’re expecting your power station to pick up the slack, there’s nothing more disappointing than pulling it out only to find that it’s drained while in storage. This was especially common with older models. But Jackery’s new HomePower 3000 avoids this issue via its ZeroDrain tech, which ensures it will hold a charge while sitting for long periods.

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It also offers excellent performance specs, especially for its size and weight. For example, it’s smaller and lighter than Jackery’s 2000 Plus while the capacity is 1000Wh higher, and offers similar specs as the 3000 Pro in a noticeably smaller, lighter package. Its squared-off design makes it easy to store, sturdy handles make its heft easier to lug around, and ZeroDrain ensures it’s ready when you are. Capable of powering a fridge for up to two days, it’s the perfect backup when you need to weather the storm.

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Best budget: Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2

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+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Surprisingly good specs for the price
Compact and lightweight
Fast charging

+ Cons

+ +

Not for powering an RV or large appliances

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 1,024Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,600W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 2,000W (3,000W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 15.1 × 8.2 × 9.6 in +
+ + Weight + + + 24.9 lbs +
+ + Price + + + $799 +

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Why it made the cut: The Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2 delivers performance and portability that’s hard to beat for the price.

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The Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2 is a solid small-mid-sized power station by any right, but when you factor in its sub-$400 price, it’s a bargain too good to pass up. Its 1,024Wh capacity will keep the fridge, lights, and devices in a small van conversion powered for a full day between charges, or will power a few essentials if the lights go out at home. The 2,000W running/3,000W surge output is surprisingly hefty for its size, and will power several devices at once and even some larger appliances. And it charges super quick, going from zero to full in about 50 minutes.

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I also like how portable it is. About the size of a shoebox and the weight of a jug of laundry detergent, it’s easy to fit into a truck or closet, and just as easy to move. It has 10ms UPS, allowing it to kick on automatically in the event of a power outage without interrupting the flow of electricity to essential equipment, which is rare in a unit this size and price and potentially vital if you need reliable power for a computer or medical equipment. Great power station, great price—what more is there to say?

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Best for high-capacity: EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

High capacity and expandable
Expandable up to 11KWh
Great output specs
Super fast charging
Love the smart design features

+ Cons

+ +

Heavy
Pricey, especially with expansion batteries

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 3,072Wh (expandable up to 11KWh) +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,800W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 3,600W (4,600W X-Boost, 7,200W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 24.14 x 12.9 x 15.5 in +
+ + Weight + + + 74.2 pounds +
+ + Price + + + $1.599 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: The EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus is not only high-capacity but also one of the best power stations out there.

+ + + +

I would potentially declare the EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus “best overall” if it weren’t for the fact that most people don’t need a power station this big. If you do need a station this big, however, it is excellent. The unit itself offers a substantial 3,072Wh capacity, which can expand up to a huge 11,000Wh. Its outstanding output specs, ranging from 3,600-7,200W, will run pretty much anything you need it to, including appliances, power tools, or an air conditioner. And its zippy charging is a great touch. Storm Guard Mode monitors weather forecasts and charges the unit automatically in the event of severe weather, and it can charge in as few as 89 minutes if a storm is coming in fast.

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Beyond all that, the Delta 3 Ultra Plus boasts a lot of smart little touches. It’s a big, heavy unit, but the telescoping handle and wheels make it easy to move. And I love that the rear port doors slide into protective slots—I’ve lost many of such little doors and covers in the past. If you need a big, reliable, high-spec power station, EcoFlow’s latest is exceptional.

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Best for extreme cold: Bluetti Pioneer Na

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Sub-zero cold performance and storage
Quick charging
Decent output wattage

+ Cons

+ +

Sodium chemistry means it’s slightly larger and heavier than its lithium counterparts

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 900Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,900W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 1,500W (2,500W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 13.4 x 10 x 12.5 in +
+ + Weight + + + 35.3 lbs +
+ + Price + + + $1,299 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: As the first sodium-ion power station, the Bluetti Pioneer Na can operate and store energy at colder temperatures than any other.

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One key flaw with portable power stations involves their inability to operate and store in temperatures below 5 degrees. Bluetti has solved this issue with the new Pioneer Na, which charges in as low as 5 degrees, discharges as low as -13, and stores as low as -20. If you live or camp somewhere where you expect to deal with extreme cold, that can make a major difference.

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What’s more, the overall performance and portability are above average. Keep in mind that sodium-ion technology is inherently heavier than lithium-ion, so Bluetti has struck a nice balance by offering 900Wh capacity and 1,500W output—not the highest specs, but not the lowest either, but a good Goldilocks zone for most users—in a package that is compact and easy to move around. It’s powerful enough to keep essentials like a fridge, router, TV, and laptop going for several hours, and it charges in a quick 45 minutes. That’s great, no matter the temperature, and if things get especially cold, the Pioneer Na can be a must.

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Best for rugged use: Generac GB2000

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Rugged durability
Sturdy grab handle
Wireless charging pad

+ Cons

+ +

Slow charging

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 2,106Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 468W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 1,600W (3,200W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 16.8 x 15.1 x 10.4 in +
+ + Weight + + + 43 lbs +
+ + Price + + + $1,599 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: The Generac GB2000 is plenty burly for the great outdoors.

+ + + +

Generac has long been known for crafting rugged gas generators, and they’ve applied that same dedication to durability with their new line of portable power stations. With a solid exterior and sturdy lunchbox-style handle, it feels more like a substantial power tool than a piece of electronic equipment. This makes it ideal for the great outdoors, whether you’re camping or working with power tools. Its 2,106Wh capacity is more than enough for most day-to-day uses, and its high output rate means it will power most devices, tools, and small appliances.

+ + + +

Its only glaring issue is its relatively slow charging speed: Four hours when plugged into a wall outlet is fairly sluggish these days. But beyond that, it’s perfect if you need a power station that can take some bumps around the campsite.

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Things to consider before buying a portable power station

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There are a lot of portable power stations and solar power generators on the market right now, and while they tend to look fairly similar at a glance, they vary wildly in terms of quality and capability. When making such a high-value purchase, there are a few things you need to keep in mind to ensure you’re getting the best unit for your situation.

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How much power can it store?

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Above all else, a portable power station must offer enough capacity to meet your mobile power needs. This is measured in Watt-hours (Wh), with one watt-hour being the equivalent of one watt flowing over the course of an hour. Most people will likely want a station that holds several thousand Wh, but that doesn’t mean the unit will provide power for several thousand hours. You’ll likely need to use far more watts than one an hour, so ultimately, how long your station’s charge will last will be determined by what you plug into it.

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It’s easy to predict how long a generator will last when you use it to power one thing. For example, if you were to power a 100-watt bulb using a power station with a capacity of 500 watt-hours (Wh), it would stay lit for five continuous hours. Add a portable fridge that requires 50 watts per hour, your phone, which uses 18 watts, a mini-fan that uses three … you get the picture. Typically speaking, the more capacity, the better.

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A growing number of brands also offer expandable models, which can be stacked and daisy-chained to add-on batteries that can increase their capacity to well over 10,000Wh. These are usually geared toward home backup power.

+ + + +

Charging capability

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Most portable power stations can be recharged via solar, a wall or car socket, or in some cases, a combination of both. Solar allows you to top off when off the grid, but tends to charge somewhat slowly, especially in subpar sun conditions. Plugging directly into the wall will give you the fastest power-up. We’ve found that car sockets, however, are unreliable and often outright useless.

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Whichever method you choose, a particular model’s recharging speed will be throttled by its input capacity, which is measured in Watts (W). A power station with a max input of 100W, for example, can take in a continuous flow of up to 100 watts. Most of the models included below offer well over 1000W.

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Output capability

+ + + +

Any portable power station worth your money will have a high output capacity so you can charge many devices, even if they require a lot of juice. A generator’s maximum output should be much higher than its max input. While a particular model might only be capable of taking in a few hundred watts at any given moment, it will usually put out exponentially more. At a minimum, you’re going to want a generator that can put out several hundred watts, though we typically recommend looking above 1000. Most of the models below produce several thousand.

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The best portable power stations should also offer a variety of output plugs, including AC outlets, USB-A, USB-C, and even 12-volt DC outlets like the one in your vehicle’s dash. This ensures that you can charge several devices at once, no matter what plug they use. The number of ports you’ll need will vary depending on how many devices you need to power, but it should have at least a couple of AC outlets and a few USB-A ports.

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Portability

+ + + +

The larger the capacity, the heavier the unit. What is or isn’t portable depends largely on how you plan to use it, but you can expect to find a model that is well-suited to your situation, as they come in all sizes these days.

+ + + +

If you’re camping, converting a van, or otherwise on the go, you’re probably going to want to compromise some capacity in favor of portability. That means looking in the 800-3000Wh range, which with current technology will weigh somewhere between 10 and 60 pounds and will be no larger than 2-3 stacked shoeboxes. Larger models will often have handles or wheels to help with moving around.

+ + + +

On the other hand, if you expect to use your power station closer to home and will either never move it or only move it occasionally, portability becomes less of an issue. In that case, you can look for a higher capacity battery that is heavier and harder to move. These can weigh as much as 140 pounds, but they usually have wheels and handles.

+ + + +

Durability

+ + + +

As with any product you expect to last, durability and all-around quality craftsmanship are essential. This is especially true if you plan on lugging your generator around on camping and road trips. A lot of subpar power stations are made from cheap components and flimsy plastic that doesn’t feel like it will hold up under the rigors of the road.

+ + + +

Durability isn’t something you can determine by reading a spec sheet off the internet. You actually have to take the generator out, use it a lot, and see how it holds up. We’ve verified the durability of these recommendations via a combination of actual field tests and reviews culled from countless real product owners.

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FAQs

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Q: What size solar generator should I get?

It’s easy to underestimate how much capacity you need. A thousand watt-hours might sound like a lot, but if you’re going to, say, power a converted van with a portable fridge, lights, and occasional phone and laptop top-off, that thousand watt-hours will go faster than you expect. I used a setup like this and know from personal experience that you should always overestimate how much power you’ll need.

A generator with a capacity under 1,000 Wh can keep electronics charged. A larger one with 1000-1500Wh should be the minimum for road trips where you’ll need it to last multiple days between full charges. For a house or worksite where you expect to use some serious energy—like a full-sized refrigerator or power tools—you’re going to want to start looking at the biggest possible power stations that can be daisy-chained to external batteries.
If you want to get precise, there is an equation:

1. Estimate how many hours you’ll need to power various devices. For example, if you want to power two light bulbs for two hours, you need four hours of operation.

2. Add up the total wattage necessary: The two bulbs are 60 watts each, so you need 120 watts.

3. Multiply these together to find the total watt-hours needed: 4 x 120 = 480. So, in this, you’d need at least a 500Wh solar generator.

That might sound like a lot for two lightbulbs, but keep in mind that in most situations, you won’t realistically be powering 60-watt light bulbs for hours on end. You’ll be charging phones and laptops for an hour here or there, cooling a fridge that kicks on and off every once in a while, using power tools in short bursts, and whatnot.

Q: How many years will a solar generator last?

Most modern generators are rated to last upwards of 25 years. The best-designed power stations are quite sturdy, with few to no moving parts, so they should likely last for a long time, provided you care for them properly. I’ve been pretty rough with a few of mine, and they show no signs of stopping.

Q: Can I run my house on solar power only?

These days, absolutely. Just a few years ago, I would have said such capabilities were severely limited, but the latest generation of whole-home power stations can provide enough storage to power your home for as long as a month. This typically requires installing a form of integration unit in your home that plugs into the power station and can even switch power automatically in the event of a blackout.

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Final thoughts on the best portable power stations

+ + + +

Best overall: Bluetti Elite 200v2
Best for camping: Anker Solix C800 Plus
Best for off-grid living: Bluetti Apex 300
Best for home backup: Jackery HomePower 3000
Best budget: Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2
Best for high capacity: EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus
Best for extreme cold: Bluetti Pioneer Na
Best for rugged use: Generac GB2000

+ + + +

We’re living in a “golden age” for portable solar-friendly power stations. When we were kids and the family was playing around with solar gear while camping in the ‘90s, the technology wasn’t capable of charging many devices, so it wasn’t all that practical.

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By contrast, the solar generators we’ve recommended here are incredibly useful. We’ve relied on them to power work and day-to-day needs while road-tripping all over the country. They’re also great when the power goes out. When a windstorm cut the power at the house for a couple of days, we were still working, watching our stories, and keeping the lights on.

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We haven’t even scratched the surface in terms of the potential offered by portable, reliable, renewable, relatively affordable power. What we can do now is already incredible. The potential for what may come, though, is truly mind-blowing.

The post The best portable power stations for 2026, tested and reviewed appeared first on Popular Science.

Red Spider Nebula glows in ethereal new JWST image

Laura Baisas — Tue, 28 Oct 2025 15:40:00 -0400

A cosmic spider was caught in some kind of web. Specifically, the James Webb Space Telescope. The telescope’s sophisticated Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam) revealed some never-before-seen details of NGC 6537, aka the Red Spider Nebula. The image is detailed in a study published today in The Astrophysical Journal.

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Planetary nebulae form when ordinary stars like our sun reach the end of their lifespan. After swelling into cool red giants, these stars will shed their outer layers, sending the debris flying into space. All that remains when those outer layers are gone is the star’s white-hot core. The ultraviolet light coming from the central star causes the glow. The planetary nebula phase of a star’s life only lasts a few tens of thousands of years–basically a blink of an eye in space terms.

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The Red Spider Nebula is roughly 3,000 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Sagittarius. In this new image, the central star of the nebula is glowing just a bit brighter than the webs of dusty gas that surround it. The JWST’s NIRCam picked up the exceptionally hot and luminous central star. In previous images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope, the central star appears more faint and blue. However, the NIRCam images show it as a more detailed red, thanks to the camera’s sensitive near-infrared capabilities. The JWST has also spotted a shroud of hot dust surrounding the central star, which likely orbits the central star in a disc structure.

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+ +

CREDIT: ESA/Webb, NASA & CSA, J. H. Kastner (Rochester Institute of Technology), G. Mellema (Leiden University, the Netherlands), N. Bartmann (ESA/Webb)
Music: Stellardrone – The Night Sky in Motion

+ + + +

According to the European Space Agency (ESA), while a single star is visible in the heart of the Red Spider Nebula, there could be a hidden companion star lurking nearby. A stellar companion like that could explain the nebula’s shape, including its narrow hourglass-like waist and wide outflows. This shape has been observed in other planetary nebulae such as the Butterfly Nebula.

+ + + +

This new view of the Red Spider Nebula reveals the full extent of its outstretched lobes for the first time. These lobes form the spider’s “legs” and are shown in blue. They are traced by the light emitted from H2 molecules, which have two hydrogen atoms bonded together. When looking closer at the lobes with the NIRCam, they appear to be closed, bubble-like structures that each extend about three light-years. Over thousands of years, outflowing gas from the center of the nebula has inflated these massive bubbles.

+ + + +

The central region of a planetary nebula is shown in a box. Labels indicate “Shock waves,” “Outflow collisions,” and an “Ionised jet” in the dust on both sides of the nebula. Close to the centre, “Dusty torus” and “Ionised torus” are marked. In the very middle, a faint dot inside a blotchy pink cloud is labelled “Dying star.” Bright stars surround the nebula and can be seen through the dust layers. Image: ESA/Webb, NASA & CSA, J. H. Kastner (Rochester Institute of Technology).

+ + + +

Gas is also getting out from the center of the nebula. The elongated purple ‘S’ shape centered on the heart of the nebula traces the light from ionized iron atoms. This feature shows where a fast-moving jet has burst forth from the nebula’s central star and collided with the material that was previously cast away by the star.

+ + + +

The observations used to create this image come from Webb GO programme #4571 (PI: J. Kastner) as part of a joint Chandra-JWST observing program.

The post Red Spider Nebula glows in ethereal new JWST image appeared first on Popular Science.

Renaissance sword reveals a hidden engraving

Andrew Paul — Tue, 28 Oct 2025 13:40:51 -0400

The sword isn’t much more than a rusty relic at first glance. Researchers at Germany’s University of Jena (formally Friedrich Schiller University Jena) knew better, but needed a way to peer underneath more than 300 years of corrosion. What they discovered still remains hidden to the naked eye, but is clearly visible thanks to some of the latest advances in computed tomography (CT) scanning technology.

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The shortsword was forged in 1558, shortly after Schiller University’s founding and during Germany’s Renaissance era. At the time, only members of the nobility and upper class were permitted to carry such a weapon, also known as a degen. And for many of those members of Germany’s highest social order, the University of Jena was a hub of education and culture. Between 1594 and 1814, its professors, students, and even their families were often buried near the church in the heart of campus called the Collegium Jenense. These crypts frequently included symbolic offerings and personal items—including their trusty shortswords.

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The heavily corroded sword is inaccessible without CT scans. Credit: INNOVENT

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The Collegium Jenense was ultimately destroyed during an Allied bombing campaign near the end of World War II, trapping centuries’ worth of historic relics under thousands of pounds of rubble. It would take years of excavations to eventually reveal the buried graves and their artisan-crafted accessories. While one example was recovered largely intact, it still didn’t change the fact that the degen remained covered in rust and grime.

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The sword and other artifacts were carefully archived and remained there for decades. In 2018, University of Jena researchers began a project focused on the institution’s earliest years, particularly the Collegiate Quarter’s graves. They suspected they could investigate one of the swords beyond its surface layers, but lacked the technology to try. It would take another four years before the team could partner with INNOVENT, an independent industrial research facility based at the university. Using INNOVENT’s recently acquired X-ray, micro-, and nano-CT scanner, experts could finally see into their mystery weapon.

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Imaging was able to display the sword’s individual layers. The green seen here is the remnants of its sheath. Credit: INNOVENT

+ + + +

Virrtually exposed inscription on the “display side” of the sword. The letters are individually inlaid into the blade steel from approximately 0.6 mm thick copper sheet. INNOVENT

+ + + +

Once scanned, the team utilized analysis algorithms to generate separate images of the object’s various material layers, then displayed each one using false colors. Green indicated the remains of one side of the sword’s sheath had fused to the blade’s welded steel. Additional scans of the exposed opposite side showed the exposed weapon’s elaborate inlay in red—as well the name “Clemes Stam.”

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Stam wasn’t the shortsword’s owner, however. Researchers corroborated historical records to confirm that Stam was actually a blacksmith living in the town of Solingen at the end of the 16th century. Solingen was famed for its swordmaking, with artisans crafting bespoke weapons for European nobility and even the King of Spain. Engraving the maker’s name served as a testament to the owner’s status, as well as the sword’s renowned origins. The team said the sword could only have belonged to either a rector, or a student from a noble family.

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“CT doesn’t just capture surface details; it reveals the object’s inner story,” explained project archaeologist Enrico Paust. “In this case, it literally uncovered a name that connects Jena to the European tradition of sword-making.”

The post Renaissance sword reveals a hidden engraving appeared first on Popular Science.

The best solar generators for 2026, tested and reviewed

Nick Hilden — Tue, 28 Oct 2025 13:35:22 -0400

+ + +

Solar generators can make your life a little easier on a good day or save you on a bad day. These powerful power packs offer huge battery capacity that can fuel large devices and even appliances in a pinch. They’re great in an emergency, but they’re also essential tailgating and camping equipment. We chose the Bluetti Elite 200v2 as our best overall pick, but there are tons of options out there on the market to meet your needs.

