Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Domestication Strategy

Response: It is also known as "normalisation [or] naturalisation strategy". It is useful in "bridging gaps and achieving intelligibility in line with the hermeneutic approach which focuses on interpretation and grants the translator the right to manipulate the text so as to make it natural, comprehensible and readable" (Steiner, 1975, in As-Safi, 2011, pp. 297-413). The original text is subjected to an adaptation so as to be re-cast and made compliant with the target linguistic and cultural conventions and to accomplish the purpose of translation. This strategy is often adopted by liberal translators as seen in the following translation of proverbs from Runyankore: Tingasiga tasiga ntoni The drunkard never misses hard fist knocks (Interpretation: If you keep going to every bar where alcohol is, you will not miss getting a hard fist knock because where alcohol is, the chances of fighting are high). Mpora mpora ekahisya oтиnyongororwa aha iziba Slow steps led the earthworm to the well (Interpretation: Hard tasks are accomplished by taking the first step) (Source: Africansoulmag.com Accessed on 12/12/2013) The translator has accompanied the proverb with an interpretation that is readily understandable by a contemporary foreign audience.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Compensation Strategy

Response: This concerns the technique of making up for the translation loss of significant features of the source text (ST) by approximating and supplementing their effects in the target text (TT) (Hervey & Higgins, 1992). In many legal, political, scientific and technical texts where translation loss is anticipated, compensation has been frequently utilised to make up for that loss. In the texts that have translated the analysis of the Rwanda genocide, for instance Taylor (1999), although the direct meaning of "interahamwe" was known to be "those who work together", the terminology has been left in Kinyarwanda, with a supplement of "Interahamwe militia" to give the political connotation of their military orientation.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Elaboration and Explication Strategy

Response: In order to communicate the message in the ST when the translator cannot find the exact equivalence, she or he may resort to the elaboration or explanation of the segment (As-Sifa, 2011). Such explications have been used for similes, metaphors and technical terminologies, as shown below: Preterm labour (after 20 weeks, but before 37 weeks), □ □ (2) Kutandika kurumwa obwire butakahikire (bwanyima y'esande 20 - kwonka atakahikize esande 37) □ □ (2) Examples: Pre (eclampsia/eclampsia, (convulsions, severe headache, blurred vision, loss of consciousness).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Approximation and Compromise Strategy

Response: This strategy tries to create a balance between the SL aesthetic and cultural values which are acceptable or unacceptable in the TL. The difficulty with discretional approximation though has achieved "an equilibrium whereby the original aesthetic flavour is transferred into English without hindering genuine comprehension or producing something that can be rejected as totally un-English" (As-Safi, 2011). Many terms referring to cultural-bound values and practices of the Banyakitara have been approximated to equivalents which are accepted as natural" in English but do not exactly transfer the same meaning to the English speaking Munyakitara. Terms like "Omufumu" who should have been a "spiritual healer" was approximated to "diviner" or at worst "witchdoctor" and "okurunga" equated with "spicing" when it actually does not involve putting any of the modern spices in the food.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Equation and Substitution

Response: Using the words of Malone (2013), "the most obvious form of equation is that of the loan word, where equality would seem absolute". We now talk of going on "safari" using the "kompyuta" in Runyakitara and putting on "Busuti" like the Baganda and when you visit an Atesot friend you will drink their brew "ajono" and play "omweso". These events, dresses, foods, and sports have now become a familiar part of our daily life because of intercultural living and social proximity. However, Malone (2013, p. 1) warns, that " … … the term will not conjure up the same association as it does in the source language"... The second form of equation is provided by the "calque", where the target language adapts the source language term to its own morpho-phonological framework. The Runyankore "okupaminga" term for "perming hair" or "kalituusi" for eucalyptus have been accepted as common usage. Another example is the shout of acclaim "Encore!" from French in musical concerts in Uganda, which is dressed to cover the complexities of gender, plural and politeness markers that would otherwise be needed if another translation strategy was chosen for requesting a repeat. One of the most common risks associated with the word-for-word equation is that of false cognates (false friends), where the meanings of deceptively similar terms do not match across languages. The classic examples in Runyakore and Luganda are okushitama/okusitama, [sitting down/squatting] and kokareebe/koboine [it serves you right/what a pity] in Runyankore and Rutooro. To return to Malone's (2013) terminology, the antithesis of equation is substitution, adopted when there is no direct equivalence. For example, at a purely grammatical level, the Rutooro prepositional phrase replaces (substitutes) the English genitive: "Acts of the Apostles'" will be translated as Engeso z'Abakwenda. At a more semantic level, the proverb Atariho tagwerwa muti, in French is replaced by Les retardatires mangent les os [Literally: Late comers eat bones]. At the beginning of the Walt Disney Pictures version of 'Alice in Wonderland' (1951), Alice is given a song to sing, 'all about cats and rabbits'. If the film was to be done and Alice was to sing in Runyakitara, another simple and silly song would be chosen. The reasons for such changes are not merely linguistic or merely cultural relocation, but linguistic fidelity that can be rejected in the interest of a greater good, for the entertainment of children (Malone, 2013).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Divergence and Convergence

Response: The strategy of divergence focuses on choosing a suitable term from a potential range of alternatives. "A road" in Runyankore could be rendered by omuhanda, or oruguudo; while "to take" can be translated as "okutwara" or "okwihaho". Divergence represents a relationship of one-to-many. "Okuhindura", for instance, could mean to change, to exchange, to turn, or even, to translate. Where there is a whole set of possibilities, the translator's aim is to make the right choice. Convergence, on the other hand, represents a relationship of many-to-one. It is the opposite of Divergence. We could cite the case of French pronouns "Tu, Te, Toi, Vous" that all would converge into "You" when translating into English.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Amplification and Reduction

Response: Amplification requires the translator to add some element to the source text so as to improve comprehensibility. The most frequent form of amplification is the translator's note, be it in form of an endnote, or footnote or a parenthesis following the item in question. Sometimes, a single lexical item in one language needs a 'collocational' partner in the other. Certain components may be cultural, semantic, linguistic, or a mixture of all. The amplification device is also found in technical translation in order to aid comprehension. Reduction, as the term suggests, consists of omitting elements in a target text because they are redundant or even misleading. Thus, the 'blackboard' in Runyankore becomes merely orubaaho and a 'folktale' is ekigano.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Diffusion and Condensation

Response: A source text item is expanded without adding any extra layer of meaning, that is, it provides more or less elaboration in the target language. In Runyankore, a sentence which ends with shinta expresses a lot of doubt or fear or mistrust in the person who is the subject. Yaagira ngu naabireeta! shinta! He said he will bring them! I highly doubt it. In the case of condensation, a source text is contracted without omitting any layer of meaning (Melone, 2013). The target text expression should linguistically be more economic. Ekintu ky'omuhendo gw'ahansi = cheap


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Kushara emihendo

Response: = = Sale In the other direction, prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs are typical of this phenomenon: To do make up = okwesiiga To make up your mind = okusharaho To be obliged to have recourse to = = okuharirizibwa


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Re-ordering

Response: The strategy of re-ordering, is within the field of comparative syntax. At its simplest, it requires the translator to operate basic inversion procedures with, for example, the adjective-noun sequences: white horse / embaraasi erikwera, and the verb-object positioning: Ninkukunda / I love you. Set collocations of two or more items exist in both languages: okufa n'okukira / life and death; ekiine ebirikwera n'okwiragura/ black and white; ahagati y'amaino ga rufu n'ekituuro / (between) the devil and the grave. The foregoing examples indicate how such pairings can sometimes match perfectly or match partly but belong very definitely in the same semantic field, and match perfectly but in an inverted form. The very frequent use of the passive voice in English creates another need for re-ordering in translating into Runyakitara since it has: its own identical passive forms; e.g., Abantu boona nibamukunda / He is loved by everyone; an active form using verbs with impersonal agents whose nominal or pronominal identity never appears; e.g. Tibakakingambiraga I have never been told that/They have never told it to me.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: He is being interrogated

Response: = = Bariyo nibamubuиza With all these observations on strategies in mind, it becomes clear that a thorough mastery of the lexico-grammar of the source language and the target language is indispensable for a translator.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Interpreting Strategies

Response: In the preceding sections we have been looking at translation as a means of transferring values and the creation of equivalents through the written text. Interpretation deals with a similar process and product but orally. The two terms, are NOT interchangeable, as the general public tends to suggest. Interpretation is much more demanding than translation in terms of competences required. The major requirements for a competent translator could be summarised as the mastery of SL and TL, thorough knowledge of source and target cultures, familiarity with the topic/register, vocabulary wealth, and awareness of the three-phase process: SL decoding, trans-coding or SL-TL transfer, and TL encoding (As-Safi, 2011). Simultaneous interpreting, on the other hand, requires at least five more skills: short-term memory for storage and retrieval, acquaintance with prosodic features and different accents, quick thinking and paying full attention, and self-composure. For consecutive interpretation which is done segment by segment, with pauses in between, the interpreter requires in addition, the knowledge of shorthand writing skills.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Compensation Strategy in Interpreting