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Best overall: Bluetti Elite 200v2
Still great: Jackery Explorer 2000 Plus
Best high-capacity: EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus
Best for frequent use: Anker 767 Portable Power Station Solar Generator
Best for camping: Anker Solix C800 Plus
Best for off-grid living: Bluetti Apex 300
Best for home backup: Jackery HomePower 3000
Best for lots of ports: DJI Power 2000
Best for extreme cold: Bluetti Pioneer Na
Best budget: Jackery Explorer 300

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How we chose the best solar generators

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As an avid outdoorsman, I’ve had the opportunity to test an extremely wide range of outdoor gear, including mobile and off-grid electrification equipment like solar-powered generators, as well as inverter and dual-fuel generators. These became particularly essential when the pandemic forced my travels to become domestic rather than international, which prompted me to outfit a van for long-term road-tripping.

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To bring my work along for the ride, I needed a constant portable power source to charge my laptop, a portable fridge, lighting, and a myriad of devices and tools … even electric bikes. As a result, I’ve tried all the leading portable power stations (and plenty that aren’t leading, too), so I know precisely what separates the best from the blah. I’ve written all about it (and other outdoor tech) for publications, including the Daily Beast, Thrillist, the Manual, Popular Science, and more. There were cases when my own opinion resulted in a tie, and I, therefore, looked to reviews from actual customers to determine which solar generators delivered the most satisfaction to the most users.

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When to buy a solar generator

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If you’re thinking about dropping big money on a solar generator, consider shopping on big shopping holidays like Amazon Prime Day or Black Friday. These are expensive devices, and they experience their largest discounts around those times. That said, they’re rarely the full prices below, even when it’s not a retail holiday, so click through to find out.

+ + + +

The best solar generators: Reviews & Recommendations

+ + + +

The solar generators on this list span a wide range of budgets, from a few hundred dollars to a few thousand. They span several use cases, from camping to a backup for your home. Only you know all the factors that make one of these the best solar generator for you, but we think that one of these will get the job done.

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Best overall: Bluetti Elite 200 v2

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Exceptionally portable
High output
Plenty of ports
Sleek design
Excellent build quality
One of the most usable apps out there

+ Cons

+ +

Not large enough for RV or whole home backup
A few pounds heavy for its size

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 2,073Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,800W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 2,600W (3,900W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 13.8 × 9.8 × 12.7 in +
+ + Weight + + + 53.4 pounds +
+ + Price + + + $1,699 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: No other solar generator delivers such an excellent balance of portability, capacity, and performance.

+ + + +

There are a lot of excellent solar generators on this list, many of which are competitive rivals for the top spot, but none offer such an excellent fusion of capacity, portability, and well-considered design as the Bluetti Elite 200 v2. With a capacity of 2,073 watt-hours, it hits the sweet spot that will deliver on the needs of the vast majority of users.

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At the same time, with its just-over-shoebox dimensions and relatively light weight, it’s as portable as can be. This makes it the perfect pick for packing in a trunk while heading outdoors, storing in a closet for backup power, or simply having around for a convenient, mobile power source.

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It also offers surprisingly oomphy output for a power box of its size. Its 2,600W running output was already hefty enough, but surge capacity up to 3,900W means it can handle the startup draw of larger electronics and appliances. Its 1000W solar input capacity equips it for a large solar panel array, and its 1,800W wall input capacity will charge from zero to full in just over 90 minutes.

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While power station apps are notoriously glitchy, the Bluetti app is user-friendly and allows for remote monitoring and adjustment. Most users will find it has plenty of ports, including four AC ports, USB-A and USB-C ports, and a 120W car port, though there is no 30A or 50A RV plug.

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I’ve found that its perfectly squared off design is ideal for fitting into a tight storage space or building into a small van conversion. The LiFePO4 battery has a lifespan of over 6,000 cycles, and the whole unit feels plenty durable. Indeed, I have knocked my test unit around more than a little. It seems no worse for wear.

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For most mid-sized portable power purposes, the Bluetti Elite 200 v2 does pretty much everything right.

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Still great: Jackery Explorer 2000 Plus

+ + + + +

+ +

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Charges quickly
Very high output that can run power-hungry devices
Built-in wheels and handle
Clear display
Four AC outlets
Expandable with extra batteries
Long life batteries

+ Cons

+ +

Heavy
Slightly less capacity than our previous pick

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 2,042.8Wh (expandable up to 24,000Wh) +
+ + Output capacity + + + 6,000w +
+ + Dimensions + + + 18.6 x 14.7 x 14.1 inches +
+ + Weight + + + 61 pounds +
+ + Price + + + $1,999 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: It offers just about everything you’d want, with the added benefits of LiFePO4 battery power.

+ + + +

As new solar generators hit the market, many come toting new lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries instead of the familiar lithium-ion batteries that came before. LiFePO4 offers a few advantages, including a much longer lifespan as you charge and discharge them. They’re also safer and often faster to charge. They do typically add some weight, however. Just about all of those modifiers apply here in the form of our former best overall, the Jackery Explorer 2000 Plus.

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The Jackery Explorer 2000 Plus can power current-hungry devices at up to 6000W, so even if you want to power a welder, you can. The battery will only last you about half an hour doing this (we tried it), but it does work, and that’s more than many other models can say. I also got to test the Explorer 2000 Plus during a real power outage. It kept our router running for several hours to maintain connectivity.

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This model has 2kWh of storage built in, but you can expand that capacity with extra external daisy-chained batteries. It gives a total max storage of up to 24kWh—enough for a serious off-grid job. The optional solar panels charge the battery quickly and efficiently. Jackery claims roughly two hours of charging time via the optional solar panels, and I found it took more like 2.5 hours, but that includes battling some passing clouds. With two straight hours of direct sun, it could likely get the job done.

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At 61 pounds, this is considerably heavier than the Jackery Explorer 2000 Pro, which weighs nearly 20 pounds less. But the integrated wheels, handle, and chunky grips on either side of the box make it very easy to lug around. Everyone in my family could easily set it in the back of my wife’s Honda Civic.

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The switch to LiFePo4 also means that this unit will last a long time before the battery degrades beyond its usable range. The company claims it will take 4,000 cycles before the battery life degrades to 70 percent. We obviously haven’t had time to test that yet, but that is the nature of LiFePo4, so it will almost certainly last longer than a lithium-ion model at least.

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Best high-capacity: EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

High capacity and expandable
High output
Super fast charging
Love the smart design features

+ Cons

+ +

Heavy
Pricey, especially with expansion batteries

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 3,072Wh (expandable up to 11KWh) +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,800W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 3,600W (4,600W X-Boost, 7,200W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 24.14 x 12.9 x 15.5 in +
+ + Weight + + + 74.2 pounds +
+ + Price + + + $1.599 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: The EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus itself is high-capacity, high-output, and exceptionally well-designed, and can expand as much as you need it to.

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The EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus is a solid contender for “best overall,” and the only reason it didn’t get it is because it’s more of a power station than most people need. But if you do need more power station, it delivers.

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The standalone unit’s 3,072Wh capacity is plenty for powering an RV or van conversion, an off-grid worksite, or a home during a blackout. 3,600W output is more than enough to power an average assortment of devices, small, and even larger appliances, the X-Boost allows it to temporarily up its running wattage to 4,600W, and its 7,200W surge capacity means it can handle spikes in draw from an AC, appliance, or power tool switching on. Its six charging options allow you to top it off lightning quick—as fast as 89 minutes if you’re readying for a storm or trip—and Storm Guard Mode will monitor the weather and charge the unit automatically if severe weather is coming.

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All that’s great, but what I really like about it is how much consideration went into various design elements. For example, whoever thought of having the rear port doors slide into protective slots is a genius. It’s a heavy unit, but the sturdy handle and telescoping wheels make it easy to move around. It’s equipped with a 30A outlet so it can plug directly into an RV, and a good number of other ports.

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Excellent all around. If you need a larger, potentially expandable solar generator that offers a good dose of portability, it can’t be beat.

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Best for frequent use: Anker 767 Portable Power Station Solar Generator

+ + + + +

+ +

+ + The Anker Power Station 767 solar generator’s high capacity and fast charging make this long-lasting battery a solid everyday driver. +

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Charges up to 80% in less than two hours
Solid output and storage capacity
Optional battery pack doubles capacity
LiFePO4 batteries survive more charge cycles than traditional models
Plenty of ports
Built-in handle and wheels for transport

+ Cons

+ +

Heavy for its capacity
No USB-C in for charging

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 2,048Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1440W Max (1000W Max Solar) +
+ + Output capacity + + + 2,400W +
+ + Dimensions + + + 20.67 x 9.84 x 15.55 inches +
+ + Weight + + + 67.3 pounds +
+ + Price + + + $1,999 +

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Why it made the cut: High capacity and fast charging make this long-lasting battery a solid everyday driver.

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Anker has equipped its massive portable power station with LiFePO4 batteries, which stand up much better to repeat charging and discharging over the long term than common lithium-ion cells. Anker claims it can charge and discharge up to 3,000 times before it reaches 80% battery health compared to 500 in a similar lithium-ion setup. While I haven’t had the chance to run it through 3,000 cycles, LiFePO4 batteries have a well-earned reputation for longevity.

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Regarding overall performance, the Anker 767 does everything you’d want a unit with these specs to do. The bad weather has given me [Executive Gear Editor Stan Horaczek] ample chances, unfortunately, to test it in real-world situations.

+ + + +

The built-in battery offers a 2048Wh capacity and pumps out up to 2,400W. It does so through four standard AC outlets, an RV outlet, two 120W car outlets, two 12W USB-A ports, and three 100W USB-C ports.

+ + + +

I used it during a blackout to keep our Wi-Fi running while charging my family’s devices. Filling a phone from zero barely makes a dent in the power station’s capacity, and it ran the router for several hours with plenty of juice left.

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In another instance, it powered our small meat freezer for four hours before the power came back on with some juice still left in the tank. It does what it promises.

+ + + +

There are a few nice extra touches as well. Built-in wheels and an extendable handle allow it to roll like carry-on luggage. Unfortunately, those are necessary inclusions because it weighs a hefty 67.3 pounds. It’s manageable but definitely heavy compared to its competition.

+ + + +

The Anker 767 is compatible with the company’s 200W solar panels, which fold up for easy transportation. I mostly charged the unit through my home’s AC power, a surprisingly quick process. The 767 Portable Power Station can go from flat to more than 80% charge in less than half an hour with sufficient power. It takes about two hours to get it fully juiced.

+ + + +

Anker also offers a mobile app that connects to the power station via Bluetooth if you want to control it without actually going over and touching it.

+ + + +

Best for car camping: Anker Solix C800 Plus

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Very compact
Good capacity and output
Variable-setting camp lamp

+ Cons

+ +

Way too small for RV needs

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 768Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,440W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 1,200W (1,600W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 14.61 x 8.07 x 9.96 in +
+ + Weight + + + 24 lbs +
+ + Price + + + $649.99 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: Thanks to its small size, decent specs, fast charging, and innovative lantern, it’s perfect for camping.

+ + + +

Say you need a solar power generator for a few days of camping, over the course of which you’re hoping to power a few small devices, a string of lights, and maybe even a small electric cooler—the Anker Solix C800 Plus is the perfect little unit. About the size of a shoebox and just 24 pounds, it’s as portable and compact as can be. At the same time, the 768Wh capacity and 1,200W output are surprisingly good for such a small box. And with a 300W solar panel and good sunlight conditions, it can charge in about three hours.

+ + + +

All good stuff, but what really sets it apart is the integrated lamp, which attaches magnetically and then hides away in the body of the unit when not in use. It has three light modes and makes for an excellent addition to any campsite.

+ + + +

Still good for van-living: Goal Zero Yeti 1000

+ + + + +

+ +

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Highly portable
Incredible durability
Rapid recharge rate
Plenty of plugs

+ Cons

+ +

Expensive for its size/capacity

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 983Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 600W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 1,200W (2,400W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 9.86 x 15.25 x 10.23 inches +
+ + Weight + + + 31.68 lbs +
+ + Price + + + $1,198.95 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: Thanks to its outstanding portability, high storage capacity, and Yeti’s famous durability, the Goal Zero Yeti 1000 Core is great for packing along for camping or van-living.

+ + + +

Yeti is long-renowned for making some of the best outdoor gear money can buy, so when the company launched its Goal Zero line of solar generators, it was no surprise that they turned out to be awesome. While the whole line is great, the 1000 Core model’s balance between capacity and portability makes it perfect for taking on the road and going camping.

+ + + +

While the 1000 Core has a third less capacity than our top pick, it charges up faster, making it a great option for rapid solar replenishment. That said, its capacity is no slouch, offering 82 phone charges, 20 for a laptop, or upwards of 15 hours for a portable fridge (depending on wattage). Suffice to say, it’s more than capable of powering your basic camping gear.

+ + + +

Beyond its charging capabilities, the Goal Zero 1000 Core excels at camping thanks to its hearty build quality. Built super tough—like pretty much everything Yeti makes—its exterior shell provides solid protection.

+ + + +

The biggest issue it presents is the cost. Like pretty much everything Yeti produces, its price tag isn’t small. While there are other 1000-level solar generators for less, this one offers a great balance of power storage and portability.

+ + + +

For more on the Goal Zero Yeti 1000 Core, check out our full review.

+ + + +

Best for off-grid living: Bluetti Apex 300

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

One of the largest expansion capacities out there
Huge input/output rates
SolarX accessory is a solar game-changer

+ Cons

+ +

Very expensive
Very heavy

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 5,529.6Wh (expandable up to 58KWh) +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,800W (expandable up to 30KW) +
+ + Output capacity + + + 3,800W (expandable up to 11.5KW) +
+ + Dimensions + + + Inverter 20.67 × 12.87 × 12.6 in / Battery 20.67 x 12.87 x 8.23 in +
+ + Weight + + + Inverter 83.78lbs / Battery 65.4 lbs +
+ + Price: + + + $3,499 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: Thanks to its high solo capacity and ability to daisy-chain with additional batteries, the Bluetti AC200 Max is perfect for bringing power off the grid.

+ + + +

You’ll be hard-pressed to find a solar generator better suited for living off the grid for an extended period than the Bluetti AC200 Max. It boasts a substantial 2,048Wh capacity, allowing you to power your whole life off it longer than most portable generators. Even better, you can daisy-chain multiple Bluetti batteries, expanding its capacity to a massive 8.192Wh. That’s flat-out enormous and translates into the ability to power a full-sized fridge for over a day or several hours of air conditioning. For the more modest needs of people who are used to living off a generator, it will last for a very long time.

+ + + +

At the same time, the AC200 Max has an outstanding input capacity of 1,400W. That means you can plug in a pretty hefty array of solar panels to replenish its stores quickly. This allows you to keep your off-grid setup going with little to no interruption. It also features some specialty charging options, including a 30A plug, which lets you plug it directly into an RV, and multiple wireless charging pads for smaller devices.

+ + + +

Best for home backup: Jackery HomePower 3000

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

ZeroDrain ensures it works when you need it
Excellent capacity
Very compact

+ Cons

+ +

Pricey
Somewhat heavy

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 3,072Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1440W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 3,600W (7,200W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 16.4×12.8×12 in +
+ + Weight + + + 59.52lbs +
+ + Price + + + $2,499 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: Great specs and portability, plus Jackery’s ZeroDrain reliability, make the HomePower 3000 a safe bet for outages.

+ + + +

From my experience, the most important thing you need from a solar generator for home backup is reliability. I’ve been disappointed more than once to find that my power station hasn’t held its charge while in storage. To that end, the Jackery HomePower 3000, equipped with its ZeroDrain tech, ensures that you have power when you need it. The HomePower series is a new divergence from Jackery’s already popular Explorer series, and it moves the brand forward in terms of offering not only the aforementioned ZeroDrain, but an improved size to capacity to performance ratio.

+ + + +

Slightly smaller and lighter than Jackery’s Explorer 2000 Plus, it nevertheless has 1,000Wh more capacity, and it’s significantly smaller than the 3000 Pro while delivering comparable capacity and performance. That, combined with its ZeroDrain shelf life, makes it ideal for burying in the closet or garage for a rainy day.

+ + + +

Fastest charging: EcoFlow Delta 2 Max

+ + + + +

+ +

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Very fast charging over solar or mains
Relatively compact
Not as heavy as we might have expected
Long-lasting batteries
Scalable by connecting two extra batteries
Advanced temperature management for safety

+ Cons

+ +

Solar panels are pricy
Still heavier than non-LiFePo4 models

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity: + + + 2048Wh (expandable to 6,000Wh) +
+ + Output capacity: + + + 3,400W +
+ + Dimensions: + + + 19.8 x 9.5 x 12.01 +
+ + Weight: + + + 50.71 lbs +
+ + Price: + + + $2,000 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: Whether it’s solar or AC power, you can get 80% of a charge in an hour or less.

+ + + +

Plug this 2048Wh battery pack into up to 1,000 watts of solar panels, and you can get an 80 percent charge in just 43 minutes. That’s blisteringly fast compared to other models. Plug the unit into the wall and you’ll go from zero to 80 percent in just 1.1 hours, which is still fairly speedy when it comes to soaking up electricity. That extra time can make a huge difference if you only have limited opportunities to top off your solar generator. We managed to get above 80 percent in just under an hour without perfect sun conditions here in Upstate New York.

+ + + +

In addition to its quick charging skills, the EcoFlow Delta 2 Max offers an impressive array of connectivity, including six AC outlets, which is more than many larger models offer. That’s good if you want to run many devices or chargers simultaneously. If you need more capacity, you can add two extra external batteries to give it a total storage of 6Wh.

+ + + +

At 51 pounds, this isn’t the lightest solar generator in its category, but like the other EcoFlow generators, it has chunky handles on top that make it easy to lug around. Everyone in my family could easily get it in and out of the back of our Honda CR-V without issue. It doesn’t have wheels, though, so you will have to actually carry it around or put it on a cart.

+ + + +

Ultimately, this feels like a very high-end device. The fast charging is wonderful. The display is clear and relatively bright (though it could be brighter). And it offers a wide array of connectivity.

+ + + +

Best for lots of ports: DJI Power 2000

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Plenty of ports for phones, drones, and devices
Output packs a punch
Good portability

+ Cons

+ +

Subpar battery lifespan

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 2,048Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,800W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 3,000W +
+ + Dimensions + + + 17.6 x 8.9 x 12.8 in +
+ + Weight + + + 48.5lbs +
+ + Price + + + $1,299 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: If you have an abundance of devices to charge, the DJI Power 2000 offers ports galore and excellent performance to boot.

+ + + +

If you tend to use a lot of drones, cameras, and other equipment for content creation or whatever reason, it’s not uncommon to run into issues charging everything at once. The DJI Power 2000 offers a solution in the form of four AC, four USB-A, and four USB-C ports, plus a 30A plug, all backed by 3,000W of running wattage, meaning it packs plenty of power for simultaneous charging. Its 2,048Wh capacity will charge a phone over 100 times, a laptop over 15, a drone over 20, or power a photography lighting setup for over two hours. Its compact size and relatively light weight also make it decently portable.

+ + + +

Its only real drawback is the somewhat subpar battery lifespan. Its capacity drops to 80% after 4,000 charging cycles, versus the 6,000 cycles offered by most leading brands. But if your priority is plenty of simultaneous charging power, it delivers.

+ + + +

Best for extreme cold: Bluetti Pioneer Na

+ + + + +

+ +

Nick Hilden

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Cold weather performance and storage
Fast charging
Good output wattage

+ Cons

+ +

Sodium chemistry means it’s slightly larger and heavier than its lithium counterparts

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity + + + 900Wh +
+ + Input capacity + + + 1,900W +
+ + Output capacity + + + 1,500W (2,500W surge) +
+ + Dimensions + + + 13.4 x 10 x 12.5 in +
+ + Weight + + + 35.3 lbs +
+ + Price + + + $1,299 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: Its innovative sodium battery—the first of its kind—allows the Bluetti Pioneer Na to operate and store at lower temperatures than any other model.

+ + + +

Bluetti has been making some of the best lithium-ion batteries out there, and now they’ve changed the game by releasing the first-ever sodium-ion solar power generator. Typically, power stations operate poorly in cold temperatures, and store in the cold even worse. The Pioneer Na, however, can charge as low as 5 degrees, discharge as low as -13, and store reliably as low as -20. That’s a huge improvement on lithium-ion, which can’t really be used at all below 4 degrees.

+ + + +

At the same time, the performance is good. While the 900Wh capacity isn’t massive, it’s plenty for smaller-scale uses like camping or short-term backup power during an outage. And the 1,500W output is more than enough to power a fridge, TV, and a handful of devices at once. I’m also a big fan of its zippy charging, as it will race from zero to full in as few as 45 minutes. For weathering the cold, there literally is no competition.

+ + + +

Best budget: Jackery Explorer 300

+ + + + +

+ +

+ + The Jackery Explorer 300 offers lots of power in a little, easy-to-lug package. +

How WWII made Hershey and Mars Halloween candy kings

+ + + + + See It + + + +

+ Pros

+ +

Affordable
Durable
Portable
Reasonable capacity

+ Cons

+ +

No flashlight
Slower input capacity

+ Specs

+ +

+ + Storage capacity: + + + 293Wh +
+ + Input capacity: + + + 90W +
+ + Output capacity: + + + 300W (500W surge) +
+ + Dimensions: + + + 9.1 x 5.2 x 7.8 in +
+ + Weight: + + + 7.1 lbs +
+ + Price: + + + $250 +

+ + + +

Why it made the cut: With its reasonable capacity, compact size, and solid build quality at a low price, the Jackery Explorer 300 is a great budget pick.

+ + + +

Though it isn’t quite as impressive as our top picks for best overall and best high-capacity, Jackery’s smaller Explorer 300 solar generator is super compact and lightweight with a decent power capacity for its price. Less a mobile power station than an upscale power bank, the 7-pound Jackery Explorer 300 provides plenty of portable recharges for your devices when you’re camping, on a job site, driving, or just need some power and don’t have convenient access to an outlet. Its modest 293Wh capacity isn’t huge, but it’s enough to provide 31 phone charges, 15 for a camera, 6 for the average drone, 2.5 for a laptop, or a few hours of operation for a minifridge or TV. A built-in flashlight would have upped its camping game somewhat, but at $300 (and often considerably less if you catch it discounted), this highly portable little power station does a lot for a little.

+ + + +

We tested this portable power station for several months, and it came in handy numerous times, especially during the winter when power outages abound. At one point, we had it powering two phones, a MacBook, and a small light.

+ + + +

While portable battery sources have been around for a while now, over the past several decades, they’ve been pretty heavy, unwieldy things. One of the most exciting aspects of the latest generation of solar generators is that they’ve become much more physically compact.

+ + + +

Suppose you plan on taking a generator camping or working it into a van conversion where every square inch matters; well, size and weight become major considerations. All of the products we’ve recommended are about the size of one or two shoeboxes—three at the most. The lightest is about the weight of a 24-pack of soda, while the heaviest is 100 pounds. Most fall somewhere between 30-60 pounds.

+ + + +

If you’re using your generator as a more or less stationary source of backup power at home, portability isn’t a huge issue. Still, we generally recommend keeping weight and size in mind; You never know when you’ll need it for something other than a backup. (Plus, who wants to lug around something heavy and awkward if they don’t have to?)

+ + + +

Another consideration regarding portability involves the necessity for accessories, which can impact how easy it is to move and use your generator. Some generators, for example, require a lot of removable battery packs, which can be a hassle when you’re on the go or packing a vehicle. All of the inclusions on our list require some accessories—you can’t get solar power without connecting cables and solar panels—but they work well with minimal add-ons.

+ + + +

Durability

+ + + +

As with any product you expect to last, durability and all-around quality craftsmanship are essential. This is especially true if you plan on lugging your generator around on camping and road trips. Many subpar power stations are made from cheap components and flimsy plastic that doesn’t feel like it will hold up under the rigors of the road.

+ + + +

Durability isn’t something you can determine by reading a spec sheet off the internet. You’ve actually got to take the generator out, use it a bunch, and see how it holds up. I’ve verified the durability of these recommendations via a combination of my own actual field tests and reviews culled from countless real product owners.

+ + + +

Related: Best electric generators

+ + + +

FAQs

+ + +

Q: What size solar generator should I get?

It’s easy to underestimate how much capacity you need. A 1,000 watt-hours might sound like a lot, but if you’re going to power a converted van with a portable fridge, lights, and occasional phone and laptop top-off, that 1,000 watt-hours will go faster than you expect. I used a setup like this and know from personal experience that you should always overestimate how much power you’ll need.

A generator with a capacity under 1,000Wh can keep electronics charged. A larger one with 1000-1500Wh should be the minimum for road trips where you’ll need it to last multiple days between full charges. For a house or worksite where you expect to use some serious energy—like a full-sized refrigerator or power tools—you’re going to want to start looking at the biggest possible power stations that can be daisy-chained to external batteries.

If you want to get precise, there is an equation:

1. Estimate how many hours you’ll need to power various devices. For example, if you want to power two light bulbs for 2 hours: you need 4 hours of operation.

2. Add up the total wattage necessary: the two bulbs are 60 watts each, so you need 120 watts.

3. Multiply these together to find the total watt-hours needed: 4 x 120 = 480. So, in this case, you’d need at least a 500Wh solar generator.

That might sound like a lot for two lightbulbs, but remember that, in most situations, you won’t really be powering 60-watt light bulbs for hours on end. You’ll be charging phones and laptops for an hour here or there, cooling a fridge that kicks on and off every once in a while, using power tools in short bursts, and whatnot.

Q: How many years will a solar generator last?

Most modern generators are rated to last upwards of 25 years. The best-designed power stations are pretty sturdy, with few to no moving parts, so they should likely keep kicking for a long time, provided that you care for them properly. I’ve been pretty rough with a few of mine, and they show no signs of stopping.

Q: Can I run my house on solar power only?

Yes and no. While it’s absolutely possible to power your house with solar power, you’re unlikely to do so with a portable solar generator unless you use several at once while limiting your power usage. The largest of our recommendations—the EcoFlow Delta Pro—will come fairly close when bolstered with extra batteries. If the power goes out, you’ll be able to keep your fridge cold and use basic electronics for a couple of days without recharging. With quality solar panels, good sunlight, and smart energy usage, your power should theoretically go uninterrupted.

+ + +

Final thoughts on the best solar generators

+ + + +

Best overall: Bluetti Elite 200v2
Still great: Jackery Explorer 2000 Plus
Best high-capacity: EcoFlow Delta 3 Ultra Plus
Best for frequent use: Anker 767 Portable Power Station Solar Generator
Best for camping: Anker Solix C800 Plus
Best for off-grid living: Bluetti Apex 300
Best for home backup: Jackery HomePower 3000
Best for lots of ports: DJI Power 2000
Best for extreme cold: Bluetti Pioneer Na
Best budget: Jackery Explorer 300

+ + + +

We’re living in a “golden age” for portable solar generators. When I was a kid, and my family was playing around with solar gear while camping in the ‘90s, the technology couldn’t charge many devices, so it wasn’t all that practical.

+ + + +

By contrast, the solar generators we’ve recommended here are incredibly useful. I’ve relied on them to power my work and day-to-day needs while road-tripping nationwide. They’re also great when the power goes out. When a windstorm cut the power at my house for a couple of days, I was still working, watching my stories, and keeping the lights on.

+ + + +

The post The best solar generators for 2026, tested and reviewed appeared first on Popular Science.

Rhinos once lived in Canada

Laura Baisas — Tue, 28 Oct 2025 12:00:00 -0400

About 23 million years ago, a rhinoceros stomped across the Canadian High Arctic. Now extinct, a team of scientists from the Canadian Museum of Nature (CMN) have found a new species of the enigmatic “Arctic rhino.” First uncovered almost 40 years ago in lake deposits in Haughton Crater on Devon Island, Nunavut, Epiatheracerium itjilik was more petite than many of its modern descendants. The species is described in a study published today in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution.

+ + + +

“Today there are only five species of rhinos in Africa and Asia, but in the past they were found in Europe and North America, with more than 50 species known from the fossil record,” Dr. Danielle Fraser, a study co-author and head of palaeobiology at the Canadian Museum of Nature, said in a statement. “The addition of this Arctic species to the rhino family tree now offers new insights to our understanding of their evolutionary history.”

+ + + +

Big rhinos, small rhinos, and everything in between

+ + + +

Rhinoceroses have been around for over 40 million years and have been found on all continents except South America and Antarctica. This recently discovered Arctic rhino lived about 23 million years ago, during the Early Miocene. It is most closely related to other rhino species that thrived in Europe millions of years earlier.

+ + + +

Earth’s Rhinocerotids also came in a variety of shapes and sizes. Some were large and hippo-like, while others were relatively small and lacked horns. Epiatheracerium itjilik falls in that latter category. It was relatively small and slight, similar to the modern Indian rhinoceros, but without a horn. The team believes that the Arctic specimen was in early to mid-adulthood when it died based on moderate wear of the cheek teeth.

+ + + +

Overhead view of the fossil of Epiatheracerium itjilik with its bones laid out on a sandy base. About 75 percent of the animal’s bones were recovered, including diagnostic parts such as the teeth, mandibles and pieces of the cranium. Image: Pierre Poirier © Canadian Museum of Nature.

+ + + +

Most of the bones were collected at the Haughton Impact Crater site in 1986 by the late arctic paleontologist Dr. Mary Dawson. The Haughton Crater was formed by an asteroid or comet strike about 31 to 32 million years ago during the Early Oligocene. It is almost 14 miles across and the most northern known site containing fossils from the Miocene Epoch (about 23 to 5.6 million years ago). At this time, many families of modern mammals began to diversify and move between Earth’s continents. When the impact crater filled with water a few million years after impact, a lake that preserved the remains of local plants and animals formed.

+ + + +

Dawson had uncovered the critical diagnostic parts of the skeleton—the upper and lower teeth, mandibles, and parts of the skull almost 40 years ago. With these, the team from CMN could define it as a rhinocerotid and a completely new species.

+ + + +

“What’s remarkable about the Arctic rhino is that the fossil bones are in excellent condition,” palaeobiologist Marisa Gilbert added. “They are three dimensionally preserved and have only been partially replaced by minerals. About 75% of the skeleton was discovered, which is incredibly complete for a fossil.”

+ + + +

During the late 2000s, Gilbert took part in a number of research trips to the Haughton Crater with study co-author Dr. Natalia Rybcynski. These expeditions uncovered another new species, a walking seal ancestor named Puijila darwini. Additional remains of E. itjilik were found on later field expeditions.

+ + + +

Dr. Natalia Rybczynski is a lone figure exploring the Haughton Crater site on Devon Island, where the fossil of Epiceratherium itjilik was found. Image: Martin Lipman © Canadian Museum of Nature.

+ + + +

Crossing a land bridge

+ + + +

With this new Arctic species, the team dug deeper into the evolutionary and biogeographic history of rhinocerotids. Biogeography studies how animals and plants evolved and dispersed over time.

+ + + +

To place E. itjilik on the rhino family tree, they studied the occurrence of 57 other types of rhinocerotids, almost all of which are extinct. They combed through museum collections, scientific literature, and various databases.

+ + + +

The team’s detective work and analysis shows how rhinos dispersed over millions of years. They likely travelled between present day North America and Europe (through Greenland) on the North Atlantic Land Bridge. Earlier studies suggested that this land bridge may have only been used as a pathway until about 56 million years ago. However, E. itjilik and its related species suggest that rhinos moved from Europe to North America much more recently, potentially as late as the Miocene.

+ + + +

“It’s always exciting and informative to describe a new species. But there is more that comes from the identification of Epiaceratherium itjilik, as our reconstructions of rhino evolution show that the North Atlantic played a much more important role in their evolution than previously thought,” said Fraser. “More broadly, this study reinforces that the Arctic continues to offer up new knowledge and discoveries that expand on our understanding of mammal diversification over time.”

+ + + +

Marisa Gilbert (left) and Dr. Danielle Fraser with the fossil of Epiaceratherium itjilik laid out in the collections of the Canadian Museum of Nature. Image: Pierre Poirier © Canadian Museum of Nature.

+ + + +

Honoring the High Arctic

+ + + +

The species name itjilik means “frosty” or “frost” in Inuktitut. To honor the rhino’s home in the High Arctic, the team consulted with Inuit Elder Jarloo Kiguktak. Kiguktak is also the former mayor of Grise Fiord, the most northerly Inuit community in Canada. He has also visited the fossil deposits of Haughton Crater and played a role in multiple paleontological expeditions in the High Arctic.

+ + + +

The fossil of Epiceratherium itjilik is currently housed and curated in the fossil collections of the Canadian Museum of Nature.

The post Rhinos once lived in Canada appeared first on Popular Science.

Six new bat species discovered in the Philippines

Andrew Paul — Tue, 28 Oct 2025 11:10:09 -0400

A few weeks ago, conservationists announced the milestone discovery of the 1500th known bat species, Pipistrellus etula. October’s Bat Appreciation Month celebrations apparently aren’t done yet. With only a few days remaining before Halloween, a research team has described another six new species residing in the Philippines for the journal Zootaxa. Collectively known as tube-nosed bats thanks to their distinctive snouts, the tiny creatures showcase not only their habitat’s biodiversity, but the biodiversity seen within the world’s only true flying mammals.

+ + + +

“I’m astonished at how much we still don’t know about the natural world, such as how many bat species there are,” Burton Lim, study co-author and assistant curator of mammals at the Royal Ontario Museum, said in a statement. “Before we started our research, there were only two species of tube-nosed bats reported from the Philippines.”

+ + + +

A photo of Murina baletei. Credit: D. Balete

+ + + +

Lim and his colleagues spent years conducting morphological examinations and genetic tests of specimens collected across the islands. While they eventually confirmed one of the previously reported tube-nosed bats, they realized that the second species didn’t actually live in the Philippines. Instead, they documented a closely related, previously unknown species—along with five more. Each species weighs 4–14 grams, with some of the first specimens collected with assistance from the Philippine government as far back as 1988. They are now classified as Murina alvarezi, Murina baletei, Murina hilonghilong, Murina luzonensis, Murina mindorensis, and Murina philippinensis.

+ + + +

“These bats are notoriously elusive, so the tube-nosed bat collection this study examined was cobbled together over many years, expeditions, and memorable experiences–one bat at a time,” added study co-author and Lawrence University biological scientist Jodi Sedlock.

+ + + +

Although the purpose of each bat’s tube-shaped nostrils remains unknown, Sedlock theorizes they likely offer the animals a better sense of directional smell. With its total bat tally now standing at 85, the Philippines possesses almost double the number of native species found in the United States.
“This latest research serves to illustrate how much remains unknown about the countless species with which we coexist,” said Royal Ontario Museum curator emeritus of mammals Judith Eger. “Expanding our knowledge of biodiversity is essential to understanding and managing our environment on behalf of humanity and the other species on which the vitality of our planet depends.”

+ + + +

Bat Appreciation Month continues through the end of October. In the United States, the finale usually takes the form of a Bat Beauty Contest run by the Bureau of Land Management, although its fate remains up in the air due to the ongoing government shutdown.

The post Six new bat species discovered in the Philippines appeared first on Popular Science.

Queen bees are violently ousted if worker bees smell weakness

Laura Baisas — Tue, 28 Oct 2025 10:02:42 -0400

A once-powerful ruler is sick. The virus threatens the entire kingdom. Previously loyal subjects plot to overthrow their leader. A new, more virile ruler ascends.

+ + + +

This is not the plot of a new Game of Thrones spinoff, but a common and violent reality in honey bee colonies. As with any coups, the plans come with risks and rewards for bee colonies and the wide food systems that depend on them for pollination.

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This process, called supersedure, happens when the tens of thousands of worker bees can sense if their queen is no longer laying enough eggs. The workers then coordinate to replace her with a new and healthier queen. In the wild, this survival strategy helps wild colonies adapt. For keepers managing hives, it can mean trouble. It often leads to gaps in egg-laying, weaker colony populations, and less honey production and pollinating.

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We are now beginning to understand more about the reasons behind these violent bee revolts and how they are so well coordinated. A team at the University of British Columbia in Canada studying supersedure found common viral infections shrink a queen’s ovaries. The shrinking then reduces the queen’s egg-laying capacity and her production of a pheromone that usually keeps workers loyal called methyl oleate. When methyl oleate levels drop, the worker bees can “smell” the queen’s weakness–and begin preparing her successor to rule. The findings were detailed in a study recently published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

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Queen honey bee marked with a blue heart. Image: Shelley Hoover

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“A healthy queen can lay as many as 850 to 3,200 eggs per day, which is more than her whole body weight,” study co-author Dr. Leonard Foster, a biochemist and molecular biologist at UBC, said in a statement. “But in our experiments, virus-infected queens laid fewer eggs and produced less methyl oleate. That pheromone reduction seems to be the signal to workers that a queen is no longer fit to continue.”

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Bees are essential to our planet’s food systems. They pollinate about one-third of the world’s crops, making them critical to food security. For at least 20 years, beekeepers have been reporting problems with queen failure and premature supersedure. Recent surveys identified “poor queens” as the most frequently reported cause of colony losses. This new research pinpoints how viral infections are a driving factor behind these challenges. The tiny pathogens disrupt the delicate balance of chemical signals that maintain order in a hive.

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Importantly, the team found a potential method for beekeepers to intervene and manage supersedure. In proof-of-concept field trials, colonies were given synthetic pheromone blends that included the pheromone methyl oleate. These groups were less likely to rear new queens, compared with colonies that received blends without the egg-laying, worker loyalty pheromone.

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“That could be a big deal for beekeepers,” said Foster. “Supersedure can be disruptive and costly, but supplementing colonies with methyl oleate could help stabilize hives during periods when continuous productivity is most important.”

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According to the team, these findings could inform new management for commercial beekeepers dealing with viral outbreaks, especially during periods of peak pollination or honey production. Ultimately, they could help prevent untimely queen loss.

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“Our research really emphasizes how virus infections in queens can be a major problem for beekeepers,” added study co-author and biologist Dr. Alison McAfee. “Previous studies showed that failing queens were heavily infected with viruses, and now we know that those infections can lead to supersedure, which is risky for the colony and expensive for beekeepers to manage.”

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The research also highlights the role of varroa mites. These parasitic pests can spread the viruses that are linked to queen failure. Keeping colonies healthy and parasite-free can help prevent queen loss.

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“Keeping the queen healthy is one more reason why it is so critical to think ahead and keep varroa levels under control,” said McAfee. “There is currently no treatment for viruses in honey bee colonies, but now that we better understand their impact, we can change the way we manage varroa to give the queen a better chance.”

The post Queen bees are violently ousted if worker bees smell weakness appeared first on Popular Science.

The U.S. tried permanent daylight saving time—and hated it

Tom Hawking — Tue, 28 Oct 2025 09:00:00 -0400

As fall approaches, so too does the end of daylight savings time (DST). On November 2nd, the hour between 1 a.m. and 2 a.m. will happen twice. When we all wake up Sunday morning, we’ll find it’s an hour earlier than it feels like it should be. Then, we’ll go about our day with a blissful extra hour of time.