Response: Unlike the translator who enjoys the availability of time and resources, the interpreter has to work rapidly so as to keep up with the natural speaking speed of the floor language (speech of the orator), working out the sense equivalent and listening. The maximum acceptable relay-delay is 30 seconds after the floor language. The interpreter is therefore, often obliged to resort to compensation strategies in order to ease the burdens of constraint, achieve a smooth performance, maintain a fluidity of ideas and improve the pace of delivery. In this speech where the orator was making a list of the agricultural products of Mali, the interpreter compensated for the last item as it was unfamiliar to the Ugandan audience: .... les arachides, le mais, les haricots, le millet, et noix d'acajous .... groundnuts, maize, beans, rice, millet and other grain crops.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Syntactic Modification Strategy

Response: To eliminate or reduce delays and to counter the risk of lagging behind the SL speaker, the interpreter starts simultaneously uttering before he perceives the whole idea. This entails carrying out certain syntactic adjustments. For example, in interpreting from English into Runyankore, the interpreter can start the sentence with the subject, add a nominal clause to attribute the action and end with a verbal phrase. By doing so, she/he could reduce the time required to wait until the speaker utters the verb that might follow a long noun phrase with sometimes embedded phrases and clauses. For example: "The Ministers of Foreign Affairs of IGADD are gathered in Juba in negotiations to convince the warring factions in South Sudan to stop fighting and hold a national dialogue" (BBC World Service, Focus on Africa, 19 th th Dec 2013). "Nk'oku okurwana omuri Sudan Ey'Omumashuuma kuriyo nikweyongyera, ba Minista b'Enshonga ez'Aheeru ab' Ekigombe ky'Ebyentunguuka n'Okwerinda Ekyanda (IGADD), hati bari omu rukiiko Juba kuteesa n'abeebembezi b'Ebibiina ebirikurwanirira okurekyera aho orutaro reeru bakaza omu kigaaniro ky'okukoragana omuri eryo ihanga" (Translated by Natukunda-Togboa, 19-12-2013).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Segmenting and Chunking Strategy

Response: The interpreter can resort to this strategy when the SL speaker utters a lengthy sentence which has to be 'sliced' into sense-units so as to cope with the short-term memory (As-Safi, 2011). Conversely, she/he may combine short sentences into a compound one for coherence in delivery.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Lining-up or Queuing Strategy

Response: In order to reduce the constraint of time-lag, the interpreter may delay rendering a less significant information segment amidst a heavy load period of piled up information and then catch up in any lulls that occur later. It should be noted however, that the delayed segment may not be cohesively compatible with the flow of delivery and may thus disrupt the thematic progression (El-Shiyab & Hussien, 2000).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Calquing Strategy

Response: This is another strategy used to mitigate the effects of time constraints and to avert any anticipated lexical difficulty. The interpreter may imitate the SL lexical patterns and collocations and hence produce a literal, 'verbatim' rendition. An example of this is when frequently African proverbs and sayings are introduced 'verbatim' in political speeches: Nimbagambira nti, "Akati kainikwa kakiri kato". I am telling you, "a tree is bent when it is still young".


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Paraphrasing Strategy

Response: Conversely, the interpreter may resort to paraphrase in encountering a SL culturespecificity, hence it may be rightly called "Exegetic Strategy". For the same sentence above she/he may choose to say: Indeed, "a tree is trimmed at an early age".


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Approximation Strategy

Response: Due to speed constraint, when the interpreter does not find a direct TL equivalent or fails to remember it, she/he can produce an alternative that has common semantic features. For instance, opium poppy could be approximated to "enjaayi" (marijuana).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Borrowing Strategy

Response: To cope with the speaker and maintain a rapid pace of delivery, the interpreter may have recourse to loan words through transliteration. Most frequently, this is done for technical terms like video, stadium, cinema, IGADD, UNESCO, boda-boda.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Ellipsis Strategy

Response: This is an economising strategy where some SL words are deleted when they are believed to be superfluous, repetitive or redundant, e.g. (I will) see you later. (If) God (is) willing. (May you) travel safely. All the strategies of interpretation that we have analysed arise directly from the constraints encountered in the interpretation process itself. It is essential for aspiring practitioners to understand the theoretical explanations in order to avoid making the same mistakes as their predecessors in practice. When teaching, the lecturer/instructor can actually pick and demonstrate strategies that can be used to overcome syntactic and semantic constraints, those for solving phonological, prosodic and phatic problems, and those to tackle paralinguistic and psychological constraints like tract and stage fear. In general, however, constant detailed reading assists the interpreter to familiarise with content and register, and to deal with the preliminary linguistic constraints. Other issues concerning accents, intonation, pitch, rhythm and tempo get to be solved as the practionner gets more accustomed to the profession. Indeed, as As-Safi (2011, p. 39) rightly observes, in the final analysis "translating/interpreting is an intercultural communication act that requires bicultural competence".


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Audio-Visual Translation

Response: I have decided to end this chapter with a section on audio-visual translation because it seems to me to be a new area that is technically located midway between translation and interpretation. Yet it is a field which is attracting a lot of media attention as it is a fashionable channel of popularising Runyakitara using the new digital technologies and social-media networks. The advent of digital technology, especially the mass production of DVDs in Third World Countries like Uganda, has meant an increase in films, television programmes which are mostly in English, frequently with subtitles. But there are increasingly those with a diagonal (different language) sub-titling including Runyakitara. In addition, the term used for the interpretation played over the DVD orally, is "dubbing" (Ghaemi & Benyamin, 2010). Both these processes are combined under the category of screen or audio-visual translation (AVT). Screen translation, a translation method which makes use of the acoustic channels, as recognised by Baker and Hochel (1998, p. 74) has undergone a lot of rapid growth over the last two decades. This is certainly linked to the fact that it is the quickest and most economical strategy of translation and interpretation. Subtitling is defined as "supplementing the original sound track with another voice, in another language". Similarly, audio-visual transfer denotes "the process by which a film or television programme is made comprehensible to a target audience who is unfamiliar with the original source" (Ghaemi & Benyamin, 2010, p. 40). Technically therefore, these are processes which involve literary and figurative translation and interpretation. According to Gottlieb (1998 cited in Schwarz 2003, pp. 5-6), a subtitler is faced with formal (quantitative) and textual (qualitative) constraints: "textual constraints are those imposed on the subtitles by the visual context of the film, whereas formal constraints are the space factors (a maximum of 2 lines and 35 characters) and the time factor". Schwarz (2003, p. 5) goes on to add that "the main problem in subtitling is caused by the difference between the speed of the spoken language and the speed in reading; both require a reduction of the text." In terms of benefits, scholars have demonstrated that, there are some advantages for watching subtitled language programmes. First, watching subtitled programmes fosters the practice of the language of the screen translation or interpretation. Secondly, such programmes can improve reading skills, in this case in Runyakitara. However, these benefits only apply if the subtitles meet the quality requirements. Pushing further Gottlieb's findings (2004), one can deduce that interlingual subtitling, which encompasses societal and language-political implications, is instrumental in improving reading skills, boosting language competences, facilitating easy and cheap intercultural exchange. Gottlieb goes on to propose the following translation strategies for subtitling films: Expansion is used when the original text requires an explanation because of some cultural nuance not retrievable in the target language. Paraphrase is resorted to in cases where the phraseology of the original cannot be reconstructed in the same syntactic way in the target language. Transfer refers to the strategy of translating the source text completely and accurately. Imitation maintains the same forms, typically with names of people and places. Transcription is used in those cases where a term is unusual even in the source text, for example, the use of a third language or nonsense language. Dislocation is adopted when the original employs some sort of special effect, e.g., a silly song in a cartoon film where the translation of the effect is more important than the content. Condensation would seem to be the typical strategy used, that is, the shortening of the text in the least obtrusive way possible. Decimation is an extreme form of condensation where perhaps for reasons of discourse speed, even potentially important elements are omitted. Deletion refers to the total elimination of parts of a text. Resignation describes the strategy adopted when no translation solution can be found and meaning is inevitably lost (Ghaemi & Benyamin, 2010). The most important challenge regarding subtitling in countries like Uganda, is the "lack of responsible institutions and educated professional subtitlers at work" (Ghaemi & Benyamin, 2010, p. 39). Secondly, most DVDs are subtitled using special software intended to exclude human interference. In situations where the technology is well developed, the quality of the translation is good. But in Uganda, where the subtitling in Runyakitara is mostly effected on pirated DVDs, using back street make-shift "studios", there is hardly any standard to be respected. Our interest in the present publication is to call on universities and other tertiary institutions to include the study of subtitling in translation and interpretation studies, so that professionals can be trained for such work. Educated subtitlers will not come into the realm of film, music and entertainment industry as long as screen translators and interpreters remain in the backstreet shadows hiding from law enforcement agents. They need to be recognized for their creative contribution to the image and sound productions and to be included in the curriculum of translation and interpretation studies.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Conclusion