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For DST enthusiasts, this represents a sad day that brings an earlier sunset and the start of the dreary winter months. For DST haters (like your correspondent), it represents the annual reclamation of the hour of sleep that was stolen from us six months earlier. Either way, the annual spring forward/fall back cycle remains as controversial and largely unpopular as it has ever been.

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But would permanent DST actually make any difference? The labels we put on time are arbitrary, and it feels like it shouldn’t matter what number we attribute to any given hour. Similarly, as anyone who has flown across multiple time zones can attest, while jetlag is objectively awful, it always goes away sooner or later as we acclimatize to whatever new time zone we get off the plane in. Shouldn’t we also be able to acclimatise to perpetually late sunrises and sunsets? Or, as one Patsy Mink—a Democratic congresswoman from Hawaii—put it in 1974, “The human being is a very adaptive animal. There is no reason we have to be a slave to the sun.” But is this true?

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According to a paper published in the journal PNAS this September, which models the relative effects of permanent DST and ST, the answer is “no,” humans aren’t very adaptive when it comes to the sun. The paper’s research finds that a year-round shift to DST—like the one that happened in 1974—would lead to worse health outcomes than simply staying on standard time. In particular, the paper finds that “shifting to permanent Standard Time would lead to a decrease in the prevalence of stroke and obesity.”

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As the paper’s co-author Lara Weed, a PhD Candidate at Stamford University’s Zeitzer Circadian Research Lab, explains to Popular Science, there has been plenty of research into the effects of the biannual shift from standard time to DST and back again, and the scientific consensus is that those effects are largely adverse. “Switching time policies can have acute negative consequences,” Weed says. “The change [in] societal time can disrupt our body clocks through changes in our light, diet, and normal timing of activities.”

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The results of this time change disruption manifest in effects like an increased rate of traffic accidents and workplace injuries, along with less directly visible effects like an increased rate of cardiovascular events. While changing every six months seems to exacerbate these effects, Weed and her team found that a permanent shift to DST—while less damaging than the current biannual back-and-forth—would also cause problems.

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Perhaps this shouldn’t be surprising. Circadian rhythms are important, and there’s clear evidence that people whose sleep cycles are subject to long-term alterations are more vulnerable to the effects described in the paper. The classic example is that of people who work night shifts and sleep during the day; Weed explains, “We know there’s a link between circadian disruption, such as [that experienced] in shift work, and long-term negative cardiovascular and cardiometabolic health outcomes.”

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Why circadian disruption leads to these negative health outcomes is less clear. “Scientists are still figuring out exactly why this occurs,” says Weed. However, it seems that at least part of the reason is that, ultimately, standard time is a better reflection of our natural sleep cycle than DST.

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+ Related History Stories

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How scarecrows went from ancient magic to fall horror fodder

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Humans are diurnal, so our natural inclination is to be most active during daylight hours. As such, it makes sense that we’re given to rising with the sun and going to sleep once it sets. Weed explains that waking up before the sun disrupts this rhythm: “We need light in the morning to regulate the circadian clock,” she says. “Compared to Standard Time, permanent DST has darker mornings, which can make it more difficult to stay in sync.” In other words, we are slaves to the sun.

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The paper is careful to note that its models and findings are applicable specifically to the contiguous continental United States. This is both because of latitude-specific factors like quantity of daylight hours, length of twilight, etc., says Weed, and also because even regions that are similar to the U.S. in these respects may differ socioeconomically and/or culturally. That said, Weed does note that the circadian modelling she and her team carried out for the paper may have utility beyond the United States. The findings would just need to be used in conjunction with locally applicable health data.

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The effects of permanent daylight saving time

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Back in the U.S., however, it seems like Nixon’s 1974 experiment could provide valuable real-world data for researchers. Unfortunately, Weed says she is not aware of any specific research data on the period. In broad terms, stroke rates have declined steadily across the U.S. since World War II. As per the CDC, there was no apparent disruption to this trend in the years succeeding the permanent DST period—although, of course, the sheer quantity of variables involved make it almost impossible to identify any sort of correlation—let alone causation—from such high-level numbers.

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Obesity rates, meanwhile, have risen dramatically since 1974, a situation that has led to moral panics around the “obesity crisis,” endless hand-wringing from scientists, politicians and nutritionists. Again, this is an intimidatingly complex and multifaceted public health issue, and it feels pretty much impossible to figure out how, if at all, it was affected by a brief experiment with permanent DST in the mid-1970s.

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But if the scientific verdict on the U.S.’s brief flirtation with permanent DST remains ambiguous, the public’s verdict was significantly less so. As discussed above, Nixon’s resignation effectively ended the perma-daylight experiment, but even without the intervention of Woodward and Bernstein, it seems unlikely that the policy would not have lasted. A New York Times report from the time reveals that while the idea of a longer post-work period of daylight was initially popular, the reality of getting up before the sun every morning proved less attractive once winter arrived: Public support for the policy plummeted from 79% in December 1973 to just 41% in February 1974.

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If anything, the lesson of 1974 is probably that we really should just listen to the experts who’ve been telling us for decades to stop messing around with time.

The post The U.S. tried permanent daylight saving time—and hated it appeared first on Popular Science.

Mystery Mayan ruler was no king

Andrew Paul — Mon, 27 Oct 2025 16:08:24 -0400

Ongoing analysis of an ancient monument among the Mayan ruins at Cobá has revealed the identity of one of the sprawling city’s previously unknown rulers. According to archaeologists with Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), the king referenced multiple times in the historical accounts described on the city’s Foundation Rock wasn’t a king at all. She was a queen named Ix Ch’ak Ch’een.

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INAH researchers discovered the 111-square-foot limestone monument in the state of Quintana Roo on the Yucatan Peninsula last year. Since then, they’ve spent extensive time documenting and interpreting the massive edifice’s 123 hieroglyphics. The Mayan artwork dates back to at least 6th century CE, an era of political and economic ascension for the city.

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Early examinations indicated that the Foundation Rock included information on Cobá’s Classic period such as timelines outlining when specific dynasties ruled and important construction projects in the city. A year of additional work has yielded even more findings, including a more precise date for the founding of the city’s monumental district, Nohoch Mul.

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“It is possible to identify the date 9.6.15.6.9 (corresponding to May 12, 569 CE),” the INAH said in its announcement.

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Specifically, archaeologists can tie it to a structure called Kehwitznal, or “place of the deer mountain.”

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Importantly, the glyphs also spell out details about the ruler who oversaw the endeavor. Decoding these epigraphs allowed researchers to corroborate passages on the Foundation Rock with nearby monuments mentioning the queen, Ix Ch’ak Ch’een.

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“In such monuments, the name variants are slightly different, as in Stela 30, where she is referred to as Ix Ch’ak Ch’een Yopaat, while in the wash text she is associated with the term K’awiil,” the INAH explained. “However, the closeness of the dates indicates that they are the same sovereign.”

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K’awiil is the name of a Mayan deity associated with divine lightning and royalty. Associating the god with Ix Ch’ak Ch’een would confer absolute legitimacy and military authority equal to that of a kaloomte, the highest Mayan political position.

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The Foundation Rock also describes the coronation of Ix Ch’ak Ch’een, as well as her relations with Cobá’s protective deities like Bolon Tz’akab Ajaw, “Lord of Innumerable Generations.” During her reign, the queen oversaw other municipal projects such as a ballcourt, as well as a major ceremonial calendar event in the year 573 CE.

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Ix Ch’ak Ch’een isn’t the only female Mayan ruler known to historians. At least three other women governed Cobá, including one who reigned for four decades. Taken altogether, it indicates that Mayan gender dynamics were likely far more egalitarian than initially believed.

The post Mystery Mayan ruler was no king appeared first on Popular Science.

Dolphins may be getting an Alzheimer’s-like disease due to this neurotoxin

Margherita Bassi — Mon, 27 Oct 2025 15:00:00 -0400

For marine biologists, dolphins are often viewed as sentinel species, or animals that shed light on the health of the ocean. Along with whales, porpoises, and other cetacean species, dolphins are one way that researchers know to sound the alarm about environmental hazards that might affect the ocean as a whole and potentially humans.

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In this context, researchers have connected neurotoxins from algal blooms to brain changes associated with an Alzheimer’s-like disease in dolphins in Florida. This connection does not bode well for human communities exposed to those same substances.

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“These results are concerning because dolphins share coastal waters with humans and face many of the same environmental risks we do,” Wendy Noke Durden, a researcher at Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute’s Florida Laboratory, said in a statement emailed to Popular Science.

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Algae are tiny, photosynthetic organisms that live in natural bodies of water and an algal bloom takes place when an algae density rapidly increases. Some types of algae produce poisonous substances called toxins. Among these, neurotoxins specifically impact the body’s nervous system.

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In a study published in the journal Communications Biology, Durden and her coworkers show that dolphins found beached during an algal bloom in the Indian River Lagoon along Florida’s Atlantic Coast had an alarming amount of a neurotoxin called 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (2,4-DAB) in their brain.University of Miami neurotoxicologist and study co-author David Davis tells Popular Science that 2,4-DAB has a similar chemical structure to BMAA, a cyanobacterial neurotoxin associated with neurodegeneration. It’s also important to note that while cyanobacteria are frequently called “blue-green algae,” they aren’t actually algae. Davis says that harmful algal bloom is a blanket term that includes different species.

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The dolphins who stranded during the summer algal bloom season had 2,900 times the concentration of 2,4-DAB than those from non-bloom seasons. Those with a higher concentration of this neurotoxin also had more severe changes in their brain chemistry and tissue that are associated with early Alzheimer’s disease. These include an unusual build-up of insoluble proteins and alterations in important genes linked to memory, brain health, and Alzheimer’s disease risk. What’s more, these results were consistent across dolphin strandings for close to a decade, and the changes were more drastic with each algal bloom season.

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Given dolphins’ identity as a sentinel species, “there are concerns about human health issues associated with cyanobacterial blooms,” Davis explained. “Although there are likely many paths to Alzheimer’s disease, cyanobacterial exposures increasingly appear to be a risk factor.”

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What’s more, a warming climate, nutrient pollution, and sewage will continue to intensify such harmful algal blooms, he adds. As such, there needs to be more research into the consequences of harmful algal blooms and exposure to their toxins.

The post Dolphins may be getting an Alzheimer’s-like disease due to this neurotoxin appeared first on Popular Science.

Your eyes can only handle so much HDTV

Andrew Paul — Mon, 27 Oct 2025 14:36:18 -0400

Every year, tech and television companies boast their products’ latest and greatest, highest-resolution displays. The 4K display—a screen with a horizontal display of approximately 4,000 pixels—first became widely available around 2014. Barely a decade later, you can purchase a TV with double the resolution.

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But at what point do all those pixels become pointless? The question is not only a matter of wasted cash. The resources and energy required to manufacture and power these TVs, tablets, computers, and smartphones are an ever-increasing ecological concern. To determine if there is a resolution tipping point, researchers at the University of Cambridge and Meta Reality Labs developed a new methodology to assess the capabilities of the human eye. The result published in Nature Communications is an updated spin on one of optometry’s most recognizable tests.

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Refocusing the Snellen chart

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Reading from a chart of letters to test vision is arguably the most familiar portion of any visit to the eye doctor. There’s even a name for that page of increasingly smaller letters. It’s called a Snellen chart, and it’s actually over 160 years old. But while the general test has remained largely unaltered since its namesake Dutch ophthalmologist debuted it in 1862, our usual visual subjects have not. Today, people are much more likely to stare at smartphones, tablets, and computer screens instead of papers or field plows.

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“This measurement has been widely accepted, but no one had actually sat down and measured it for modern displays, rather than a wall chart of letters that was first developed in the 19th century,” study co-author University of Cambridge computer scientist Maliha Ashraf said in a statement.

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Left: Rendition of the experimental setup. The display can slide on rails towards and away from the observer. The movement is controlled by a motorized camera slider to present stimuli at different pixel-per-degree (ppd) resolutions. The fixation point for the foveal presentation is the black cross in the centre of the screen. For peripheral viewing, an LED on the curved LED mast is lit up, corresponding to the retinal eccentricity. The curvature was designed to approximate the distance to the horopter (for the average display position). Right: Stimuli used in the experiments. From top-to-bottom: achromatic, red-green and yellow-violet square-wave gratings, black-on-white text, and white-on-black text. Credit: Nature Communications

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Ashraf and colleagues swapped out the traditional Snellen chart for their own experimental arrangement. First, they constructed a sliding display that let them precisely measure what a human eye sees as it focuses on a screen’s patterns. Rather than focus on a screen’s pixel specifications, they opted for pixels per degree. Also known as PPD, this measurement gauges how many individual pixels can cram into a single-degree of your field of vision. Instead of simply establishing an entire screen’s cumulative pixel count, PPD allows researchers to more accurately learn how a screen may look to an individual from their particular vantage point.

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Next, they asked study volunteers to stare at the display screen with various patterns, both in shades of gray and in color. They were then asked to flag any time they discerned an image’s individual lines as the screen moved closer and farther away, as well as to either side for peripheral vision testing. Based on a Snellen chart’s standard 20/20 vision template, the human eye should identify detail at 60 pixels per degree. In actuality, our vision often outperforms those expectations—with some caveats.

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A gray area

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The team discovered that our eyes (sometimes) have a higher resolution limit than the Snellen chart would have us believe. Grayscale images seen straight ahead can be seen with an average of 94 PPD, while red and green hues allow for 89 PPD. Only along the visible yellow and violet color spectrums did humans see less than the Snellen chart might suggest, with an average of 53 PPD. The reason why we see better in grayscale is because the human mind simply isn’t optimized for color.

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“Our brain doesn’t actually have the capacity to sense details in color very well, which is why we saw a big drop-off for colour images, especially when viewed in peripheral vision,” explained University of Cambridge computer scientist and study co-author Rafał Mantiuk. “Our eyes are essentially sensors that aren’t all that great, but our brain processes that data into what it thinks we should be seeing.”

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A more accurate understanding of our visual limitations is crucial for both today’s technology, as well as the next generation of augmented and virtual reality products. With this new methodology, companies can better calculate resolution maximums and averages that might benefit the most users possible.

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The ramifications go beyond research labs and manufacturing plants. The team also designed a free online calculator that can help the everyday shopper’s hunt for an ideal screen based on variables like device size, viewing distance, pixel density, and field of view. There may be a limit to visible pixel resolution, but you’ll at least be able to spot the next time someone’s trying to upsell you on a TV.

The post Your eyes can only handle so much HDTV appeared first on Popular Science.

Half of all uncontacted Indigenous tribes may disappear by 2036

Andrew Paul — Mon, 27 Oct 2025 11:55:00 -0400

Half of the world’s remaining uncontacted Indigenous groups may disappear within a decade without concerted conservation efforts. The dire assessment is detailed in a new report published on October 27 by the nonprofit advocacy group Survival International, and is based on years of field research, interviews, and information gathering expeditions.

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“Uncontacted peoples reject contact as a deliberate choice in the face of colonizing attacks—as is their right under international law,” the report’s authors write in their key findings. “When their rights are respected, they thrive and survive.”

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‘A clear expression of their autonomy’

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Survival International now believes that at least 196 self-sufficient, uncontacted groups remain in various remote locations across the globe. The vast majority of them—around 95 percent—reside in the Amazon Basin, particularly in the rainforests of Brazil. Other tribes live inside the borders of nine other countries in South America, as well as in Asia, and various Pacific Islands. Researchers believe that these communities can remain healthy and stable when they are not threatened by outsiders. They also often serve as stewards for their biodiverse “islands of green in areas of deforestation.”

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An uncontacted community’s avoidance of present-day society is frequently a decision tied to previous, disastrous encounters with outsiders, according to the report. Diseases like influenza and measles may be commonplace or easily preventable in the industrial world, but the contagions are catastrophic for Indigenous peoples who lack the same immunities. Survival International previously stated that it is not uncommon for 50 percent of an uncontacted group to die within one year of exposure to Eurasian infections.

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“Uncontacted peoples’ rejection of contact is often rooted in memories of devastating past conflict and invasion, which brough[t] violence, epidemics, and death,” the team explains. “It is a clear expression of their autonomy and self-determination.”

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Shompen men seen traversing a river on Great Nicobar Island, India. Credit: Anthropological Survey of India

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Outside threats

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The report’s evidence firmly illustrates that these communities aren’t endangered from within, but from the outside world. Their largest threat undoubtedly remains corporate land theft from companies intent on exploiting natural resources. Logging endangers around 65 percent of uncontacted peoples, and often precedes further environmental destruction. Mining projects are also encroaching on over 40 percent of these groups, while around a fifth of them also face issues from agribusiness industries like cattle ranching. Nearly a third of the populations are endangered by criminal drug trafficking and illegal mining operations.

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Another major danger stems from missionaries’ attempts at evangelism and assimilation, with one in six isolated Indigenous groups facing the prospect of these unprompted encounters. Social media influencers also present a more recent problem with their excursions into protected territories for sake of content.

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While international laws recognize the rights of all Indigenous people, including voluntarily isolated tribes, Survival International reports that national laws are much more inconsistent and governments are not always willing to enforce them. Advocates stress the need for better oversight and a commitment to the wellbeing of these communities.

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“Now we are living through a moment of legislated genocide. They’re killing us with pen and paper,” Brazilian tribal member and advocate Célia Xakriabá said in a statement. “We Indigenous people do not die only when they kill our leaders. We die collectively when they take away our land.”

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“There is a catastrophe looming—and a clear way to evade it. We can respect uncontacted peoples’ clearly expressed choice to be left alone,” added Survival International Director Caroline Pearce.

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The impact of nickel mining on the Hongana Manyawa’s forest on Halmahera in Indonesia. Their territory is now scarred by dozens of such mining pits. Credit: Eramet

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Remarkable resiliency

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Despite the widening dangers, isolated tribes continue to show their resiliency. As environmental experts, they remain self-sufficient when their land is properly protected, and actively resist outside interactions by installing nearby traps and signs. Occasionally, uncontacted tribes have attacked and even killed interlopers.

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There are also some individuals who met outsiders and at least partially integrated into industrialized society. However, it’s a decision they frequently regret, according to Survival International.

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Wamaxuá Awá, a member of Brazil’s uncontacted Awá tribe, said they had a “good life” before moving out of the forest. “Now if I meet one of the uncontacted Awá in the forest, I’ll say, ‘Don’t leave! Stay in the forest… There’s nothing in the outside for you,” they explained.

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In the wake of the 2004 tsunami, this member of the Sentinelese tribe was photographed firing arrows at a helicopter. Credit: Indian Coastguard / Survival International

The post Half of all uncontacted Indigenous tribes may disappear by 2036 appeared first on Popular Science.

Why do animals have spots and stripes?

Laura Baisas — Mon, 27 Oct 2025 11:00:00 -0400

The fur and scales of the animal kingdom are far from boring and full of wild colors and patterns. These mathematically inspired designs like leopard spots and tiger stripes are as interesting as they are intricate. But how did animals get their spots, stripes, and everything in between? It’s a question that has puzzled scientists and mathematicians for decades, but one group might be closer to an answer.

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A puzzle even a famous code-breaker couldn’t crack

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In 1952, British mathematician Alan Turing hypothesized that as tissue develops, it generates chemical agents that move about, similar to how white milk spreads when it is poured into black coffee. In Turing’s theory, some of these chemicals then activate pigment-producing cells, which creates spots. Other chemicals will stop these cells, creating the blank spaces in between them. However, computer simulations based on Turing’s idea created spots that were blurrier than those found in nature.