Response: In conclusion to this chapter, we can observe that theoretical discussions on translation and interpretation are important because they widen the practitioners' and learners' 'perspective' for the use of systematic strategies in the translation and interpretation of texts. In terms of linking theory to practice in this chapter, the insights of Bassnett (2002) seem to be still pertinent to our conclusion: "To divorce theory from practice, to set the scholar against the practitioner as happened in other disciplines, would be tragic indeed" (Bassnett, 2002, p. 17). In this chapter we have tried to show that in the history of the discipline, the different theories that have been advanced and the strategies that have been proposed are crucial to training in translation and interpretation in Runyakitara. In the chapter, we have also illustrated how new areas in the discipline, like audio-visual translation and screen interpretation, which hitherto have not received serious attention, can bring forth economic, linguistic and socio-cultural benefits if they are promoted and formally incorporated in translation and interpretation studies.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: References

Response: Allot, N. (2003). Key terms in pragmatics. Retrieved from http//www.scribid.com/doc/305592132/key-terms-in-pragmatics As-Safi, A. B. (2011). Translation theories: Strategies and basic theoretical issues. Jordan: University of Petra. Baker, M., & Malmkjčr, K. (Eds.). (1998). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. Amsterdam & Pihiadelpia: Routledge. Bandia, P. F. (1993). Translation as culture transfer: Evidence from African creative writing. TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction, 6(2), 55-78. Bassnett, S. (2002). Translation studies (Rev. Edn.). London: Routledge. Bell, R. T. (1991). Translation and translating: Theory and practice. New York: Longman. Ghaemi, F. & Benyamin, J. (2010). Strategies used in the translation of interlingual subtitling. Journal of English Studies, 1(1), 39-49. Gottlieb, H. (1992). Subtitling: A new university discipline. In C. Dollerup, & A. Loddegaard (Eds.). Teaching translation and interpreting: training, talent, and experience (Vol. 5) (pp. 161-70). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Gottlieb, H. (2004). Language-political implications of subtitling. In P. Orero (Ed.). (2004). Topics in audiovisual translation (pp. 83-100). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Gutt, E. A. (2014). Translation relevance: Cognition and context. London & New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Hermans (1985). Full text of "System Theories". Retrieved from http//archive.org/stream/system Theories/system%20 theories.djvu.txt. Hervey, S. & Higgins, I. (1992). Thinking translation: A course in translation method: French-English. London: Routledge. Kelly, N., DePalma, D. A., & Vijayalaxmi, H. (2012). The need for translation in Africa. Massachusetts: Common Sense Advisory Inc. Lapajian, B. (2010). Translation, language and fiction publishing in Africa: The case of Uganda (MA Thesis, Utrecht University). Lavault, E. (1966) cited, in Shuttleworth, M. & Cowie, M. (2014). Dictionary of Translation Studies. New York: Routledge. Malone, S. (2013). Malone's translation strategies. Retrieved from http//:www.scribid.com/document/379899775/malone-s-translation strategies. Munday, J. (2001). Introducing translational studies: Theories and applications. London: Routledge. Natukunda, E. & Asiimwe, A. (2012a). ACCLAIM Men's Questionnaire. Translated 3rd October 2012. Natukunda, E. & Asiimwe, A. (2012b). ACCLAIM Women's Questionnaire Translated Oct-01-2012. Nida, E. A. (1976). A framework for the analysis and evaluation of theories of translation. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.). (1976). Translation (pp. 66-79). New York: Garden Press. Nida, E. & Taber, C. (1969). The theory and practice of translation. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Nord, C. (2007). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Palumbo, G. (2009). Key terms in translation studies. London: Continuum. Schwarz, B. (2003). Translation in a confined space: Film sub-titling with special reference to Dennis Potter's 'Lipstick on Your Collar' (part 2). Translation Journal, 7(1). Retrieved from http://accurapid.com/journal/23subtitles.htm. Shuttleworth, M. & Moiro, C. (2007). Dictionary of translation studies. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation, 1992-538. London: Oxford University Press. Taylor, C. (1999). Sacrifice as terror: The Rwandan genocide of 1994. Oxford: Berg Publication.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Footnotes

Response: 3 3 The fifth period was added by the author of this chapter. ↩


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Chapter 8

Response: THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF RUNYAKITARA Gilbert Gumoshabe & Oswald Ndoleriire


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Introduction

Response: Orthography is a set of rules or conventions put in place to prescribe how a language should be written. In other words, orthography is the system of representing the sounds of words by written symbols (Fromkin et al., 2003). The rules include how words that are in a spoken form should be spelt, punctuated and capitalized. Runyakitara, like any other human language, manifests itself in two forms: spoken and written. In the opinion of Fromkin and his colleagues (2003), these two forms are distinct in the following ways: The spoken language is the natural form of language while the written language is artificial. By referring to the spoken language as being natural, it means that it is innate (inborn) to human beings because when a child is exposed to it, that child will have the ability to communicate in that spoken medium. There is therefore, no teacher or instructor required to teach a child his/her mother tongue. On the other hand, written language is artificial because those who know it have to learn it in order to communicate using it. Written language is therefore, an invention of man that helps him to store information and disseminate it. Secondly, written language is not the original form of language. This is because it is a representation of the spoken form where human vocal symbols made by speech organs are represented on a piece of paper by graphic symbols. Because of that, it is impossible to find a written language which is not spoken, although it is possible to find a spoken language that is not written, especially if that language's orthography has not been developed. Thirdly, although a written language changes over time because the process of change is very slow, the spoken language easily changes. The written form of language is more conservative and resistant to change than the spoken form. Therefore, a written word is not only more permanent than a spoken one but is also rarely subjected to linguistic changes. Fourthly, in a written language, the user has a relatively wider range of graphic symbols which she/he uses. For example, there are more than 12 vowel sounds that are represented by only five vowels; a, e, i, o, and u. Written language is also uniform with all varieties of dialects of a language; for example, while the American English pronunciation is different from that of the British, the two forms do not significantly differ in spelling. This is not the case with the spoken form. Finally, spoken language cannot be informative per se mainly due to repetitions. This is because the spoken language does not have to follow the rules of grammar while the written language follows the rules as specified.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Principles of a good orthography

Response: Fromkin et al. (2003) explain different principles that make a good orthography. The first principle explains that a good writing system should accurately reflect the sound system of a language. It must be based on thorough analysis of the sounds of that language. It is not possible to make an accurate orthography without first analysing the sounds of that language. All contrastive sounds in a language should be represented and non-contrastive variations should not be represented. When the system is inaccurate, the reader is faced with a problem of guessing the meaning of the word. The orthography of Runyakitara has followed this principle as most sounds are represented by one symbol. The problem is on homonyms where more than two words are represented by one sound. A good orthography of a language should be consistent; there should be no contradictions within the system. This means that: a) The same sound should be represented by the same symbol. b) The symbol should never represent anything else except that sound. c) There should be no silent letters or letters that are without function. This is one of the principles that Runyakitara orthography adhered to. There are no two sounds that are represented by the same symbol The third principle is that a good orthography should be convenient to the extent that it is easy to write and symbols are easy to make. The symbols are also easy to print and type. Another principle of a good orthography is that it should conform to the orthography of the other languages in the region. It is not good for the orthography of a language to differ much with that of its neighbours. In the case of Runyakitara, the orthography conforms to all the neighbouring languages as they all use alphabetic writing system. The last principle of a good orthography is that it should be acceptable to the people who are going to use it. Often, people have strong opinions especially if there has already been an older orthography in use. Time must be taken to consult local opinion and to explain carefully the reasons for any proposed change. This was done in 1954 where disagreements emerged and Runyoro-Rutooro ended up writing their own and another conference was organised for Runyankore-Rukiga that got her orthography in 1964.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Need for Writing Uganda Indigenous Languages

Response: The history of writing dates as far back as 3000 BC when the Egyptians developed hieroglyphic writing for recording events in their lives. Although many languages all over the world have been written, there are still many African languages are not yet written. In Uganda, there are about 15 languages that are not yet written. The main question is, why do we need to write our languages? There are several reasons for that. These include the following:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Preservation of Information

Response: For many traditional societies, the major form of transmission and preservation of information is by word of mouth (oral transmission). However, this method has proved very inadequate because as the information is passed from one source to another, it undergoes considerable transformations. In some instances, more information is added while in others, it is reduced or adulterated. Consequently, by the time the message gets to the intended recipient, it is no longer in its original form. Furthermore, for purposes of preservation of information, sometimes the only source of information might die without leaving any recording of his or her knowledge behind. Such occurrences confirm the West African saying that "when an elder dies, a library burns". Therefore, with such poor record-keeping methods, it is imperative that we write our languages.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Coverage

Response: Whereas the word of mouth needs face-to-face interaction and can only serve those people who are physically present, the written word can even be received by those who are not physically present. True, with modern technology, tape-recorded information and radio transmissions can cover a wider distance but given our Ugandan standard of living, few people can afford to buy radios and maintain their running as well. Furthermore, the radio has a schedule which the listener must follow. If he tunes at a wrong time, he/she will miss the programme. Yet with written material, it can be read at the recipient's will and can be referred to anytime one wants.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Education

Response: The most important factor with written materials is that people can be availed with education materials which can help them improve their lives. These written materials are of various disciplines and can be used for both academic and non-academic purposes, and may remain relevant for a long time. For instance, books on hygiene that were written in 1935 by the White Fathers Mission are still relevant and can be utilized to date to educate people on how they can improve their hygiene. With the availability of written materials in various fields in Ugandan indigenous languages, Ugandans can understand developmental issues better and participate meaningfully in their governance. For example, the provision of HIV prevention information in the local languages has created substantial awareness about HIV prevention and transmission among Ugandans.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Preservation of a language

Response: A language can best be preserved if it is written. When a language is unwritten, many indigenous words are lost while it is not easy to document words that have been incorporated. It is difficult to preserve a language in its oral form.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Cultural preservation

Response: Culture can best be preserved if it is written. Norms, roles, sanctions, beliefs and customs are easy to pass on from one generation to another if the culture of a specified language is written. However, with the ever-increasing socio-economic changes, it is easy to lose important components of culture, if it is not documented.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: It should be noted that at the end of the

Response: 19th 19 th


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Century and during the early years of the

Response: 20th 20 th Century, practically all the indigenous reading materials available in Uganda were in Luganda. At that time, it was even thought that Luganda would be the major language of communication and instruction throughout the region. However, the reality was that very few people understood Luganda in the whole of Western Uganda at that time. Furthermore, with the consolidation of the reinstated monarchy in Tooro (reinstated by the British in 1891) and the rise of nationalism in both Tooro and Bunyoro, it was felt more and more that Luganda should be replaced by Rutooro and Runyoro as the major language for communication in the two kingdoms respectively. The writing of Runyakitara (Rubongoya, 1965), started with the Runyoro-Rutooro dialects before it spread to Runyankore-Rukiga. The Protestant Missionaries of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) spearheaded the writing of our languages in Tooro. The first version of the New Testament was translated into Rutooro by the missionary H. E. Maddox during the early years of evangelisation, around 1900. The same author produced the first grammar of the language in 1902 called An Elementary Lunyoro Grammar which was based on the Runyamwenge (essentially using the Runyamwenge sub-dialect of Rutooro). The year 1913 was very important in the history of Runyakitara when Maddox produced the full bible translated in Rutooro, also based on Runyamwenge dialect. The first bible was used in the whole of Western Region and some areas of the present-day Democratic Republic of Congo. Other books were subsequently written by both the CMS missionaries and the RCM (Roman Catholic Missionaries) but were generally in the Runyamwenge subdialect. These included the well-known Grammar Ey'Orunyoro by the Rev. Fr. A. Caumartin which is still of much value up to this day. Books and manuals produced at this time were usually for schools or for religious purposes. Some written work also appeared during the early years in Runyankore, e.g Omuntu na Hygiene published by the White Fathers Mission, Mbarara in 1935 and was intended for primary schools. The full translated version of the bible in RunyankoreRukiga came out in the 1950s.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Efforts to Standardise the Orthography of Runyakitara

Response: It was, according to Rubongoya (1965), R. A. Snoxall, the then Acting Director of Education, who in 1946, after consultations with A. N. Tucker, an expert on Bantu languages at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London, who decided to introduce a new orthography. After discussions with missionaries and other educators in Buganda, the new orthography was adopted for Luganda. That very year, 1946, Snoxall organised another conference for the Western Region at Virika, Fort Portal, to discuss a standard orthography for the Runyoro language. It is in this conference that the representatives of Ankore and Kigezi stated categorically that their language was different from Runyoro and that accepting this new orthography would bring about the demise of their language which was already developing written materials. They added that the people in their areas were not prepared to read any book or newspaper written in Runyoro. According to Taylor (1960), the Virika Conference therefore, broke up without any decision being taken on the new orthography. However, from this period, as Betungura (1960) notes, Runyankore continued developing and came up with the first Runyankore-Rukiga orthography in a conference at Mbarara in 1954. This conference was chaired by Prof. A. N. Tucker and the secretary was K. S. M. Kikira. Thereafter, the colonial authorities started recognizing its importance in Ankore and Kigezi. In 1947 for instance, the Education Department of the Uganda Colonial Government authorized the use of Runyankore as a medium of instruction in Primary 1 and 2 in Ankore and Kigezi. This policy was clearly stated in the 1948 Education Report which recognized six vernaculars as media of instruction in Primary School. These were: Luganda, Lunyoro, Luo, Ateso, Lugbara and Swahili. The Education Report (1948) further explains that the limited production of literature made it clear that no further vernaculars can justify a claim to be regarded as media throughout the primary school system, but noted that the use of Runyankore dialect of Runyoro had been conceded for the first two years of primary school in Ankore, and would continue to be used only up to that level until when there would be sufficient materials written in Runyankore. This policy remained valid until the Castle Report of 1963 when RunyankoreRukiga was recognized as one of the six major vernaculars to be used in the school system (Swahili had ceased being recognized as a vernacular in Uganda in 1956). By this time, Runyankore-Rukiga had developed considerably and by the 1970s, it was somewhat in better position than Runyoro-Rutooro. After the break-up of the Virika meeting of 1946, the Banyoro and Batooro reconvened in Hoima in 1952 (six years later) to discuss again the problems of harmonizing the orthography, this time for Runyoro and Rutooro, which at this meeting had adopted the name Runyoro-Rutooro (rather than Runyoro) to cover the two dialects. At this meeting, the harmonization work involved such aspects as taking a common stand particularly concerning some of the symbols and signs used by the CMS missionaries and those used by the RCM. For instance, while CMS missionaries used the diacritic sign (-) to mark length on top of a vowel, the RCM (White Fathers) used (^) on top of the vowel. In accordance with the recommendations of the International African Institute, it was agreed that vowel length would be marked by two vowels. Some harmonization was also effected at the level of grammar to reflect the language usage of the Banyamwenge. We produce here some recommendations made at the Hoima meeting as reported by Rubongoya (1965). Many of the recommendations made in fact reflected both orthography and language (grammatical) usage. In the elaboration of standard orthographies, the authors were guided by the recommendations of the International Institute for African Languages and Culture which was formed in London in 1925. This later became The International African Institute. One of their pre-occupations was to elaborate workable orthographies in African languages. Because of the many sounds in African languages which did not exist in European languages, the tendency had been to utilise diacritical marks such as (, - - ^ .. : ) and many others on top, below or beside a given symbol so as to account for a given sound, e.g.: the (-) mark for the long vowel as seen earlier. For these orthographies to be workable, the Institute wanted, as much as possible, to have every sound represented by one symbol and to reduce to the minimum the use of diacritical signs or marks. Their work was somewhat simplified by what had already been done by the International Phonetic Association which was formed in Paris in 1886 and whose original name was L'Association Phonetique Internationale. This Association from its inception was made up of eminent linguists and phoneticians from various European countries such as Otto Jespensen from Denmark, Paul Passy from France (Ferender), and Henry Luncet from Britain. One of the major tasks of the Association was to identify all possible speech sounds as they exist in human languages. They then came out with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) where an effort was made to include as many of these sound symbols as they could imagine. The symbols used are basically Roman letters with a few from Greek. The International African Institute also made its own alphabet known as the International African Alphabet (IAA) to cater for sounds in African languages. Its authors borrowed heavily from the International Phonetic Alphabet although they made some modifications. For instance, whereas in the IPA, the palatal nasal is usually written as /n/, in the International African Alphabet it is written as /ny/. It is this latter alphabet that was the basis of the standardised orthographies of Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga. Meanwhile, the Banyankore and Bakiga who had broken away from the Runyoro-Rutooro orthography conference in 1946 organised their own orthography conference in Mbarara in 1954. The conference, which was attended by prominent writers and religious leaders from Ankole and Kigezi, was chaired by Professor A. N. Tucker. A report on standardisation of Runyankore-Rukiga orthography, which was being worked out after the breakup of the Virika Conference was presented in this conference, discussed and adopted with the necessary amendments and became the basis for the language's writing system. The rules of orthography adopted, according to Taylor (1960) were published with commendable speed and enabled the translation of the Bible to proceed. They also provided the writers with a stable and consistent orthography to write their texts. It was the basis for Taylor's A Teachers' Handbook of Runyankore-Rukiga orthography of 1960.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Current Situation of the Orthography of Runyakitara