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In 2023, University of Colorado at Boulder chemical engineer Ankur Gupta and his collaborators improved upon Turing’s theory by adding another mechanism called diffusiopherosis. This is a process where diffusing particles pull other particles along with them. It’s similar to how dirty clothes are cleaned in the laundry. As the soap dispenses out of the clothing and into the water, it drags dirt and grime away from the fabric.

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Top: A male ornate boxfish. Bottom: Simulated hexagon and stripe patterns obtained by diffusiophoretic assembly of two types of cells on top of the chemical patterns. Image: The Birch Aquarium/Scripps Institution of Oceanography; Siamak Mirfendereski and Ankur Gupta/CU Boulder

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Gupta turned to the purple-and-black hexagon pattern seen on ornate boxfish, a bright species found off the coast of Australia, as a test. He found that diffusiopherosis could generate patterns with sharper outlines than Turing’s original model, but these results were just a little too perfect. All of the hexagons were still the same size and shape and had identical spaces between them. In nature, no pattern is perfect. For example, a zebra’s black stripes vary in thickness, while hexagons on the boxfish are never perfectly uniform. So Gupta and the team sought out to refine their diffusiopherosis theory.

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“Imperfections are everywhere in nature,” Gupta said in a statement. “We proposed a simple idea that can explain how cells assemble to create these variations.”

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Like balls in a tube

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In a study published today in the journal Matter, Gupta and the team detail how they were able to mimic the imperfect patterns and texture. After giving individual cells defined sizes and then modelling how each one moved through tissue, the simulations began to make less uniform patterns.

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It’s similar to how balls of different sizes would move through a tube. The larger ones like a basketball or bowling ball would create thicker outlines than golf balls or ping-pong balls. It’s the same with cells–when bigger cells cluster, they make broader patterns. If the same balls traveling in a tube bump into one another and clog it, it will break up a continuous line. When cells experience that same traffic jam, the result is the breaks in the stripes.

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A mixture of two types of pigment-producing cells undergoes diffusiophoretic transport to self-assemble into a hexagonal pattern. CREDIT: Siamak Mirfendereski and Ankur Gupta/CU Boulder

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“We are able to capture these imperfections and textures simply by giving these cells a size,” Gupta said.

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Their new simulations showed breaks and grainy textures that are more similar to those found in nature.

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Why it matters

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In the future, the team plans to use more complex interactions among cells and background chemical agents to improve the accuracy of their simulations.

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Understanding how pattern-making cells assemble could help engineers develop materials that can change colors based on their environment the way that a chameleon’s skin does. It may also help create more effective approaches for delivering medicine to a specific part of the body.

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“We are drawing inspiration from the imperfect beauty of [a] natural system and hope to harness these imperfections for new kinds of functionality in the future,” Gupta said.

The post Why do animals have spots and stripes? appeared first on Popular Science.

Can dogs really smell fear? A vet weighs in.

Clarissa Brincat — Mon, 27 Oct 2025 09:00:00 -0400

You’re watching a scary movie. Or dreading that dentist appointment you have in a few hours. Your heart’s racing—and you swear your dog seems to notice. Are you imagining things, or can your four-legged friend really sense your fear?

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Science says your hunch is right. Dogs can sense human emotions—fear included—using their extraordinary sense of smell.

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When researchers at the University of Naples Federico II collected sweat samples from volunteers who had just watched videos designed to trigger fear, happiness, or a neutral state and presented them to domestic dogs, the dogs exposed to fear-related odors showed more signs of stress, had higher heart rates, sought more reassurance from their owners, and were less friendly with strangers, compared to dogs exposed to happy or neutral smells.

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In a later study at the University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna, dogs exposed to a fear scent showed signs of hesitation or discomfort: They spent more time near the experimenter, held their tails lower, and took longer to approach new objects presented to them.

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The scent of fear

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Fear starts in the brain but leaves chemical traces elsewhere in the body. When your amygdala—the brain’s fear center—senses a threat, it sends a signal to another part of your brain called the hypothalamus, which in turn prompts your adrenal glands to release the stress hormones adrenaline and cortisol. These changes in the human body alter the mix of chemicals in our breath and sweat, and dogs are able to pick up on this, says Dr. Zoe Parr-Cortes, a veterinarian and PhD graduate from the University of Bristol.

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Compared to the 5 million scent receptors in human noses, dogs have about 220 million. They also have a special organ called the ‘Jacobson’s organ’ (or ‘vomeronasal organ’), which humans lack, that detects pheromones—chemical signals used for communication between members of the same species.

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Science writer and author Ed Yong explores the hidden features that make dog noses so incredible. Video: Nature’s supercomputer lives on your dog | Ed Yong, Big Think

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“For example, dogs trained on scent by Medical Detection Dogs in the UK can alert people with Addison’s disease when their cortisol levels drop too low,” says Parr-Cortes.

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In research led by Parr-Cortes with Dr. Nicola Rooney and Professor Mike Mendl at Bristol Veterinary School, the team found that dogs reacted differently to stress odors than to relaxed ones, even when dogs didn’t know the people who provided the samples. The researchers took odor samples from people after measuring their cortisol, heart rate, heart-rate variability, and self-reported anxiety. They then selected odor samples from participants with the strongest cortisol responses and then presented them to untrained dogs. Ultimately, the dogs exposed to a stressed person’s scent were more cautious than the dogs exposed to a relaxed person’s scent.

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This suggests that dogs may detect differences in cortisol, or other chemical changes associated with stress and fear, via scent—even without training, says Parr-Cortes.

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An evolutionary explanation

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Do dogs benefit at all from being so emotionally in-sync with humans?

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In Parr-Cortes’s above experiment, all the dogs were initially given an empty bowl. Then, the dogs were exposed to the smell of a stressed or relaxed person before being given a new bowl. The dogs exposed to the stressed person’s smell were slower to approach the new bowl, indicating that the dog was less optimistic about finding a reward there. This effect was not seen when dogs were exposed to the smell of a relaxed person. “These findings suggest that the smell of stress may have reduced how willing the dogs were to take a risk in a situation where a positive outcome seemed unlikely,” says Parr-Cortes. “This could be a way for the dog to avoid disappointment and conserve energy.”

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+ Related Dog Stories

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Can dogs sense ghosts?

Why your dog gets so excited to see you

Why do dogs lick humans? It could be a sign of affection.

Do dogs dream? The answer might make you appreciate your pup even more.

Can dogs be introverts?

Do cats and dogs remember their past?

Why wet dogs shake so much

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These reactions likely have deep evolutionary roots. “As one of our closest companions, dogs have co-evolved alongside humans for thousands of years,” says Parr-Cortes. “Detecting stress or fear response in others within a social group, sometimes called emotional contagion, is thought to be beneficial, especially if it signals a possible threat in the environment.”

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The bottom line

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Margherita Bassi — Sun, 26 Oct 2025 11:00:00 -0400

The North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) is one of the most endangered large whales. Their very name references their devastating decline—they were the “right” whales for whalers to target, since the animals floated after being killed.

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Today, their biggest threats are ship collisions and getting tangled in fishing gear. For once, however, there’s good news from the marine conservation community. Estimates for North Atlantic right whale populations are slowly increasing, according to a New England Aquarium statement.

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Researchers at the North Atlantic Right Whale Consortium, New England Aquarium, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimate that in 2024, there were around 384 individuals, which is a 2.1 percent increase from the previous year’s estimate.

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As for 2025, thus far there have been 11 known calf births, zero detected deaths, and notably fewer detected significant entanglements and vessel strikes, Heather Pettis, senior scientist at the New England Aquarium, tells Popular Science.

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“The population increase is really good news, and so far, what we’ve seen in 2025 is also good news,” Pettis explains. However, “we’re talking about a population of 384 individual whales– that’s still incredibly low. Yes, we’re seeing increases. They’re small, and we still are seeing injuries to animals from human activities. And so, you know, I say that we’re cautiously optimistic.”

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Pettis adds that we can’t lessen our drive in regards to conservation efforts, and that we need regulatory processes as well as efforts outside of the regulatory processes, such as creative industry solutions and public awareness. In Massachusetts, for example, Cape Cod’s mitigation efforts include fishing limits for when right whales are known to be in the area.

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Pettis also describes new on-demand technology in the fishing industry currently being trialed in the U.S. and Canada that aims to avoid whale entanglement in the ropes connecting traps on the seafloor to buoys at the water’s surface. Simply put, the technology keeps the rope out of the water column until fishmen need to pull their gear back up.

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“Removing those vertical ropes from the water is a huge conservation benefit to right whales,” Pettis explains. As for collisions, there are many people working on the question of how to “connect with mariners and let them know you’re entering an area where it would benefit the whales to slow down.”

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Another approach beyond regulation has to do with right whale eyesight. A study on humpback whales published earlier this year suggests their eyesight is worse than researchers expected, suggesting they might not be able to see fishing gear until it’s too late.

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As for the whale species in question, “I’m not sure that work’s been published, but there are some thoughts on colors that right whales might better respond to and see better, if you will, in the water column,” Pettis explains. “Are there ways in which we could alter the color of ropes? Might that help? So that’s a lingering question.”

The post Endangered North Atlantic right whales are making a slow comeback appeared first on Popular Science.

NASA’s trailblazing generation

Valerie Neal — Sun, 26 Oct 2025 10:00:00 -0400

Excerpted from On a Mission: The Smithsonian History of US Women Astronauts by Valerie Neal. Copyright © 2025 by Smithsonian Institution. Reprinted with permission of the publisher, Smithsonian Books. Out October 28 and available wherever books are sold.

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The Trailblazing Generation: Astronauts for Space Shuttle Missions, 1978–1990

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After nearly five years of planning, recruiting, evaluating, and interviewing applicants, NASA announced the selection of new astronaut candidates at a press conference in Washington, DC, in January 1978. Members of the media peppered administrator Robert Frosch with questions and sought assurances about the selection process, the number of women and people of color, and the number of military and civilian pilots selected. Chris Kraft, director of the Johnson Space Center, fielded questions and explained the experience-based filters and rating process for competitive selection. He was satisfied that the men and women selected “represent the most competent, talented, and experienced people available to us today.”

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The main press conference to introduce the new astronaut candidates to the public occurred on January 31. The selectees convened at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston to meet one another and the press. The NASA auditorium was filled to capacity with reporters, camera crews, VIPs, veteran astronauts, and anyone else who could squeeze in to see them for the first time. After opening remarks Kraft called the thirty-five men and women to the stage. NASA had chosen fifteen pilots and twenty mission specialists. Six of the mission specialists were white women: Anna Fisher, Shannon Lucid, Judith Resnik, Sally Ride, Rhea Seddon, and Kathryn Sullivan. Fisher and Seddon were medical doctors; the other four held PhDs in different fields. The two youngest, Ride and Sullivan at age twenty-six, had just completed graduate school; this would be their first professional job. Lucid, the eldest at thirty-five, and the other three were a few years into research and medical careers. The group also included three African American men (one of them a pilot) and an Asian American man. Of the total, twenty-one were military officers and fourteen were civilians. After training, they would join the twenty-seven older men in the active-duty astronaut corps and double the size of the corps to sixty-two astronauts. The new position of mission specialist made it possible for women and minorities to become astronauts as scientists and engineers without having to be high-performance jet pilots, the main reason the first recruitment to diversify the astronaut corps succeeded.

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After the introductions and applause, the formal program ended, and media representatives were invited to meet the astronauts-to-be for interviews. As Kathy Sullivan remembered it, most of the media flocked to the women and the minority men—the “ten interesting ones”—as the big news story. The “standard white guys” were able to depart quickly, while media kept the other newcomers engaged for hours. Most of the astronaut candidates had never been exposed to such a media gaggle and were either bemused or exhausted by the experience. Sullivan recalled with gratitude the helpful role played by the only woman who had served on the Astronaut Selection Board, Carolyn Huntoon, and another prominent NASA woman, engineer Ivy Hooks. They advised the women not to worry about their wardrobe or hairdo but to focus on what they did and did not want to say for publication. Their conversations with the media would make a greater impression than their appearance. As the media started to create a sort of composite persona to explain to the public who the women astronauts were, they questioned the women about both their common and distinctive traits. Huntoon basically advised them to be smart, confident, and poised, and cautioned that they take some care in what they revealed.

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Sally Ride wearing a “TFNG” shirt as she cleans an air filter system during her 1983 flight aboard Space Shuttle Challenger. TFNG stands for Thirty-Five New Guys, the nickname that the 1978 class of astronaut candidates gave themselves. Image: NASA.

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Journalists could not glean by observation alone that two of the women were medical doctors, three scientists, one an electrical engineer, one a newlywed, two divorced, one a married mother of three, one a classical pianist, another a tennis champion, one drove a Corvette, another owned her own airplane, and one was Jewish. Those were the kinds of personal details that reporters were eager to discover. A lot rested on how the first six women fielded such questions. They needed to be mindful of their privacy as they moved into new public roles and stay alert to comments that might stereotype them. Between interviews, the six spontaneously convened in the ladies’ restroom to compare notes on questions and answers and start considering potential boundaries.

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Twenty-five years later, NASA historian Jennifer Ross-Nazzal surveyed the resultant media coverage from that day and the next few years as the women completed training and began to fly in space. Many articles, she noted, reported on their physical features, size, weight, and marital status. Such information was rarely included in stories about male astronauts. Women’s magazines took a great interest in their fashion choices, style, beauty tips, hobbies, homes, and domestic pursuits. The petite women garnered more attention than the larger-framed “robust” ones, although all were specimens of good health and fitness, evidence that some media attention was biased toward the stereotypically feminine type of woman rather than the athletic or tomboy type.

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The total group of astronaut candidates selected into the 1978 class called themselves the Thirty-Five New Guys (TFNG), a sanitized variant of the military phrase, “the F’ing New Guys.” They outnumbered the twenty-seven members of the astronaut corps held over from the 1960s, many of whom had not yet flown and were skeptical of the newcomers, especially the civilian scientists and engineers who had no military flying experience. With a larger astronaut corps, the “old guys” feared losing their opportunities after waiting more than a decade to fly and initially kept their distance. They had a grace period of two years while the TFNG went through their core training and evaluation, and they had been promised the first shuttle flights. But the new candidates proved so adept in training that they completed it in one year while the first shuttle launch schedule slipped from 1979 to 1981. Those changes left ample room for the “old guys” to feel uneasy. They carried forward the astronaut culture of the 1960s and early 1970s, in which military pilots reigned over second-class civilians and scientists.

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Officially Group 8 in the history of astronaut selections, the TFNG class acquitted themselves well. They vindicated the capability and value of mission specialists and eased the acceptance of women and minorities in future classes by deflating concerns about sex and race. They gradually won the respect of the veteran astronauts. The women and the men of color in the class became instant role models for young people and symbols of achievement for everyone. By the year 2000, members of this class had completed their flights in space, five of them—including Shannon Lucid—having flown five times each. Altogether they served on fifty shuttle mission crews and cumulatively logged almost a thousand days in space, demonstrating everything the space shuttle was designed to do—an illustrious record for the first class of shuttle-era astronauts.

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After selecting the 1978 group of astronauts, NASA held additional recruitments at approximately two-year intervals to increase the size of the astronaut corps. During the period of 1978 through 1990, fourteen more women were selected to be astronauts. These first twenty, plus a few of the other women chosen after 1990, were part of the post– World War II baby boom. Most of the women selected by 1990 were midcentury girls, all born within a few years on either side of 1950, most of them starting school in the relatively placid 1950s and coming of age in the social and cultural milieu of the tumultuous 1960s. If they were old enough to notice, the signal events of their youth included the beginning of the space age with the launches of Sputnik, Yuri Gagarin, Alan Shepard, John Glenn, and Valentina Tereshkova in the period between 1958–1963. All were old enough to witness on television Neil Armstrong’s and Buzz Aldrin’s landing on the Moon in 1969. For some, the space age spelled their destiny; they cite one or more of those early missions as the pivotal event in shaping their aspirations.

These women generally were products of middle-class families, white neighborhoods, and public schools. As noticeably intelligent students who flourished in academics, they also spent their youth in such normal pursuits as Girl Scouts, sports, music and dance lessons, and school activities. Rock and roll and folk music were the sound tracks of their youth. Star Trek debuted on television in 1966 while they were teenagers. They might have seen 2001: A Space Odyssey when it was released in 1968 and watched family-oriented shows on television and at the movies.

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For young girls in the 1950s and 1960s, there were not many serious role models in popular culture, where the standard for celebrity was beauty, or in public life, where notable women were rare. Instead, they looked for encouragement and support from their parents and teachers, both men and women—people in their personal lives rather than the public sphere. Although some encountered active academic bias against studying physics, engineering, and medicine, most were able to find an open-minded mentor whose guidance primed them for success. The deciding factor, they said, was proving their determination and capability. Once that was established, lab positions, research projects, funding, awards, and jobs tended to follow. Unsurprisingly, the aspiring scientists and engineers who faced early resistance often graduated with honors. Their tenacity was a harbinger of success.

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Despite their achievements, the astronauts had faced discrimination in the world outside of NASA. Rhea Seddon recounted that she was not allowed to take out a loan for the condo she was buying in Texas, despite being a medical doctor with three years of experience and a newly named astronaut; at the age of thirty, she had to ask her father to cosign the loan to guarantee that he would pay the mortgage. She had already experienced barriers as the only woman surgical intern when she was denied access to the doctors’ lounge in the hospital and had to take her breaks in the nurses’ restroom between surgeries. Anna Fisher applied for a surgical residency only to be told by the department chair that women didn’t belong in surgery, so she went into emergency medicine instead.

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The young women who became scientists, engineers, medical doctors, and astronauts shared a commitment to graduate school in preparation for a career. In an era when educated women who worked were mostly confined to teaching or nursing, and those without bachelor’s degrees or licenses were secretaries, clerks, or retail workers, these women were determined to chart different paths for themselves. Some were the first in their families to attend college. They headed into graduate school in the late 1960s and early 1970s on the cusp of major changes in the educational and social environment. They confidently pushed forward on their journeys to become scientists, engineers, and physicians. They were often the first or only woman—or one of very few—in their advanced science, math, and engineering courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, and in medical school. Some were the first women ever granted a degree in a particular field at their university. As they moved onto a career path, they were often the first or only woman in a medical residency or a corporate office or at a field site. Most were aware that they could not fail, for that would only reinforce bias and make it harder for the next woman.

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Shannon Lucid probably had the hardest time launching her career. She was a few years older than the other women astronauts, just enough so that she was truly an anomaly as a female chemist and biochemist at the University of Oklahoma. She spent ten frustrating years being rejected for positions for which she was fully capable and working through a series of assistantships before finally breaking through to what she considered a real adult job. Among the trailblazing women, those who had long aspired to spaceflight learned to fly airplanes in hopes of improving their chance to become an astronaut, and it was not uncommon for them to come to NASA with a pilot’s license in hand. Lucid, passionate about flying since childhood, held multiple flight ratings and owned her own plane; she could have become a commercial pilot. Similarly, Marsha Ivins started flying at age fifteen to prepare to become an engineer and astronaut, Mary Cleave earned her pilot’s license at age seventeen and hoped to fly jets at NASA, and Rhea Seddon took flying lessons after graduating from medical school, a gift from her father to celebrate her success and a conscious decision to improve her prospects whenever NASA decided to hire women as astronauts. More than half of the first women to become astronauts took flying lessons or earned pilot’s licenses, although they were not required to do so.