Response: The four dialects of Runyakitara (Runyankore-Rukiga and Runyoro-Rutooro) are being taught in the school curriculum at lower levels of primary education. Runyakitara is also being taught at secondary level as Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga but taught at University as Runyakitara, to produce language scholars and researchers. One of the areas that needs serious consideration is orthography, because a proper orthography of the language has not been reached despite several revisions. Currently, there are five official versions of the orthography of the language, namely: i) Runyankore-Rukiga Orthography (1960) by C. Taylor ii) Runyoro-Rutooro Orthography Rules (1963) by L. Rubongoya iii) Empandiika y'Orunyankore-Rukiga Egufuhazibwe (2005) by F. Karwemera iv) Runyoro-Rutooro Orthography (2002) by O. Ndoleriire et al. (Eds.) v) A Unified Standard Orthography of Runyakitara (2007) by O. Ndoleriire et al. While we may say that the five orthographies above are satisfactory to a certain extent, there is still need for more revisions for purposes of standardisation. The orthographical gap that still exists is mostly along dialectical differences and improper linguistic arguments. The main principle of Runyakitara orthography is that words are written the way they are pronounced or the way one hears them. The writing system adopted follows the principles of a good orthography that include accuracy. In this standardised orthography, all sounds are represented by symbols that do not leave any room for guesswork in pronunciation. The second principle followed is consistency where the same sound is represented by the same symbol with no silent letters. Convenience is the third principle that was followed. The symbols used to represent the sounds follow the alphabetic writing system. The fourth principle that was followed is conformity. The standardisation of this orthography ensured that it conforms to the orthography of other languages around the Runyakitara speaking area. The fifth principle is acceptability. Since the beginning of this writing system in 1954, it has been fully accepted by the users as required in linguistics. Following the linguistic requirements, what shall be considered as a unified standard Runyakitara orthography is as follows:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Double Consonants

Response: (a) The voiced bilabial plosive The voiced bilabial plosive /b/ except when preceded by a nasal (nasal compound) is written as /bb/. In Runyankore-Rukiga, this usually occurs in loan and onomatopoeic words. The onomatopoeic words only exist in Runyoro-Rutooro as shown in the following examples: On the other hand, loan words take on /bb/ in Runyoro-Rutooro and RunyankoreRukiga as indicated in the examples below: In Runyoro-Rutooro a /b/ at the beginning of a sentence can sometimes be pronounced either as fricative or as plosive. But in this latter case, a single /b/ is used in spelling, for example: Baitu omwana araha? Banura agenzire. Binu bintu ki? Baraatugamba ki? Buganda okarugayo di? But where is the child? Banura has gone. What are these? What will they say about us? When did you leave Buganda? It is recommended that Runyankore-Rukiga adopts the same rule where onomatopoeic and loan words pronounced with a plosive are concerned, for example.: (b) The nasal


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: When an object is expressed followed by a verb stem starting with

Response: /n/ /n/ or /m/ /m/, the nasal is doubled. Examples of words with /m/ /m/ and /n/ /n/ include the following: i) Rn/Rt Rn/Rt akammanya ammigire alimmara araammamirira nibannuga bannigire he/she knew me he/she has squeezed me he/she will be sufficient for me he/she will spray me they look at me with disgust they have strangled me As a general rule, a vowel that occurs before a double nasal is pronounced long. However, if this lengthening of the vowel is predictable, it is written as a single vowel, for example: akammanya is pronounced akaamanya but it is written: akammanya. When a subject is expressed followed by a verb stem starting with a nasal, there is doubling of the nasal, for example:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Nasal compounds

Response: There is another category of nasals that exists in Runyakitara. These are nasals that include the following:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Like in the case of

Response: /mm/ /mm/ and /nn/ /nn/, they are also predictable and wherever one meets them, there is no need of writing a double vowel before them. Examples include the following: (c) The Vibrant (r)


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: In Runyoro-Rutooro when

Response: /r/ /r/ is rolled, it is written doubled, for example:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Note that if a double

Response: /rr/ /rr/ is replaced by a single r in a word, there is generally change in meaning, for example:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: It should also be noted that if a vowel preceding double

Response: /rr/ /rr/ is pronounced long and the word can attain a different meaning, a double vowel should be written, for example: As a general rule, the long vowel before /rr/ is predictable. So, it will be written as a single vowel, for example: However, there are cases, especially with the word kurra (to weep or to cry) when the lengthening of a vowel can bring about a grammatical change. In that case, the long vowel shall be repeated with a double vowel as in the following examples:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Amaiso gange garra

Response: Gaarra sente zange 2. Abaana bange barra Baarra abaana sente zaabo 3. Kurra kintu kibi muno Kuura ebintu obireete kunu 4. Bunu obwana burra muno Buurra oyetegereze eki ngambire 5. Abakazi barra obu babiihirwa My eyes cry (ooze) with tears. Bring back my money My children cry Count for the children their money Crying is very bad Drag the things and bring them this way These small children cry a lot Open your eyes and understand what I have said Women cry when they are angry Abakazi baarra obunyansi ha bugenyi Women spread grass (on the ground) during festivities. One notes, however, that the above expression does not exist in minimal pairs. For example, in amaiso garra, we have the verb ku-rra while in gaarra sente zange, we have the verb ku-garra. It is the same with all the other examples. Despite the above scientific fact, it is agreed that in order to avoid ambiguities and reading misunderstanding, we maintain a double vowel in the above rare exceptions, which generally involve the verb kurra "to cry or to weep".


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Vowel Length

Response: (a) Double vowels are written when they appear pronounced long across morpheme boundaries, for example: (b) When they are naturally long, for example: Long vowels often can be contrasted with short vowels as in the following minimal pairs: Rn/Rt kusaara noise made by water before boiling kusara to cut kusiika to fry kusika to pull kukuura to up-root kukura to grow kusiiga to anoint/cover with oil kusiga to sow seeds Ry/Rk Ry/Rk kuhiiga to hunt kuhiga to push aside kuhiika of sky showing signs of rain kuhuura to arrive/reach kuhura to hit, thresh kuteega to detect a smell kutega to resist in a place kushaara to trap kushara of noise made by water when about to boil to run mad (c) A vowel is often pronounced long but written single at the beginning of a word, especially in fairly short words of not more than three syllables, for example: However, relatively long and long words usually have their initial vowel pronounced long: (d) A vowel is usually pronounced long but written single in /w/ and /y/ compounds. In Runyankore-Rukiga, however, in the case of /ky/ /ky/ and /gy/ /gy/ compounds, there are words where the vowel following them should be either single or double because of the presence of minimal pairs with these compounds:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: It should be noted that the Runyankore-Rukiga's

Response: /ky/ /ky/ is in reality /c/ /c/. In the same way, ky and gy are not followed by /i/ because /y/ and /i/ are palatals. If they are followed by /i/ /i/, this would be a repetition. They shall therefore, be written as /ki/ /ki/ or /gi/ /gi/. (e) A vowel appearing before a nasal compound is usually pronounced long but written single, for example:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Note that the palatal nasal usually written as

Response: /ny/ /ny/ is in reality a single consonant [p] [p]. There is therefore no need to apply the above rule to vowels appearing before /ny/, for example: (f) Diphthongs are written with two different vowels and their length is generally that of a long vowel (doubled generally in writing in the conditions indicated above). The diphthongs in Runyakitara are: /ai/, /ei/, /oi/: omushaija man Note that in Runyankore-Rukiga, /ai/ is usually pronounced as /ei/ or /ii/ but it is recommended that the spelling remains /ai/, as indicated in the words below: In Runyankore-Rukiga, it is usually accepted to make a differentiation in spelling especially where sounds that are similar to /ai/ have been used; for example: In Runyoro-Rutooro, baitu is for both: "ours" and "but", while /oi/ is found in words below: /ei/ is used in words like beitu or nouns of the li-ma class such as: (e)icumu spear (e)ibanja debt where the initial /e/ has had a tendency of being differed. Another diphthong that could be mentioned is /au/ which is found in only the Runyoro-Rutooro word: mau (my mother). (g) In Runyoro-Rutooro, a vowel preceding the rolled /r/(rr) /r/(rr) is usually pronounced long but written short because of its predictability, for example: Note that the Runyankore equivalent is sometimes pronounced as follows in rapid speech:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The difference with Runyoro-Rutooro is that the vowel preceding

Response: /rr/ /rr/ is short in pronunciation. On the other hand, in spelling the rolled /rr/ is written rura, rira, rara, etc.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Relative

Response: The object relative is to be written separately from the word it precedes, for example: Rn/Rt Rn/Rt abaana abu turukuliisa ekisoro eki turukubaaga emiti ei twatemere amata aga twanywa ente ezi muguzire Ry/Rk Ry/Rk abashaija abu turikureeba enyamaishwa ei twisire ebitabu ebi ashomire ebitakuri ebi twarya akaana aku mureesire the children whom we are feeding the animal which we are skinning the trees that we cut the milk that we have just drunk the cows that you have bought the men that we are seeing the animal that we killed the books that he read the potatoes that we have eaten the child whom you brought On the other hand, the relative subject is attached to the word it precedes, for example: Rn/Rt Rn/Rt omwana owaarukwerunga ente eziriire muhogo omuti ogutiire omusaija emisiri eyeerumu oburo Ry/Rk Ry/Rk omukazi owaareebire omwana embuzi eyaariire ebitookye oburo oburikutundwa gye ebikooko ebitaine mugasho amaarwa agarimu nigaguzibwa - the child who is playful and disobedient. the cows that have eaten cassava. the tree that has fallen on the man the gardens that contain millet. the woman who saw the child the goat that ate the bananas the millet that sells well. the animals that are useless. the beer (brew) which is being sold.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Prepositions and Conjunctions

Response: Prepositions and conjunctions are usually to be separated from the words they precede (except in cases that will be indicated later), for example: Rn/Rt Rn/Rt ente eri mu rugo omu nju yaawe omu nda yakyo tuli mwa Kaikara bagenzire ha rusozi ha nju eruguru Mmutumire owa Petero omwisiki nka Maria Kiiza na Nsungwa oburo rundi ebitakuli emiti hamu n'ebinyansi Ry/Rk Ry/Rk omu kereeziya aha rwigi aha muti aha nsi omu musiri enkoko n'enkanga okushemererwa nari okushaasha the cow is in the kraal in your home inside it we are at Kaikara's home they have gone to the hill on top of the house I have sent him to Petero's place. a girl like Maria. Kiiza and Nsungwa millet or potatoes trees and grass. in the church at the door on the tree on the ground in the garden the hen and the guinea-fowl happines or sadness/pain. However, both prepositions and conjunctions are linked to the following word when they form one lexical meaning, for example:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Possessives

Response: Like the prepositions and conjunctions, possessives preceding or following other words are written separately, for example: Rn/Rt Rn/Rt ali omu ka ye he is in his home ibara lya Kahogo obwana bw'embeba amata g'ente abantu ba ira orumuli rw'orubingo Ry/Rk Ry/Rk eihuri ry'enkoko omushaija w'embabazi omu maju ge abantu b'aha the name of Kahogo the young of a rat/mice. cow's milk people of old/long ago a torch made of reed. a chicken's egg a kind man in his houses the people of this place. However, possessives form part of the word preceding or following it in the following cases: i) Where there is one lexical meaning Rn/Rt Rn/Rt oweekitiinisa owiisaza ebyokulya ebyokweshweka ebyensoni Days of the week ii) When the possessive precedes a pronominal pronoun


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Writing of

Response: /ki/,/ky/,/c/,/gi/,/gy/,/g/,/1/ /ki/,/ky/,/c/,/gi/,/gy/,/g/,/1/ and /r/ /r/ There are marked differences in the pronunciation and writing of the above in Runyoro-Rutooro viz-a-vis Runyankore-Rukiga; examples: On the other hand, the following words have c‾ c  in both Runyankore-Rukiga and Runyoro-Rutooro: In the same manner, /ge/,/gi/ /ge/,/gi/ and /g/ /g/ and /j/ /j/ have marked differences, for example: From the above examples, one can conclude that the letter /k/,/g/ /k/,/g/ and /j/ /j/ tend to reflect their pronunciation in Runyoro-Rutooro whereas in Runyankore-Rukiga, the situation is as follows. k+i=cik+y+v=ca,ce,co,cu( excluding i) k+v=ka,ke,ko,ku( excluding i) g+i=ji g+y+v=ja,je,jo,ju( excluding i) g+v=ga,ge,go,gu( excluding i) j+v=3a,3e,3i,3o,3u.  k+i=ci k+y+v=ca,ce,co,cu( excluding i) k+v=ka,ke,ko,ku( excluding i) g+i=ji g+y+v=ja,je,jo,ju( excluding i) g+v=ga,ge,go,gu( excluding i) j+v=3a,3e,3i,3o,3u.  Whereas in Runyoro-Rutooro, /k/,/c/,/j/,/g/ /k/,/c/,/j/,/g/ have clear differences in orthography and in pronunciation, in Runyankore-Rukiga, /k/ /k/ can be confused with /c/,/g/ /c/,/g/ can be confused with /j/ /j/, while /j/ /j/ can be confused with /gy/ /gy/. The most confusing (in oral and written language) are /k/ /k/, and /c/ /c/ since some words always have /c/ /c/, for example:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: While others have

Response: /k/ /k/ in written form, others have /c/ /c/ is spoken as shown above. It is suggested that the present orthography of Runyankore-Rukiga in this respect be maintained for the sake of harmonizing the orthography with that of Runyoro-Rutooro. However, for the future, the following suggestion could be made for Runyankore-Rukiga:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: L and

Response: r r


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The problem of

Response: /l/ /l/ and /r/ /r/ is especially important for Rukiga and to a lesser extent for Runyoro. In the Runyankore-Rukiga orthography, there is officially no /l/ simply because, generally speaking, Runyankore has no literal /l/. On the other hand, Rukiga uses /l/ /l/ in the same conditions as Runyoro and Rutooro (see chapter on Phonetics and Phonology).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: It is therefore suggested that the Bakiga follow the Runyoro-Rutooro orthography in this respect by writing

Response: l l where it is pronounced and r r where it is pronounced. In the case of Runyoro, the problem is with the rolled /r/ (rr). Compare: Because Runyoro has several possible pronunciations, it is proposed that the spelling with double /r/(rr) /r/(rr) be maintained. However, since they write as they pronounce, in case one omits one /r/ /r/, there should be no punishment for it.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Reduplications

Response: Reduplicated forms are written as one word. This is because they represent single lexical items. In that case therefore, they are written without a hyphen or space in between them. For example:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Compounds

Response: Compounds are words that repeat themselves but or come from two words that are not related but mean something different from either of the words that have been combined. Such words shall be written as a single word because they represent single lexical items, for example ( Ry/Rk Ry/Rk ):


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Interjections

Response: These are words that show surprise or fear. They are written the way they are spoken. Examples include the following: Ai! Mawe! Is that possible! Oh my God!


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Borrowed Words

Response: Borrowed words, which have been naturalised, shall be written as they are commonly pronounced by the native speakers, as indicated below:


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Names of Persons and Places

Response: Names of persons shall be left to be written in a similar way from the time such names were recorded because adjusting their spelling has legal implications. It should be noted that adjustment in the spelling of a name requires swearing an affidavit to legalise such a name, because legally, that would be another person. This is in agreement with the 1954 Runyankore-Rukiga conference whose agreement was that the spelling of personal names shall be left to the individuals (Morris & Kirwan, 1972, p. 217). All personal and place names shall begin with a capital letter at all times. Examples of personal names include Gumoshabe, Ndoleriire, Yozefu, Yuda, Yoweri, Joel, John, Baguma, Yohaana, Yowaana. Place names shall be spelt using the standard orthography. However, in case a name is already gazetted and appears in government and educational records such as maps, government has to be notified to enable the taking care of the legal issues associated with the adjustment. Examples of place names include Bushenyi, Kasese, Kashenyi, Uganda.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Titles

Response: Titles preceed the first name in situations where more than one name is used. However, when the sir name is used alone, the title is used on that name alone; for example, Dr Gilbert Gumoshabe or Prof. Ndoleriire. Titles have a full stop if the word is abbreviated e.g. Prof. while there is no fullstop if the title is abbreviated with the first letter and the last letter. For example, Dr,Mr,Mrs Dr,Mr,Mrs have no full stop because they have both the first and the last letters.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Miscellaneous Issues

Response: (a) /nio/ and /nia/ Because of the fact that in Runyakitara orthography as a whole, /ny/ represents the palatal nasal which is often represented by the symbol by phoneticians, a distinction had to be made between words with the sound [ n ] and those with the compound sound [ny] or [nj]. The following solution was proposed: (i) The sound [n] The letters /ny/ were therefore adopted. ii) The sound /ny/ or/nj/ Examples: (b) The affricate sound/ts/ This sound is clearly pronounced in the Ruhima subdialect of Runyankore and is used where other dialects pronounce it as /s/, as shown in the following examples: Where the Bahima use /ts/, the rest of Banyankore and Bakiga use /s/ while the Banyoro and the Batooro use /k(y)/,/s/ /k(y)/,/s/ or /h(y)/ /h(y)/ as the case may be. Given the fact that those who use /ts/ in Runyakitara are a small minority, it is suggested that Runyankore-Rukiga replace /ts/ with /s/, the latter being used by the great majority of Runyankore-Rukiga speakers. (c) The copula ni− ni− This copula /ni/ - (progressive aspect before verbs) should be attached to personal pronouns and verbs but not to nouns: But: Rn/Rt Rn/Rt Note that Runyankore-Rukiga orthography usually uses niinye while RunyoroRutooro uses ninye. The necessary doubling of the vowel ii does not seem to be necessary since it is brought about by the nasal ny [n]. It is therefore suggested that Runyankore-Rukiga adopt ninye rather than niinye since the latter is purely phonetic. (d) Pluralization of proper nouns Examples: Rn/Rt Orthography: Ry/Rk Orthography For reasons of economy, it is suggested that the Runyoro-Rutooro form be used also in Runyankore-Rukiga. (e) The ka Examples: ka (particle).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Punctuation