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Shannon Lucid on the Mir treadmill, 1996. Image: NASA.

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Some of the women in this generation believed that eventually women would be astronauts. Others never aspired to be astronauts because it seemed impossible; they saw only a male space agency and male astronauts when they were young. Their interest sparked when they learned of NASA’s intention to recruit and select women, and not until they applied and interviewed did they realize how much they truly wanted it. Sally Ride read NASA’s announcement in the Stanford University student newspaper. Had she not picked up that particular issue on that particular day, she might never have known or applied. Kathy Sullivan’s brother, a professional pilot, was applying and challenged her to apply, too. A budding oceanographer bent on exploring the seafloor, she didn’t take him seriously until she read the announcement and realized that exploration in sea and space had much in common. Rhea Seddon, Anna Fisher, and several others were encouraged by professors or coworkers to apply, people who saw their potential before they themselves recognized it.

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This first wave of twenty women astronauts selected through 1990 proved more than capable in training and in flight. They carried out every orbital task such as tending to spacecraft systems, science experiments, spacewalking, robotic operations, and more— all except actually flying the shuttle because there were no qualified female military test pilots in the early selection rounds. Eileen Collins broke through that barrier when she was selected into the 1990 astronaut class.

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Each woman has a compelling origin story arising from or intersecting with other American stories and themes. They have become admired role models and influenced the paths of younger women who have joined the space program as astronauts and in many other roles. Almost all women astronauts have been first at something, usually without aiming to be, as their individual stories reveal. But, to paraphrase Judy Resnik, Kathy Sullivan, and others, being first isn’t the point. If something is worth doing, it doesn’t matter whether one is the first, fifth, or one hundredth. It is the doing that counts.

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The Class of 1978

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NASA received 8,079 applications during the first recruitment for space shuttle astronauts, 1,142 of which came from women. Through the winnowing process, 208 applicants (21 of them women, including Carolyn Griner and Mary Helen Johnston from the 1974 Spacelab simulation at Marshall Space Flight Center) were invited for a week of interviews and physical evaluations at the Johnson Space Center. In the end, NASA selected six impressively qualified women.

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These first six found NASA partially ready for them, welcoming them into the “NASA family.” But not everything was fully prepared. For example, the astronauts’ gym did not have a women’s locker room or even a women’s restroom, and no one thought to remodel it until after the women arrived. NASA issued workout clothes to the astronauts, including athletic supports for the men, but no one thought of sports bras for the women. Airfields where the astronauts flew while in T-38 training had locker rooms and restrooms only for men. Some NASA “old-timers” kept an eye on what the women wore to work and protested if their attire was “too casual,” despite the men forgoing ties or wearing jeans. Carolyn Huntoon fielded some of these complaints by pointing out that there was no dress code for men, so why should there be one for women? Such issues gradually resolved as the workforce came to terms with treating women equally.

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This first group of women wanted to blend in, to be one of the guys and not call attention to themselves as women. Anna Fisher noted, “It never occurred to any of us to ask for special accommodations for anything.” Sally Ride and Anna Fisher shopped for khaki pants and polo shirts to match the men’s office attire. They wore the same NASA blue flight suits and black leather aviator boots for flying and public appearances. Some wore little or no makeup to work. The women had fun together with the men playing in the employee volleyball and softball leagues, running and working out, competing in the annual chili cook-off, going to happy hours, and socializing with spouses and families. All of this was consistent with their desire then (and still) to be regarded as astronauts, not women astronauts, and not a separate subset of the astronaut corps.

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They knew, however, where there was resistance or bias to overcome. Some of the older male astronauts initially had trouble accepting women and scientists into their ranks. So, too, did some of their classmates. Although the TFNG generally bonded and mutually supported one another, it didn’t happen immediately. One of the men in the 1978 class, Mike Mullane, was honest enough to admit his initial doubts about women and scientists who hadn’t been tested and seasoned the way military pilots had been. “I felt a subtle hostility toward the civilian candidates . . . [they] hadn’t paid their dues,” he confessed. “I was in another galaxy when it came to working with women. I saw women only as sex objects . . . . We were flying blind when it came to working with professional women.” The military men had never worked with women as peers; they related to women as secretaries, girlfriends or wives, or family members. Nor had they worked with scientists in their military realm of aerospace engineers and aviators. For some, it was a difficult transition to become more open-minded and tolerant of those who were not the stereotypical military fighter pilots.

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The most senior woman at JSC at the time led the way in bringing women into the astronaut corps and addressing problems that arose. Carolyn Huntoon, who managed the research labs in the biomedical division and had been studying astronaut health since the Apollo era, was the only woman on the selection panel that conducted interviews for the 1978 class (and all the subsequent astronaut classes until she became JSC director in 1994). She was a strong and respected advocate for scientific and technical women in the space program and was herself a prominent scientist in her field of human physiology. She took the women astronaut candidates under her wing as an informal den mother for advice and counsel. She became their hero. Some still remember her advice to always use good judgment, which helped them navigate whatever circumstances they found themselves in. Huntoon observed that as the shuttle era began, NASA didn’t discriminate, but individuals did. Some gave women a hard time, and some simply couldn’t get over the fact that women are not exactly like men. She had to explain that doing something differently doesn’t mean one isn’t up for the job, or that not acting like “one of the guys” wasn’t a problem. She thought that the biggest challenge during these first years was to change attitudes, and she used her influence for that purpose.

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The trailblazing generation of women astronauts found a welcoming environment at JSC and believed that NASA had committed to their success. Despite occasional hiccups, they felt equally supported by their trainers, flight surgeons, and other personnel. They have described the Astronaut Office as both a cooperative and competitive workplace. For some time, though, they sensed a not-so-subtle hierarchy that determined who could be a leader and who would be assigned to flights. At a macro level, the office sorted into pilots and mission specialists. Within that scheme, the hierarchy was finer grained. Military pilots were at the top, with more numerous Navy pilots outranking Air Force pilots. Civilian pilots ranked below military pilots. Next down the ladder were mission specialists, with military again ranked above civilian, and women ranked below men. This wasn’t explicit or codified in writing; rather, it was deduced from the types of assignments one received and how long one waited for a mission assignment.

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Kathy Sullivan suited up as the first American woman to do an EVA, 1984. Image: NASA.

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Another sign that all was not perfectly equitable was a sexist joke that circulated within the 1978 class, but not to everyone. The hand-drawn flowchart parodied astronaut selection criteria for women. Among the qualifications shown were IQ, academic degree, breast size, weight-to-height ratio, and stance on the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). The only path for a woman to qualify as astronaut material according to this chart was to be a US citizen, not a genius, have a PhD degree, be slim, have a thirty-eight-inch or larger bust, and be against the ERA. On the chart, pilot candidates had a straight path to selection simply by meeting all advertised requirements, and male mission specialists could breeze through despite meeting no requirements at all.

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Some of the new male astronaut candidates saw the women as prospects for dating and vice versa, which was not unreasonable given shared interests in aviation and spaceflight. Most were in their late twenties and early thirties and not yet married. Over time, in fact, several astronaut couples paired up or married. At the beginning, though, women sometimes felt that some of the men acted like fraternity brothers, sizing them up as dating material rather than coworkers. Some weren’t comfortable with sexual banter, raunchy jokes, and quips about who was sleeping with whom.

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The six women settled into training and then work assignments, proving their abilities and dedication. Seddon recalled that the women knew they were being watched for any signs of weakness, and no one wanted to “look like a wimp.” Yet some tasks and equipment were sized for larger, heavier bodies, which made it hard for smaller women to perform well. In her case, it was the parachute size used in survival training. It was so large and she was so lightweight that she kept ascending when she was supposed to descend. Veteran Apollo astronaut Alan Bean, training supervisor for the TFNG class, reported that the women performed very well. “I always thought we were letting women do what was instinctively a man’s job. I don’t think that anymore,” he said.

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The women, however, were not intimidated or discouraged, and they called out what they saw as misguided and inappropriate. The same male astronaut who admitted that he didn’t know how to deal with women professionally said that he quickly learned to be careful about what he said and how he acted because a woman astronaut would give him an icy stare or insult him right back. Perhaps speaking for all of them, Seddon remarked, “We really were blazing a trail in defining what we could do in this world, what we were willing to do, and what we wanted to do.” One of Sally Ride’s T-shirts said it all: “Women’s Place is Now in Space.”

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—

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Valerie Neal is a curator emerita in the Department of Space History at the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum, where she oversaw the human spaceflight collections from the space shuttle and International Space Station programs, and she initiated the collection of artifacts from women astronauts. Her previous books include Discovery: Champion of the Space Shuttle Fleet and Spaceflight in the Shuttle Era and Beyond.

Margherita Bassi — Sat, 25 Oct 2025 10:00:00 -0400

When you think of ancient Egypt, you might imagine towering pyramids, majestic temples, and the noseless Great Sphinx of Giza. But the iconic civilization produced many more architectural marvels than the monuments it’s best known for today, and one such example has just come to light in the sands of the Sinai.

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Archaeologists working in the northern region of Sinai—the Egyptian peninsula bordering Israel—have discovered a military fort from ancient Egypt’s New Kingdom era (1550–1077 BCE) along the Horus Military Road. Also known as the “Way of Horus,” it was a chain of ancient Egyptian fortifications in North Sinai created during the New Kingdom. The recently discovered fort is one of the chain’s biggest and most important, according to a social media post by Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

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“The fortresses likely served as rest stops for trade caravans moving into Egypt, but also as places to reprovision the Egyptian army when it went on campaign across the Near East,” Nicky Nielson, an Egyptologist from the University of Manchester who wasn’t involved in the discovery, tells Popular Science.

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The archaeological excavation unearthed defensive towers; portions of the northern, western, and southern walls; a distinctive New Kingdom wall surrounding a residential area for soldiers; and pottery shards and vessels, including a handle with the name of Thutmose I, a pharaoh from the 18th-dynasty (around 1539 to 1292 BCE). They also found a large bread oven and fossilized dough, confirming that soldiers lived out their daily lives in the fortress.

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“Bread was very much a staple of the Egyptians – bread and beer specifically,” Nielson explains. “There are some slightly later texts (reign of Ramesses II) which talk about provisioning the army, and bread is mentioned as the key food.”

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He explains that the text belongs to a genre of biased writings called The Hardships of a Soldiers Life whose aim was to highlight the difficulties of being a soldier to scribal students. Indeed, the excerpt Nielsen highlights is grim:

His bread and his water are upon his shoulder like the load of a donkey; his neck having formed a ridge like that of a donkey. The vertebrae of his back are broken whilst he drinks of smelly water and halts only to keep watch.

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The fortress seems to have experienced a number of restorations and changes, and archaeologists expect to find the military port that served it near the coast. What’s more, its area is around 86,111 square feet (8,000 square meters), three times that of another fortress discovered just about 700 meters away in the 1980s, per the post.

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Mohamed Ismail Khaled, Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, explained in the ministry’s post that the discovery provides insight into the fortifications of Egypt’s eastern borders during that time period, and that every new fortress that comes to light highlights that ancient Egypt was more than just tombs and temples—it was a strong state capable of defending itself.

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However, “the site is important for understanding not only how the Egyptian state defended newly won territories in Sinai at the start of the New Kingdom, but also how it organised its occupation, and mediated its relationship with local populations and foreign powers,” Christian Knoblauch, an archaeologist specialized in ancient Egypt and Nubia from Swansea University, tells Popular Science. “On the one hand, it demonstrates the massive investment of material and human resources required to occupy this territory, but probably also the economic and political rewards for doing so.”

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Moving forward, the team hopes to reveal the rest of the walls and related structures.

The post Archaeologists discover massive ancient Egyptian fortress appeared first on Popular Science.

13 riveting images from the 2025 Wildlife Photographer of the Year awards

Popular Science Team — Sat, 25 Oct 2025 08:00:00 -0400

At Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, a caracal chomps on its lunch of fresh flamingo. With an icy stare and pep in its step, the big cat skips away with the lifeless bird. This is the scene photographer Dennis Stogsdill witnessed and his image of the encounter earned top honors at the 2025 Wildlife Photographer of the Year awards in the “Behaviour: Mammals” category.

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A record-breaking 60,636 entries from 113 countries and territories entered this year’s contest, now in its 61st year. South African wildlife photographer Wim van den Heever earned the prestigious title of Wildlife Photographer of the Year 2025 for his striking image, “Ghost Town Visitor” (seen below).

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“Ghost Town Visitor”
Winner, Urban Wildlife
Wim van den Heever (South Africa) photographs this haunting scene of a brown hyena among the skeletal remains of a long-abandoned diamond mining town.
With sea fog rolling in from the Atlantic Ocean, Wim chose this spot for his camera trap after noticing hyena tracks nearby. ‘It took me 10 years to finally get this one single image of a brown hyena, in the most perfect frame imaginable.’
The rarest hyena species in the world, brown hyenas are nocturnal and mostly solitary. They are known to pass through Kolmanskop on their way to hunt Cape fur seal pups or scavenge for carrion washed ashore along the Namib Desert coast.
Credit: Wim van den Heever / Wildlife Photographer of the Year 2025 Wim van den Heever

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“This image is an eerie juxtaposition of the wild reclaiming human civilisation,” jury member Akanksha Sood Singh said. “The image is haunting yet mesmerising because the solitary hyena takes centre stage as a symbol of resilience amid the decay. This picture is a multi-layered story of loss, resilience and the natural world’s silent triumph, making it an unforgettable piece of wildlife and conservation photography.”

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Wildlife Photographer of the Year is developed and produced by the Natural History Museum, London.

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“Synchronised Fishing”
Winner, Behaviour: Birds
Qingrong Yang (China) perfects photographic timing to show a ladyfish snatching its prey from right under this little egret’s beak.
Qingrong was at Yundang Lake near his home, a place he visits regularly to photograph the feeding frenzies: little egrets patrol the surface, ready to pounce on fish leaping to escape underwater predators.
Once a natural marine harbour, Yundang Lake was sealed off from the sea during 1970s development. Isolated from the tides and currents, it became polluted and stagnant. An engineering project later reconnected it to the sea via a system of gates that regulate water flow.
Credit: Qingrong Yang / Wildlife Photographer of the Year YangQingRong

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“Like an Eel out of Water”
Winner, Animals in their Environment
Shane Gross (Canada) witnesses a peppered moray eel very much in its element hunting for carrion at low tide.
It took Shane numerous attempts over several weeks to document this rarely photographed behaviour. At first the eels were elusive, but once Shane realised that they were scavenging for dead fish, he waited. His patience was soon rewarded when these three eels appeared.
Peppered moray eels are well adapted to the intertidal zone. They can hunt both above and below the water’s surface using their keen senses of smell and sight, sometimes staying out of water for more than 30 seconds.
Credit: Shane Gross / Wildlife Photographer of the Year SHANE GROSS

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“Survival Purse”
Winner, Underwater
Ralph Pace (USA) beautifully illuminates the egg case of a swell shark, tethered to the base of a giant kelp.
Faced with strong currents pushing him from side to side, Ralph struggled to keep steady to photograph this egg case, or ‘mermaid’s purse’. He lit the case from behind to reveal the swell shark embryo within, its gill slits and yolk sac clearly visible among the dark kelp forest.
Researchers estimate that kelp forests in Monterey Bay have declined by more than 95 per cent over the past 34 years. Swell sharks depend on kelp to lay their leathery eggs, making them especially vulnerable to such losses.
Credit: Ralph Pace / Wildlife Photographer of the Year Ralph Pace

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“Sole Survivor“
Winner, Rising Star Award
Luca had been watching a tree hole where this Eurasian pygmy owl and its mate were nesting. When one disappeared, the other continued feeding the chicks. On this day, the remaining bird returned clutching the chicks’ breakfast in its claws, and called for its mate, but there was no reply.
Credit: Luca Lorenz / Wildlife Photographer of the Year

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“Frolicking Frogs”
Winner, Behaviour: Amphibians and Reptiles
Quentin Martinez (France) discovers a gathering of lesser tree frogs in a breeding event.
In persistent rain, Quentin followed a flooded path to a temporary pool in a forest clearing. He framed this scene with a wide-angle lens and used a diffused flash, which didn’t disturb the frogs, to highlight their metallic sheen.
To attract mates, lesser tree frogs produce short, shrill calls. Huge numbers gather, and the spectacular breeding event – triggered by heavy rains – lasts for just a few hours.
Credit: Quentin Martinez / Wildlife Photographer of the Year

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“Caught in the Headlights”
Winner, Natural Artistry
Simone Baumeister (Germany) shows an orb weaver spider on its web on a pedestrian bridge, silhouetted by lights from the cars below.
To achieve this kaleidoscopic effect, Simone reversed one of the six glass elements in an analogue lens. This distorted the image at the edges while leaving the centre sharply focused. She then cropped the picture to move the spider slightly off-centre.
In urban environments, orb weaver spiders often spin webs near artificial lights that attract insects at night. The web acts as an extension of their sense organ, gathering sound and transmitting vibrations, including those of prey, to their legs.
Credit: Simone Baumeister / Wildlife Photographer of the Year Simone Baumeister

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“Seal Serenity“
Winner, Rising Star Award
It was raining heavily on the small island of Heligoland, far out in the North Sea, when I walked along the shore, already completely soaked. I was hoping to photograph an animal in these heavy weather conditions, as I’m currently working on a rain series. I soon spotted a small group of harbour seals. They kept poking their heads out of the water of the North Sea, which was surprisingly calm at the time. Perfect to emphasize the thousands and thousands of raindrops falling on the surface of the water. Fully stopped down to avoid any foreground/background blurring of the lens and be able to capture the vastness of the sea disappearing into the low-hanging clouds, I waited until one of the seals looked out from the perfect spot. A sandbank stretching out in front of the seals head made the water appear brighter and turquoise-colored, which led to the overall striped composition of the picture.
Credit: Luca Lorenz / Wildlife Photographer of the Year

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“How to Save a Species”
Winner, Photojournalism
Jon A Juárez (Spain) documents the groundbreaking science to save the northern white rhino from extinction through in vitro fertilisation (IVF).
Jon spent years documenting the work of the BioRescue Project, and says that witnessing a milestone in saving a species ‘was something I will never forget’.
This southern white rhino foetus, which did not survive due to an infection, was the result of the first successful rhino embryo transfer into a surrogate mother through IVF. This breakthrough paves the way for saving the rare northern white rhino from extinction, as scientists can take the next crucial steps towards transferring the first northern white rhino embryo into a southern white rhino surrogate.
Credit: Jon A Juárez / Wildlife Photographer of the Year JonJuarez

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“End of the Round-up”
Winner, Photojournalist Story Award
Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) being milked by Nathaniel Frank at MToxins Venom Laboratory in Wisconsin. Nathaniel, founder and owner of MToxins, is an expert in venom extraction, significantly contributing to antivenom production and venom research. The extracted venom is used globally for medical research, aiding in the understanding and treatment of various diseases and conditions. USA, 19 September 2021.
Credit: Javier Aznar González de Rueda / Wildlife Photographer of the Year javier aznar gonzalez de rueda

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“Seething Pit“
Winner, Photojournalist Story Award
Visitors gaze at hundreds of western diamondback rattlesnakes at the annual rattlesnake round-up in Sweetwater, Texas. Many of these snakes will be killed and sold for their skin and meat. Round-ups can harm other animals too: snakes are often driven from their rock shelters using petrol fumes, which also affect any creatures sheltering alongside them.
Credit: Javier Aznar González de Rueda / Wildlife Photographer of the Year

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“The Feast” by , Norway
Winner, Oceans: The Bigger Picture
Audun Rikardsen (Norway) witnesses feeding time around an Atlantic fishing vessel during a polar night in northern Norway.
Audun managed to photograph this chaotic scene of gulls attempting to catch fish trapped by nets. The gulls have learnt to follow the sound of the boats to find a herring feast. Through his work, Audun aims to draw attention to the ongoing conflict between seabirds and the fishing industry.
Unfortunately, many birds drown in or around these purse seine nets each year. Various fisheries and researchers are trialling solutions, including sinking the nets more quickly to make them less accessible to the birds.
Credit: Audun Rikardsen / Wildlife Photographer of the Year Audun Rikardsen

The post 13 riveting images from the 2025 Wildlife Photographer of the Year awards appeared first on Popular Science.