Response: Punctuation, as defined by Babcock (2002, p. 1843) is "the act, practice, or system of inserting various standardised marks or signs in written or printed matter in order to clarify the meaning and separate structural units of a sentence". In other words, it is the usage of spacing, conventional signs, and typographical devices that aid in the understanding and correct reading, in both silently and aloud, of written and/or printed materials. There are a number of punctuation marks that can be used in the writing of Runyakitara. They include the following: Apostrophe ['] This punctuation mark that Mubangizi (1963, p. 47) calls akahinguza in Runyakitara is used when two words are joined together especially during the process of showing possessiveness. In Runyakitara, this happens when a word that ends with vowel /a/ or /i/ is followed by a word that starts with another vowel within the same sentence. The vowel that ends the possessive is assimilated and, in its place, an apostrophe is written. For example, Yaija n'omwana [Yaija na omwana] Ry/Rk Aizire n'omwana [Aizire na omwana] Rn/Rt Egi n'enju [Egi ni enju] Ry/Rk Ogu n'omuhara [Ogu ni omuhara] (Ry/Rk) He has come with a child He has come with a child This is a house This one is his/her daughter On some occasions, an apostrophe may be used when more than two words are combined. For example, Ebyokurya n'eby'abeereere [ebyokurya ni ebya abeereere] Ry/Rk The food is for babies N'ahabw'ekyo kiina [ni ahabwa ekyo] Ry/Rk It is because of that pit The apostrophe in the above sentences represent sounds /a/ and [i] which have been assimilated. Question Mark [?] The question mark, which, according to Mubangizi (1963, p. 64), is called akabuuzo in Runyakitara, is one of the punctuation marks that is placed at the end of a sentence to indicate that it is demanding an answer or is an interrogation. It may also be used to indicate that the expression which has been made is not clear. It is mainly used when a word that is interrogative in nature appears in a sentence. For example, N'oha owaareeta ekitookye eki? [Ry/Rk] Who has brought this banana? Nookora ki? [Ry/Rk] What are you doing? N'ogu oizire nawe? [Rn/Rt] You have come also with this one? Interrogation in Runyakitara does not have specific words that determine it. This is because some words are purely interrogative while in certain times interrogation is determined by the intonation. This is strengthened by Mubangizi (1963) when he notes that interrogation can also be used when one is trying to get confirmation. In such a situation, the interrogation words do not appear but are only heard, seeking confirmation. For example, Ogu yaarya? [Ry/Rk] [Ry/Rk] Waareeta abaana? [Ry/Rk] [Ry/Rk] Waarya? [Ry/Rk] [Ry/Rk] Kiki ekikuleesire? [Rn/Rt] [Rn/Rt] Oizire di? [Rn/Rt] [Rn/Rt] Has this one eaten? Have you brought the children? Have you eaten? What has brought you? When did you come? Fullstop [.] The fullstop, which in Runyakitara is called akatoonyolakamaliriza (Mubangizi, 1963, p. 53; Caumatin 1938, p. 178), is the punctuation mark placed at the end of a sentence that is in a statement or declarative form. When placed at the end of a word in a sentence, it means that the sentence is complete. Mubangizi (1963) indicates that a fullstop happens at the end of a sentence that is declarative or advisory, or at the end of a statement of request. For example, Yaagura enyama. [Ry/Rk] He/ He/ she has bought meat. Ente baaba baziriisize. [Ry/Rk] Cows were being grazed. Orwigi yaarwigura. [Ry/Rk] He/she has opened the door. Ahikirege rwebagyo. [Rn/Rt] He arrived last evening. Turaakusangayo. [Rn/Rt] We shall find you there. Hyphen [-] This punctuation mark is called akanywanisalakateeraniza in Runyakitara (Mubangizi, 1963, p. 49; Caumatin, 1938, p. 178). It is used when words are joined to bring about a meaning that is sometimes not related to the meaning of either words. In other words, it applies when two or more words are joined together to make one meaning. It may also be used to separate syllables of a single word. In Runyakitara, it is commonly used in compound words. For example, entema-muhoro/kongora-mabeere praying mantis burugwa-izooba east rwata-migongo artillery ekifa-matu deaf person It should be noted that a hyphen is a convention that may not be penalised as an orthography mistake. This is because most compound words are regarded a single word. A hypen is also used when a word is broken at the end of the line and it is going to another line because it is long and it cannot fit or because of paper margin requirements. There is also another type of hyphen called En Dash (-) This type of dash gives a range that is not definite but just approximates. It is commonly used in estimating distances. For example, Kuruga hanu kuhikayo ni mailo eziri ahagati ya 50-60. [Ry/Rk] From here to that place its between 50-60 miles. Another type of hyphen is called Em Dash. This is used to indicate that there is more emphasis being added to the sentence. It is used in the middle of the sentence by giving the emphasis required, before the sentence gets completed. For example, Omushaija ogwo - owaatwire esente zangye akaremwa kuzishashura - takaagura ente egyo. That man - who took my money and failed to refund it - cannot buy that cow. Abantu nk'abo - abatutarukwendera kimu - tibaakwizire hanu. [Rn/Rt] People like those - whom we don't like at all - should not come here. Inverted Commas [" "] Inverted commas, which in Runyakitara are called obujurizo (Mubangizi, 1963, p. 63), are punctuation marks used in pairs to show a quotation or direct speech. The pair consists of an opening quotation mark placed at the beginning of a word in a superscript form and a closing quotation mark also placed at the end of the word that marks the end of a quotation. For example, Yaagira ngu, "Jwara esaati." [Ry/Rk] He said, "Put on a shirt." Akabagarukamu ati, "Tindukukwetaaga". [Rn/Rt] He replied, "I don't need you". It should be noted that inverted commas can be made up of one quote symbol (' ') but this depends on the emphasis the writer is giving. Brackets [( )] A bracket, which in Runyakitara is called akago (Mubangizi, 1963, p. 64; Caumatin, 1938, p. 181), is a punctuation mark that is used to match pairs within text or set apart another text. In most cases, it shows the simplified version of what the writer intended to communicate. It can appear in the middle of the sentence or at the end. For example, Naaba ngiire Buganda (Kampala). [Ry/Rk] I had gone to Buganda, (Kampala in particular). Owaareeta embuzi ni mukuru wangye (owa maarimi) orikutuura Bushenyi. [Ry/Rk] The person who brought the goat is my cousin (maternal uncle's son) who stays in Bushenyi. Brackets are sometimes used to show another word or name that means the same thing. For example, Abantu nibakunda Ruhanga (obumwe orikwetwa Omuhangi). [Ry/Rk] People love God (who is at times called The Creator). Comma [,] The comma, called akashare/akasale in Runyakitara (Mubangizi, 1963, p. 57; Caumatin, 1938, p. 178), is a punctuation mark that is used basically for separating parts of a sentence. For example, Ku baabaire nibagyenda, enjura yaagwa. Enjura egyo ekaba einemu omuyaga, orubaare hamwe n'emirabyo. [Ry/Rk] When they were going, it rained. That rain had wind, hailstones and lightning. Omu kasumi ako, enjara ekagwa nyingi. [Rn/Rt] During that time, there was a lot of famine. A comma is also used in separating words that are used in exemplifying a concept that is within the same sentence. For example, Embuzi, obume, entaama, n'ente goona n'amatungo. [Ry/Rk] Goats, rabbits, sheep and cows are all domestic animals. Bakatugurra esaati, empale, enkaito hamy n'ebitambaara. [Rn/Rt] They bought for us shirts, trousers, shoes and handkerchiefs. Exclamation Mark [!] The exclamation mark, known in Runyakitara as akatangaaro (Mubangizi, 1963, p. 55), is a punctuation mark that is in most cases used after an interjection or exclamation for the purpose of indicating a strong feeling, happiness, extreme sadness and sometimes questioning in form of a surprise. It is often placed at the end of a sentence. For example, Ai nuипи! Nyabura enanansi egi yaanura! [Ry/Rk] Alas! This pineapple is very sweet! Ruhanga wange! Obaire ki? [Rn/Rt] Oh my God! What has happened to you? Colon [:] The colon, which in Runyakitara is called akategyerezo/akategerezo (Mubangizi, 1963, p. 47; Caumatin, 1938, p. 181), is a punctuation mark that is used to explain or start an enumeration. For example, Uganda eine yunivasite za Gavumenti itaano: Makerere, Mbarara, Gulu, Busitema na Muni. [Ry/Rk] Uganda has five Government universities, namely: Makerere, Mbarara, Gulu, Busitema and Muni. Buli kiro osome esaara zinu: Isiitwe ali mw'iguru, Mirembe Maria n'Ekitii nisa kibe hali Isiitwe. [Rn/Rt] Everyday say the following prayers: Our Father, Hail Mary and Glory be to the Father. A colon is also used with ratios in mathematics, For example, Abaishiki nibakira aboojo n'omubaro gwa 5:3. Girls outnumber the boys to a ratio of 5:3. A colon can also be used in titles and subtitles of books. For example, Mubangizi, B. (1981). Kanyarurimi II. Mbarara: Omuhanda gw'Okumanya. A colon is further used in indicating hours and minutes, for example, Omukoro niguza kubaho shaaha 11:15 z'omwabazyo. The function will take place at 5:15pm 5:15pm. Examples: Semi (colon [;]).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Summary of Runyakitara Orthography