Scientists prepare for the next Carrington Event

Andrew Paul — Fri, 24 Oct 2025 14:58:22 -0400

Governmental disaster preparedness isn’t limited to crises that originate here on Earth. In fact, experts know that some of the most disruptive and unpredictable occurrences begin on the surface of the sun. For weeks now, emergency planners at the European Space Agency (ESA) in Darmstadt, Germany, have been conducting test runs to improve response capabilities for a cataclysmic solar storm. And while today’s digitally interconnected world means that such an event would inevitably disrupt global systems, researchers are working to ensure humanity has the biggest lead time possible to avoid a worst case scenario.

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Solar storms are semiregular events in which the sun belches gargantuan plumes of energized dust and gas towards the planet at speeds as fast as 2 million miles per hour. These waves can disrupt the Earth’s magnetosphere and generate the majestic hues seen during aurora events. The consequences go far beyond a dazzling show in the night sky. Geomagnetic storms can easily scramble satellite constellations, power grids, communications arrays, and essentially any other electronic or geospatial-related infrastructure.

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Another Carrington Event

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Although a severe solar storm made headlines last year, a 166-year-old event still remains for the most powerful bombardment on record. In August 1859, what’s now known as the Carrington Event struck Earth with enough cosmic force to produce Northern Lights as far south as Central America while also frying early telegraph systems. The Carrington Event was bad enough almost two centuries ago, but such a powerful solar storm today could hobble a society reliant on electronics, global positioning systems, and telecommunications.

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One of the biggest issues would be how the tens of thousands of satellites above our heads might respond. Currently, the ESA is readying the November 4 launch of Sentinel-1D, the first of two orbital payloads intended to provide a constant stream of surface imagery of the Earth. According to Sentinel-1D’s deputy spacecraft operations manager Thomas Ormston, there is currently only so much experts can do to protect that kind of multimillion dollar project.

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“Should such an event occur, there are no good solutions. The goal would be to keep the satellite safe and limit the damage as much as possible,” Ormston said in a statement.

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The training scenario’s planners didn’t hold back during their runthrough. According to the ESA, the workshop centered on a simulated X45-class flare—a Carrington Event-level situation featuring X-ray and ultraviolet radiation that would disrupt radar, communications, and GPS data approximately eight minutes after launching from the sun.

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ESA astronaut Thomas Pesquet photographed these green swirls of aurora borealis rom the International Space Station in August, 2021. Credit: ESA

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Three waves of energy

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Unfortunately, such an emergency wouldn’t include a single burst of cosmic energy. About 10-20 minutes later, a second wave of high-energy particles including protons, electrons, and alpha particles would strike Earth at nearly the speed of light, frying Sentinel-1D’s onboard electronics and causing possibly permanent damage. Lead simulation officer Gustavo Baldo Carvalho explained that while the first blast would likely take observers by surprise, they knew what was in store for them.

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“Once they regained composure, they knew a countdown had begun. In the next 10 to 18 hours, a coronal mass ejection would strike, and they had to brace for it,” he said.

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It’s the third strike that would prove most costly. This is the moment when a coronal mass ejection (CME) reaches Earth at a speed of around 1,242 miles per second and triggers a giant geomagnetic storm. Similar to the Carrington Event or last year’s bursts, observers on the ground would be treated to a colorful aurora show. But that would likely be little compensation compared to electrical grids collapsing, power lines surging, and satellites falling out of orbit.

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“Should such a storm occur, satellite drag could increase by 400 percent with local peaks in atmospheric density,” explained ESA space weather modelling coordinator Jorge Amaya. “This not only affects collision risks but also shortens satellite lifetimes due to increased fuel consumption to compensate for the orbit decay.”

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Amaya added that while low-Earth orbit satellites may receive some amount of atmospheric protection, a Carrington-level situation “would leave no spacecraft safe.”

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He compared the ESA’s training scenario to planning for a pandemic.

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“We will feel its real effect on our society only after the event, but we must be ready and have plans in place to react in a moment’s notice,” said Amaya.

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The ESA plans to launch its Virgil space weather monitor in 2031. Credit: ESA

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Planning for the future

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It’s far from hopeless, however. The Sentinel-1D training offered the first chance to run through a dire event in collaboration with the ESA’s Space Weather Office. In the meantime, the ESA is continuing with its Distributed Space Weather Sensor System (D3S) that will deploy a new satellite array that provides up-to-date data sources. Meanwhile, the agency is gearing up for the Virgil mission scheduled to launch in 2031. Once completed, Virgil will monitor for dangerous solar events from the “side” of the sun. At that angle, the system can alert teams on Earth to solar events faster than ever, allowing engineers time to prepare vulnerable systems with a larger window than ever before.

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“The scale and variety of the impacts pushed us and our systems to the limit, but the team mastered the challenge and that taught us that if we can manage that we can manage any real-life contingency,” said Ormston.

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Correction: An earlier version of this article incorrectly used “miles per hour” instead of miles per second when noting the speed of CMEs. We regret the error.

The post Scientists prepare for the next Carrington Event appeared first on Popular Science.

Amazon is clearing out Anker chargers, cables, adapters, and more during this post-Prime Day sale

Stan Horaczek — Fri, 24 Oct 2025 14:53:36 -0400

As a deal writer, I’m still feeling the lingering effects of Amazon’s Prime Day sale. Apparently drinking five espresso shots every morning to help you find better deals is a “bad idea,” and “totally irresponsible,” according to my doctor. But I’m determined to find the best deals. And right now, Amazon has Anker’s excellent gadgets on sale across the board. The sale includes portable chargers, charging bricks, cables, portable power stations and more. Go grab them before the price jumps in the pre-Black Friday period.

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Editor’s Picks

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Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2 Portable Power Station – 50 % off ($397.99, was $799). Delivers 2,000 W (3,000 W peak) with a 1,024 Wh LiFePO₄ battery that fully charges in under an hour—ideal for home backup or weekend trips.
Anker MagGo Power Bank (10,000 mAh) – 37 % off ($56.99, was $89.99). Qi2-certified MagSafe charging with a foldable stand and smart display—great for daily carry.
Anker Laptop Docking Station 13-in-1 – 30 % off ($139.99, was $199.99). Triple display hub with HDMI, DP, and Ethernet connectivity for creators and multi-screen workers.

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Chargers & Adapters

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Anker Laptop Charger, 140W MAX USB-C GaN Power Adapter – 20% off ($79.99, was $99.99)
Anker Prime 100W 3-Port GaN USB-C Charger Block – 14% off ($59.99, was $69.99)
Anker Nano USB-C Charger Block (70W, 3-Port) – 30% off ($34.99, was $49.99)
Anker Nano II 65W USB-C Charger (3-Port) – 35% off ($25.99, was $39.99)
Anker Nano USB-C Charger Block 30W – 20% off ($15.99, was $19.99)
Anker Prime 67W 3-Port GaN Wall Charger – 20% off ($39.99, was $49.99)
Anker Nano 5-Port Travel Adapter – $25.99 (standard deal price)
Anker 100W Max USB-C Charger Block (Smart Display + Touch Control) – 14% off ($59.99, was $69.99)
Anker Nano Portable Charger (10,000mAh 45W Power Bank) – 23% off ($45.99, was $59.99)
Anker Nano Charging Station (7-in-1, 100W Desktop) – 33% off ($59.99, was $89.99)

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Cables & Accessories

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Anker Prime USB-C to USB-C Cable (240W, 6FT) – $34.99
Anker Nano USB-C Cable (240W, Braided, 6FT) – $22.99
Anker Car CarPlay Cable (USB-A to USB-C, 3FT) – 7% off ($13.99, was $14.99)

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Power Banks

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Anker 737 Power Bank (24,000mAh, 140W Fast Charging) – 32% off ($74.99, was $109.99)
Anker MagGo Power Bank (10,000mAh, Qi2 Certified) – 37% off ($56.99, was $89.99)
Anker Prime Power Bank (9,600mAh, 65W Output) – 22% off ($69.99, was $89.99)
Anker Power Bank Power Station 60,000mAh – 47% off ($79.98, was $149.99)
Anker Power Bank (20,000mAh, 87W 3-Port) – 25% off ($52.49, was $69.99)

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Hubs & Docks

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Anker Laptop Docking Station (13-in-1) – 30% off ($139.99, was $199.99)
Anker 8-in-1 USB-C Hub Dual Monitor – $53.99
Anker 7-in-1 Multi-Port USB-C Adapter – 15% off ($21.99, was $25.99)
Anker 14-in-1 Docking Station – 39% off ($42.99, was $69.99)
Anker 5-in-1 USB-C Hub (HDMI + Data) – 24% off ($18.99, was $24.99)

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Wireless Charging

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Anker MagGo 2-in-1 Qi2 Charger Stand – 24% off ($40.99, was $53.99)
Anker MagSafe 3-in-1 Cube Charger – 39% off ($90.99, was $149.95)
Anker Zolo 15W MagSafe Wireless Charger (2-Pack) – 35% off ($25.99, was $39.99)
Anker 313 Wireless Charger Stand – 28% off ($14.43, was $19.99)
Anker MagGo 3-in-1 Charging Station – 37% off ($69.99, was $110.99)

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Portable Power Stations

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Anker SOLIX C300 Portable Power Station – 30% off ($209.99, was $299.00)
Anker SOLIX C300 DC Power Bank Station – 37% off ($157.99, was $249.99)
Anker SOLIX C200 DC Power Bank Station – 38% off ($104.99, was $169.99)
Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2 Portable Power Station – 50% off ($397.99, was $799)
Anker SOLIX F2000 Solar Generator (2048Wh + 400W Panel) – 40% off ($1,312.99, was $2,199.00)
Anker SOLIX BP3800 Expansion Battery – 29% off ($1,762.99, was $2,499.00)
Anker SOLIX F3800 Plus Portable Power Station (2025) – 30% off ($2,728.99, was $3,899.00)

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Editor’s Picks

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Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2 Portable Power Station – 50% off ($397.99, was $799). 2,000W (Peak 3,000W) solar generator that fully charges in under 50 minutes.
Anker MagGo UFO 3-in-1 Charger – 22% off ($69.99, was $89.99). Qi2-certified 15W foldable charger for iPhone, AirPods, and Apple Watch.
Anker 3-in-1 MagSafe Cube Charger – 39% off ($90.99, was $149.95). Compact Apple-certified charger with MagSafe for iPhone, Watch, and AirPods.

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Chargers & Adapters

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Anker Nano Charging Station (7-in-1, 100W) – 33% off ($59.99, was $89.99)
Anker Laptop Charger (140W MAX 4-Port GaN) – 20% off ($79.99, was $99.99)
Anker MagGo UFO 3-in-1 Charger – 22% off ($69.99, was $89.99)
Anker Nano Portable Charger (10,000mAh, 45W) – 23% off ($45.99, was $59.99)
Anker Nano USB-C Charger Block (70W, 3-Port) – 30% off ($34.99, was $49.99)
Anker Prime 100W 3-Port GaN Charger – 14% off ($59.99, was $69.99)
Anker Prime 200W 6-Port GaN Charging Station – $79.99
Anker Nano 5-Port Travel Adapter – $25.99
Anker 100W Max USB-C Charger (Smart Display) – 14% off ($59.99, was $69.99)
Anker Nano II 65W USB-C Charger (3-Port) – 35% off ($25.99, was $39.99)
Anker Nano 30W PIQ 3.0 Charger – 20% off ($15.99, was $19.99)
Anker Prime 67W USB-C Charger (3-Port) – 20% off ($39.99, was $49.99)
Anker 100W MacBook Pro Charger (Foldable) – $27.99

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Cables & Accessories

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Anker Prime USB-C to USB-C Cable (240W, 6FT) – $34.99
Anker Nano USB-C Cable (240W, Braided) – $22.99
Anker CarPlay Cable (3FT, USB-A to USB-C) – 7% off ($13.99, was $14.99)

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Power Banks

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Anker 737 Power Bank (24,000mAh, 140W) – 32% off ($74.99, was $109.99)
Anker MagGo Power Bank (Qi2, 10,000mAh) – 37% off ($56.99, was $89.99)
Anker Prime Power Bank (9,600mAh, 65W) – 22% off ($69.99, was $89.99)
Anker Power Bank Power Station (60,000mAh) – 47% off ($79.98, was $149.99)
Anker Power Bank (20,000mAh, 87W) – 25% off ($52.49, was $69.99)

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Hubs & Docks

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Anker 13-in-1 Laptop Docking Station – 30% off ($139.99, was $199.99)
Anker 8-in-1 Dual-Monitor USB-C Hub – $53.99
Anker 7-in-1 Multi-Port USB-C Adapter – 15% off ($21.99, was $25.99)
Anker 14-in-1 Docking Station – 39% off ($42.99, was $69.99)
Anker 5-in-1 USB-C Hub – 24% off ($18.99, was $24.99)

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Wireless Charging

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Anker MagGo 2-in-1 Qi2 Charger Stand – 24% off ($40.99, was $53.99)
Anker 3-in-1 MagSafe Cube Charger – 39% off ($90.99, was $149.95)
Anker Zolo Magnetic Wireless Charger (2-Pack) – 35% off ($25.99, was $39.99)
Anker 313 Wireless Charger Stand – 28% off ($14.43, was $19.99)
Anker MagGo 3-in-1 Charging Station – 37% off ($69.99, was $110.99)

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Portable Power Stations

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Anker SOLIX C300 Portable Power Station – 30% off ($209.99, was $299.00)
Anker SOLIX C300 DC Power Bank Station – 37% off ($157.99, was $249.99)
Anker SOLIX C200 DC Power Bank Station – 38% off ($104.99, was $169.99)
Anker SOLIX C1000 Gen 2 Portable Power Station – 50% off ($397.99, was $799)
Anker SOLIX F2000 Solar Generator (2048Wh + 400W Panel) – 40% off ($1,312.99, was $2,199.00)
Anker SOLIX BP3800 Expansion Battery – 29% off ($1,762.99, was $2,499.00)
Anker SOLIX F3800 Plus Portable Power Station (2025) – 30% off ($2,728.99, was $3,899.00)

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The post Amazon is clearing out Anker chargers, cables, adapters, and more during this post-Prime Day sale appeared first on Popular Science.

A NASA commander’s most important system wasn’t a computer. It was the crew.

Yook JiHun — Fri, 24 Oct 2025 12:30:00 -0400

Pamela Ann Melroy’s life has been defined by challenges that continually pushed the boundaries of what was possible. She is a veteran astronaut who flew on three Space Shuttle missions and played a leading role in building the International Space Station. She later served as the Deputy Administrator of NASA.

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That lifelong pursuit of exploration began early. Growing up watching the TV series Star Trek, Melroy dreamed of venturing beyond Earth.

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At a time when few women could become pilots, she joined the U.S. Air Force and showed that skill mattered more than gender. Her determination eventually led her to join NASA and take a leading role in building the International Space Station through international collaboration.

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Those experiences left her with a defining philosophy: true progress comes when people from different backgrounds work together toward a shared goal instead of standing in opposition. That belief was reinforced when she looked down from space and saw Earth—one blue planet without borders.

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As she once put it, “The Earth is our spaceship, and we are all its crew.”

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She reiterated that message during her visit to Korea for ‘The 6th International Conference for Women in Science and Technology (BIEN 2025)’ and her lecture at the National Science Museum. Melroy shared her leadership experiences from guiding NASA missions and reminded audiences that true exploration begins when humanity transcends its own boundaries.

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Former NASA Deputy Administrator Pam Melroy speaks during a press briefing. Image: NASA

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From a Star Trek fan to a NASA astronaut

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Pam Melroy spoke about how she first dreamed of becoming an astronaut during her visit to Korea. As a child she watched the TV series Star Trek with her family and imagined herself on the bridge like Captain Kirk leading a crew of her own. When Apollo landed on the Moon she realized that what once seemed like fiction had become reality.

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The world Melroy grew up in offered little room for her dreams. Gender at the time still largely determined a person’s career path. A career as an astronaut required experience as an Air Force pilot. This career path presented a challenge for women, as flying opportunities within the service were exceptionally rare. Melroy seized the opportunity to apply when social attitudes began to shift and the Air Force started admitting female pilots.

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Looking back, Melroy says that timing and steady encouragement helped guide her career through these barriers. “Growing up in the 1960s there were not many women pilots but I was very fortunate. When I was in high school the opportunities opened up in front of me,” she said.

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Pam Melroy served as the commander of the Space Shuttle mission STS-120. The photo shows her with the crew, standing fifth from the left. Image: NASA

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She stressed the importance of her parents’ encouragement in giving her the confidence to seize those opportunities. “My parents always told me that I could do anything that I wanted,” she recalled. “They did not tell me that I could not do that. Instead they kept saying ‘we believe you can do anything that you want to do’ and I believed them.”

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Melroy herself tells a story that illustrates just how rare that kind of foundational support was at the time. She recounted an introduction once given by a former classmate. Melroy explained that the friend’s speech began with a childhood memory of being told by her parents that girls could not be astronauts.

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“And then she came to university and met me,” Melroy continued, “and I was telling everyone I wanted to be an astronaut.” The classmate admitted to feeling a quiet sadness for Melroy back then, believing her to be naive because no one had warned her that her dream was impossible.

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Melroy then delivered the story’s conclusion. “She paused, looked down, and then looked up at the audience and said, ‘Please meet my friend, astronaut Pam Melroy.'”

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But even after breaking through social barriers with this support, Melroy faced distinct physical challenges. She barely met the minimum height requirement to become a pilot. “I had to use my head to overcome the physical challenges,” Melroy stated. “In some cases, someone big and strong just does things. I had to use my head to think through how I can leverage myself.”

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She later realized that the very traits once seen as limitations had become her strengths. “In many cases, being small has been very important during repairs in operations in very tight situations,” she recounted. “Many times, I was the one with a hand that was small enough to do the job.”

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Pamela Melroy appears third from the left in a group photo taken at the 6th International Conference for Women in Science and Technology.

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Melroy’s NASA lesson on success

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After serving as an Air Force pilot, Pam Melroy joined NASA as an astronaut. Melroy said the NASA she knew was built on a culture that valued every voice in the room. She explained that NASA’s breakthroughs often come from non-specialists.

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“When you are working on very difficult science and technology problems, when you are exploring, there are many examples where one person who was not the expert provided the key insights to allow things to go forward,” she said. “So encouraging all voices is a part of the mission of NASA.”

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At NASA, inclusion is not only key to innovation but also vital to safety.

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Melroy also linked the importance of open communication directly to the agency’s safety record. A spacecraft is a place where even the smallest error can have catastrophic consequences. Constant cross-checking among diverse perspectives is what keeps a crew alive.

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“NASA has learned bitter lessons from major human space mishaps that it is important to hear all voices,” she stated. “And so it is critical to promote the safety culture inside NASA to encourage all voices to speak up and to be listened to.”

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She also reminded the audience that in space no one survives alone. In microgravity even simple tasks demand teamwork and precision. Melroy once described spaceflight as “the most fascinating camping trip imaginable,” yet one that demanded constant vigilance and precise teamwork to stay alive. A small item could clog an air filter and cause the onboard systems to overheat. Every action was guided by a single rule that put the team’s safety before individual comfort.

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Melroy said that in space even the smallest problem can’t be solved alone. She recalled moments when the crew had to reroute power systems or repair a damaged solar panel, each demanding cooperation to keep the mission going.

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While anchored on the end of the Orbiter Boom Sensor System(OBSS) astronaut scott parazynski repairs a US Solar array which damaged itself when unfolding during STS 120. Image: NASA

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A major electrical failure during Melroy’s first flight demanded an immediate response from the crew. As the pilot in charge of in-flight maintenance, it was her job to perform the complex repair in real time. Guided by checklists and working with her team, she rewired a critical component under immense time pressure.

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The crew’s response was a model of efficiency and professionalism. There was no room for ego or discussion of alternative plans. They simply received the procedure from NASA’s ground control, confirmed their understanding, and executed it as quickly as possible.

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She recalled, “Working together well is everything, because it really slows you down if you are not working well together and we did not have time for that.”

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Such strong teamwork doesn’t come naturally. It’s built through rigorous training. Her team of pilots, engineers, and scientists from various disciplines spent several weeks in Alaska conducting field trials designed to prepare them for the mission’s extreme conditions.

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“It’s very difficult to go on a trip like this,” she began. “We found out who gets cranky when they’re cold, who is difficult when they’re tired, who gets very upset if she’s not fed three times a day.”

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Melroy stressed that her primary focus in command was on the team not the technology. “As a commander I needed to know about everybody because the most important system I operated on the space station was the crew,” she said. “It was not switches, it was not systems. It was the crew.”

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That lesson extends far beyond her own missions. Toward the end of her lecture at the National Science Museum, Melroy spoke about what lies ahead for lunar and Martian exploration. She told the students that future missions will become more complex than ever, demanding unprecedented international cooperation.

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When a student asked what qualities future astronauts should develop Melroy gave a simple but memorable answer. “One thing that won’t change is the human aspect of working together,” she said. “Learning how to work well with other people is the most important thing in space. It is and always will be.”

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The spirit of cooperation beyond borders

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The spirit of cooperation that NASA pursues extends beyond individuals and reaches across nations. Melroy reminded her audience at the BIEN 2025 that space is a unique realm where collaboration beyond politics and ideology becomes possible.

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Melroy described the profound shift in perspective experienced from space, a phenomenon known as the ‘Overview Effect’.

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“Every astronaut experiences what’s known as the Overview Effect,” she said. “Imagining that what we do in one country does not affect anyone else, you can see from space that that is not true. You can see how interconnected we are.”

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This realization leads to a clear mandate for cooperation. She argued “We recognize that we must partner together, we must share ideas, we must honor and respect each other’s culture and each other’s contributions.”

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Melroy recalled the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project as an example of that spirit. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union were divided by ideology, yet their astronauts met in orbit and docked their spacecraft in a symbolic act of cooperation that came to represent peace beyond Earth. It was NASA’s first international partnership.

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Melroy credited the spacefarers themselves as the driving force behind the Apollo-Soyuz mission. “The influence behind this first effort was the astronauts and the cosmonauts,” she said. “Because of our perspective from space, we understood that space has a unique way of unifying people and bringing peace.”

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An overall view of the Mission Operations Control Room in the Mission Control Center during the joint U.S.-USSR Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking mission in Earth orbit in 1975. Image: NASA

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She emphasized the partnership’s remarkable durability despite political tensions. “We’ve had many ups and downs with our partner, first the Soviet Union, now Russia, and yet this is an unbroken cooperation from 1975,” Melroy stated.

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The collaboration that began with Apollo–Soyuz laid the foundation for deeper partnerships in the decades that followed. That legacy continues in the International Space Station (ISS) which brings together five space agencies and twenty-three nations in a single effort to work in orbit. Melroy played a leading role in assembling the station. She spoke about the challenges of bridging differences in language and engineering philosophy as well as in how teams approach spare parts and system redundancy. What once appeared to be obstacles became strengths under a shared mission. Since November 2000 the International Space Station has been continuously inhabited, serving for nearly twenty-five years as humanity’s outpost in space and a lasting symbol of international partnership.

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The multinational experience of building the International Space Station helped shape a new spirit of cooperation in space exploration. That same spirit now defines the Artemis Program and humanity’s renewed effort to return to the Moon. Nations including Canada, Japan, and the United Arab Emirates, together with members of the European Space Agency, are working with the United States to build the Lunar Gateway. The outpost will orbit the Moon and serve as a hub for future exploration beyond it. The Artemis Accords form a set of international agreements that establish peaceful norms for lunar exploration. To date, 56 countries have signed the accords. Reflecting on this growing network of cooperation, Melroy noted in a recent press briefing that the future of space exploration must remain rooted in the same spirit.

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During a press briefing she emphasized that the future of space exploration should continue to be built on cooperation. When asked about the growing U.S.–China rivalry in space she offered a measured and thoughtful response.

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“As someone who has flown in space as an explorer, I believe that the more people that fly in space and the more that we explore space the greater the benefits for humanity,” she said. “But those benefits require transparency, collaboration and sharing of information.”

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She added that the way humanity ventures into space is just as important as the technology that makes those journeys possible. “As humanity goes into the solar system, how we go and bringing the best of humanity and all of us together matters as much as the technology.”

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This article was produced as part of the NASA Impact Series by Popular Science Korea.

The post A NASA commander’s most important system wasn’t a computer. It was the crew. appeared first on Popular Science.

The real killer of Napoleon’s army revealed by DNA testing

Andrew Paul — Fri, 24 Oct 2025 11:06:28 -0400

Napoleon Bonaparte’s catastrophic invasion of the Russian Empire remains one of history’s greatest military blunders. In the summer of 1812, the French emperor set out across Eastern Europe’s Neman River with over 615,000 Grand Army troops intent on forcing their foe to agree to a continental blockade against the United Kingdom. In less than six months, over a half a million of Napoleon’s soldiers had succumbed to starvation, hypothermia, and disease.

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The failed excursion is still studied today, with historical accounts suggesting typhus as a leading cause of death. However, recent microbial analysis conducted on the remains of Grand Army soldiers indicates at least two other pathogens played a central role in claiming thousands of lives. According to a study published today in the journal Current Biology, it wasn’t necessarily typhus that killed thousands of Napoleon’s men—it was a pair of nasty diseases known as enteric and relapsing fever.

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It’s understandable why the typhus theory has remained popular for decades. Primary accounts from French doctors and soldiers cite the infectious disease possibly killing more troops than the Russians themselves. The discovery of typhus’ main vector–body lice–on bodily remains coupled with trace DNA of typhus’ bacterial cause (Rickettsia prowazekii) further supported this narrative.

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In recent years, technological advancements have opened the door to reexamining Grand Army casualties. It’s with this in mind that a team of microbial paleogenomicists led by Nicolás Rascovan at France’s Institut Pasteur decided to review the common narrative. To do this, they would need to examine the remains of some of Napoleonic excursion’s many victims. Their sources came from a mass grave located in Vilnius, Lithuania—a stop along the French army’s retreat in December 1812. After extracting and sequencing DNA from 13 soldiers’ teeth, they then cleaned their samples of any surrounding environmental contamination and searched for evidence of bacterial pathogens.

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None of the men displayed any trace of typhus. Instead, the team discovered fragments of Salmonella enterica and Borrelia recurrentis. The former bacterium is responsible for enteric or typhoid fever, while the latter causes relapsing fever. Interestingly, both pathogens help explain the prior typhus theory. Typhoid fever’s name references its symptomatic similarities (“typhoid” means “resembling typhus,” after all), and wasn’t recognized as a distinct disease until later in the 19th century. Meanwhile, relapsing fever is often transmitted by body lice.

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Rascovan’s team also discounted previous work that detected R. prowazekii or trench fever (Bartonella quintana) in soldiers buried in the same mass grave. They believe the reason for the earlier misidentifications likely came from the use of different sequencing technologies. Previous studies relied on polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a system that multiplies copies of a single DNA segment when source material is limited.

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“Ancient DNA gets highly degraded into pieces that are too small for PCR to work,” Rascovan said in a statement. “Our method is able to cast a wider net and capture a greater range of DNA sources based on these very short ancient sequences.”

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The study’s authors also made one more unexpected discovery. The strain of B. recurrentis seen on Napoleon’s soldiers is traceable to the same lineage other researchers recently discovered to have existed around 2,000 years earlier in Iron Age Britain. Although every present-day B. recurrentis strain sequenced so far has belonged to a different lineage entirely, the one identified by Rascovan’s team appears to have at least survived long enough to devastate the French army.

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“It’s very exciting to use a technology we have today to detect and diagnose something that was buried for 200 years,” said Rascovan.

The post The real killer of Napoleon’s army revealed by DNA testing appeared first on Popular Science.

Meet the man who built a 15-foot-tall sea glass Christmas tree

Laura Baisas — Fri, 24 Oct 2025 10:00:00 -0400

If a coastal Christmas is your vibe, then John Viveiros of Tiverton, Rhode Island is your guy. An arborist and tree climber by trade and a welder/craftsman by choice and chance, Viveiros constructs Christmas trees out of recycled material and some of the beach’s most prized treasures: sea glass.

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However, these aren’t just little table top trees or pretty centerpieces. His creation on display at the South Coast Harvest Festival in Westport, Massachusetts clocks in at 15-feet tall and is made out of tens of thousands of pieces of sea glass.

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“The crowd really goes crazy, because it’s something they don’t expect. That height and size with such a small piece of material,” Viveiros tells Popular Science.

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At his small business Yard Arts, Viveiros primarily works with recycled metals and materials that have been discarded or found along the beach. Sea glass is often found in areas where there’s a lot of history of boat traffic. “Luckily, where I find all mine is an area where the traffic’s been going on since the 16 and 1700s,” laughs Viveiros.

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The sea glass tree on display at the South Coast Harvest Festival. Image: John Viveiros.

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He and his wife Snooky began sea glass hunting about 20 years ago. He found a blue marble tolling in with the tide.

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“That was my first piece that got me kind of hooked into it,” says Viveiros. “I made a pendant with it.”

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A far cry from a pendant, Viveiros started building his sea glass Christmas tree with a heavy flywheel as a base. He took a 15-foot-long metal pole and attached it to the base and added a circular piece for the angel at the top.

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Outdoor curtains made of sea glass hang in Viveiros’ backyard. Image: John Viveiros.

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“I used a metal steering wheel from a classic 1970s car. One of those old foam drip steering wheels,” says Viveiros. “So the angel stood on top of that.”

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As a tree climber with 40 years of experience up in the air, Viveiros “knows his knots.” This was crucial for stranding together the sea glass. He used a double loop knot and then proceeded to tighten the glass on itself using some fishing line. The glass is spaced about four to five inches apart.

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“I give them space, so that way, when it’s displayed, each piece is not on top of the other, and it has its own unique look,” says Viveiros. “I strand the pieces eight feet long in my basement in the winter.”

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In addition to the Christmas trees, Viveiros also makes sea glass curtains to use in his backyard and plays around with the wide variety of colors in his sea glass collection. That hands-on experimentation, being open to making mistakes and trying new things, is what he credits with his success and suggests his fellow hobbyists also stick to when trying new things.

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Beneath the sea glass and discarded materials used to bring this tree to life is a deeper message of life’s chances.

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“This tree is created by junk. Sometimes, you have to tumble, and go through the storms of life to be polished up for life’s challenges,” he says. “The glass has gone through the elements of mother nature, and now it’s a beautiful piece of polished material.”

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The post Meet the man who built a 15-foot-tall sea glass Christmas tree appeared first on Popular Science.

Ancient Roman mass grave shows its army’s ethnic diversity

Andrew Paul — Fri, 24 Oct 2025 09:43:06 -0400

Among its many feats, Rome featured one of history’s most organized and successful military forces. Its organization and deployment helped solidify the empire’s centuries-long reign across the Mediterranean, Western Asia, North Africa, and Europe. In Croatia, archaeologists have discovered a mass grave dating back to the third century CE that indicates another key to Roman military strength: the diversity of its soldiers. Their findings are detailed in a study published in the journal PLOS One.

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Researchers located the skeletal remains inside ancient water wells uncovered near Osijek, a city in eastern Croatia located about 10 miles from the Serbian border. Under Roman occupation 2,000 years ago, Osijek was known as Mursa. Beginning around 235 CE, Rome entered a period known as the Crisis of the Third Century. For almost 50 years, the empire existed as three separate warring polities and nearly collapsed entirely due to economic, political, and military strains. Historical records indicate Mursa was the site of one of this era’s many bloody skirmishes around 260 CE.

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In 2011, excavation work yielded the complete, preserved skeletons of seven adult males in a water well converted into a mass grave. Subsequent bioarchaeological examinations including radiocarbon analysis indicated the bodies date back to the second half of the third century. The men ranged in age from 18 to 50, and all displayed fatal injuries including puncture wounds, rib fractures, and blunt force head trauma. With the additional nearby discovery of a Roman sestertius coin minted in 251 CE, experts now believe the men likely died during the Battle of Mursa in 260 CE.

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These casualties weren’t local residents of Mursa, however. Genomic analysis revealed none of the soldiers shared ancestry with nearby Iron Age populations, meaning they weren’t from the region in which they died.

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“The observed genetic diversity might reflect the reliance of the Roman Empire on heterogeneous military recruitments, corroborating historical evidence for the integration of ‘foreign’ groups into imperial forces,” the study’s authors wrote, adding that their evidence also aligns with Late Roman armies’ incorporation of professional, full-time soldiers from the Sarmatians, Saxons, and Gauls.

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This is far from the first genetically diverse mass grave discovered by archaeologists, either. Researchers cited similar burial patterns in other ancient Roman regions including Skopje, Macedonia, as well as graves tied to Napoleon’s Grand Army. If anything, it’s the genetic differences that reinforce the theory that these bodies belonged to soldiers who died in battle.

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“The coexistence of highly diverse genetic backgrounds among the genetically analyzed individuals strengthens the interpretation of these burials having militaristic origins,” the study’s authors wrote.

The post Ancient Roman mass grave shows its army’s ethnic diversity appeared first on Popular Science.

Why do horses have eyes on the side of their head?

Katie Navarra Bradley — Fri, 24 Oct 2025 09:00:00 -0400

Have you ever noticed that horses have eyes on the sides of the head rather than the front, like we do as humans?

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The location of horses’ eyes offer a biological advantage that helps keep them safe as prey animals. In fact, eye placement signals whether an animal is a predator or prey. Predators typically have eyes on the front of their heads, while prey animals’ eyes are set to the sides. Since humans have eyes on the front of their faces, they are technically predators in a horse’s world.

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“If you think about a tiger or a bird of prey, they have to focus in and target something they’re trying to catch for food,” said Beau Whitaker, an equine veterinarian at Brazos Valley Equine Hospitals in Salado, Texas. “They have minimal blind spots, so they can focus directly on what’s in front of them.”

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Horses’ side-set eyes give them a wide field of vision—an advantage when scanning the environment for predators. Although most domestic horses today live in predator-free or low-predator environments, they still process visual information as if their survival depended on it.

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Horses if their eyes were in the front
byu/wesmokeem inoddlyterrifying

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How horses see

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Because of their eye placement, horses have both monocular and binocular vision. According to the University of California Davis Ophthalmology department, monocular vision is like a panoramic view with each eye viewing about a 200-210-degree arc until a horse raises their head, at which time their field of vision narrows to a binocular view of about 55-80 degrees.

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This wide peripheral range of vision allows them to detect subtle movements long before a predator reaches them. Monocular and binocular vision combined gives them close to 350-degree vision around their body. For comparison, humans can see about 180 degrees without turning their heads.

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“The biggest thing to know is that horses have a blind spot about four feet in front of them and directly behind them,” Dr. Whitaker explained. “Humans have a tiny blind spot too, that is like a black hole, but our brain fills in what is expected to be there.”

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While they have an incredible field of vision, horses process information differently than humans. When you look at an object, both eyes see and process the information at the same time. However, the horse’s eyes process information independently. So, when they see something with their left eye for the first time, even if their right eye has already viewed it, it’s like seeing the same object for the first time.

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“The way horses’ eyes connect with the brain means they’re not necessarily learning holistically,” said Dr. Whitaker. “People who work with horses have probably experienced this, where you often have to teach horses something on both sides of their body for them to process the information fully.”

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The eyes have it.

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Horses have big eyes—the largest of all land mammals, and they have superior night vision compared to humans. Their retinas contain a large number of rods and a unique structure in the eye called the tapetum lucidum. This membrane reflects visible light back through the retina, resulting in excellent night vision and that cool glow-in-the-dark effect. Humans lack this extra layer of tissue, so our night vision isn’t as effective, but our vision in general is clearer.

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Image: DepositPhotos

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“Horses generally have good night vision, which gives them the capacity to see long distances and run from a predator,” Dr. Whitaker said. “A horse’s retina has a dazzling, almost iridescent appearance—much more so than in people. That reflective layer helps light bounce back within the eye, enhancing their night vision.”

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The horse’s eye structure allows them to detect even slight motion at far distances—a safety advantage as a prey animal—but their vision of objects is only clear about 200 yards away until objects begin to appear blurry.

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The way their eyes perceive color is also less sophisticated than in humans. Their dichromatic vision limits them to seeing shades of blue and green with slight variations of those shades, whereas people have trichromatic vision and can also see shades of red and yellow.

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Next time you see a horse…

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Understanding how horses see can make your next interaction safer for both of you. If a horse feels something touching them without seeing or hearing what it is, their natural fight-or-flight instinct can kick in. Note: Always ask for permission from the person who is handling the horse before approaching if you have not previously established a relationship with the handler or horse owner.

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“When you’re around a horse, remember they can’t see directly behind themselves or right in front of themselves,” Dr. Whitaker said. “It’s always best to approach from the side, near their shoulder area, and talk to them to let them know you’re there.”

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The post Why do horses have eyes on the side of their head? appeared first on Popular Science.

What Americans fear most in 2025

Sarah Durn — Thu, 23 Oct 2025 15:33:00 -0400

Team Fear is at it again. For the past 11 years, this dedicated group of researchers with a very cool nickname has conducted the annual Chapman University Survey of American Fears. This year, they surveyed 1,015 adult Americans on what they fear most, from sharks to heights to identity theft.

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Wondering which fear took the first slot? For the 10th consecutive year, corrupt government officials topped the list. Fears of a loved one becoming seriously ill, economic or financial collapse, and cyber-terrorism followed. Here’s the full list of what Americans fear most in 2025:

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Corrupt government officials (with 69.1 percent of participants saying they’re afraid or very afraid of this)
People I love becoming seriously ill (reporting at 58.9 percent)
Economic or financial collapse (58.2 percent)
Cyberterrorism (55.9 percent)
People I love dying & U.S. becoming involved in another world war (both tied at 55.3 percent)
Pollution of drinking water (54.5 percent)
Russia using nuclear weapons (53.7 percent)
Pollution of oceans, rivers, and lakes (53.5 percent)
Government tracking of personal data (52.7 percent)

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“Understanding what we’re afraid of isn’t about stoking anxiety, it’s about putting those fears into context,” Dr. Christopher Bader, a sociologist at Chapman University in California and the lead researcher on the study, said in a statement.

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Cadillac