Response: Below are the general rules for spelling in Runyakitara: All words in Runyakitara shall be written the way they are pronounced and heard. Runyakitara has only five short vowels, namely: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/. Runyakitara also has five long vowels which are represented by writing the vowel twice. These are: /aa/, /ee/, /ii/, /oo/ and /uu/. All short vowels shall be written with one letter while all long vowel shall be doubled to represent a single sound. At any time, if the vowel length is predicted, a single vowel shall be written. No double vowel shall be written at the beginning of the word even when the vowel is pronounced long. For example, Ego though heard to be long, shall not be written as eego. All Runyakitara words shall not have a double vowel at the end of the word. There are situations when two different vowels combine in words. These are called diphthongs. The rule shall be that speakers write the way they pronounce those diphthongs. The most common diphthongs are the following: /ai/, /ei/, /oi/. Examples are found in words like amaizi (water), amaino (teeth), eicumu (spear), kubeiha (to lie), kuboigora (to bark). The diphthong /au/ exists in rare cases such as in a word mau (mother) in Runyoro-Rutooro. The writing system of Runyakitara shall use simple alphabetic letters. This enables the orthography to avoid complicated phonetic symbols such as. β,ȷˉ β, ˉ  and diacritic signs e.g. ∼∼ ∼∼ . Runyakitara shall use the following consonants: / l/ shall be used in Runyoro-Rutooro only and before ya, ye and yo as in okulya (to eat), omulyango (doorway), okulyeryesa (to entice), lyona (all) and before e or i in examples such as okuleeta (to bring) and okulinda (to keep). In all other instances, /r/ /r/ shall be used.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Some Runyakitara consonants are formed by combining them with

Response: m m or n n at the beginning to form a single sound. These are called nasal compounds, and they include the following: /mb/ /mp/ /nc/ /nd/ /nf/ /ng/ /ngy/ /nj/ /nk/ /nky/ /ns/ /nsh/ /nt/ /nts/ /nv/ /nz/ The rule shall be that in words where they exist, they shall not be preceded by a double vowel. Examples include the following: omuhanda, ebihimba, esente, ekijenjegyere, ekipumpuriya.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Another category of consonants that are combined to form a single sound are those that combine with

Response: w w in a word. These are called w Examples: w (compounds and they include the following:).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: There is also another category of simple sounds that are combined with

Response: y y at the end to form a single sound. These are called y Examples: y (compounds, and they include the following: /by/ /dy/ /gy/ /hy//ky/ /ly//my//ny//py/ /ry/ /sy//tsy/ /ty//zy/ The rule shall be that all words with that sound within them shall not have a double vowel in front of them. They include the following examples:).


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: References

Response: Babcock, P. (Ed.). (2002). Webster's third new international dictionary of the English Language. Springfield, Merriam-Webster Inc. Publishers. Betungura, A. (1960). Runyankore-Rukiga orthography as adopted from the Report of the Runyankore-Rukiga Orthographic Conference of 1954, Mbarara. Caumartin, A. (1938). Grammar ey'Orunyoro. Rwenzori: White Fathers Mission. Hansen, H. B. (1984). Mission, church and state in a colonial setting: Uganda, 1890-1925. London: Heinemann. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2003). An introduction to language (7th Edn.). Boston: Thomson Wadsworth. Karwemera, F. (2005). Empandiika y'Orunyankore-Rukiga egufuhaziibwe. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. Morris, H. F., & Kirwan, B. E. R. (1957). A Runyankore grammar. Kampala: East African Literature Bureau. Mubangizi, B. (1963). Kanyarurimi I. Mbarara: Omuhanda gw'Okumanya. Mubangizi, B. (1981). Kanyarurimi II. Mbarara: Omuhanda gw'Okumanya. Ndoleriire, O., Miirima, F., & Kintu, J. (Eds.). (2002). Runyoro-Rutooro orthography. Kampala: New Vision Printing & Publishing Company. Ndoleriire, O., Muranga, M. J. K., Gumoshabe, G. & Kintu, J. (2007). A unified standard orthography of Runyakitara. Cape Town: CASAS. Rubongoya, L. T. (1963). Runyoro-Rutooro orthography rules. Entebbe: Uganda Printing & Publishing Corporation. Rubongoya, L. T. (1965). Orulimi rwaitu omu mabara agatali gamu. Kampala: East African Literature Bureau. Taylor, C. (Ed.) (1960). Report of the Runyankore-Rukiga conference of 1959. Kampala. Taylor, C. (1978). A teacher's handbook of Runyankore-Rukiga orthography. Kampala: Uganda Literature Bureau. Wikipedia (2018). Punctuation. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation.


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Chapter 9

Response: INTRODUCTION TO A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF RUNYAKITARA TEXTS: A GENRE APPROACH


Instruction: Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Introduction

Response: In this chapter, we analyse and describe different kinds of written texts, mainly stories in Runyakitara. This description entails examining how these stories are constructed, interpreted and used and the defining characteristics that written Runyakitara texts exhibit. In addition, the chapter explores the lexico-grammatical (lexical and grammatical) properties that define Runyakitara texts and their organisational features. In other words, it explains the kind of linguistic resources/tools that writers of Runyakitara use to write these texts, that is, the words and the grammar that go into a text, and how the text is organised. These will not only enable you to understand deeper a Runyakitara text but also will equip you with appropriate skills that will enable you to eventually write effective Runyakitara texts in an acceptable and conventional manner. By the end of the chapter, you should be able to describe different written text types in Runyakitara; define the features that characterise these texts; and in due course write similar Runyakitara texts. Admittedly, there are many types of written texts in Runyakitara; and we cannot exhaustively explain each one of them in this chapter. Therefore, we confine ourselves to examining narratives. However, we provide examples of other texts to illustrate the criteria and steps that are observed in the analysis of texts in general. In the narratives, we analyse traditional stories and contemporary stories (news stories). In order to understand Runyakitara written texts, you will be introduced to an analytical approach which will assist you to analyse a variety of other Runyakitara texts. This analytical approach is known as genre analysis. This approach is derived from a popular theory known as genre theory. It is a simple method that you can use to analyse a group of texts that share similar linguistic characteristics. The genre analysis also enables you to examine other texts that will not have been explored in this chapter. The analysis will further illustrate how the elements you have studied in the previous chapters (adverbs, adjectives, semantics and Runyakitara lexis) are manifest in these written texts. Note that genre analysis is one of the many methods used to analyse texts, and one of the analytical approaches employed in the analysis of linguistic discourses. The chapter begins by providing a brief definition of discourse analysis. It then defines the various methods used to analyse linguistic texts. This is followed by an overview of the concept of genre since it is important to study genres. The chapter then delves into genre analysis by detailing the characteristics that enable one to identify a genre and the procedure followed in analysing genres. We then examine narrative genres in general and zero down on the properties and generic structure of Runyakitara traditional stories; and finally, we examine the contemporary news story. Since this is one of the first discourse analyses of Runyakitara texts, we rely heavily on studies that have been carried out on other languages, particularly English. It is, however, anticipated that, in due course, further research in discourse analysis in Runyakitara and other Ugandan Bantu languages will avail more technical terms and examples for future use. We will now briefly look at discourse analysis before we explain the details of genre analysis. What is Discourse Analysis? Before we define 'discourse analysis', it is necessary to understand the term 'discourse'. This term is usually used in different academic contexts by different people to refer to specific meanings. 'Discourse' can refer to the sequence of sentences, how "sentences connect and relate to each other across time in speech or writing" (Gee, 2014, p. 18). In this case, the analysis focuses on the structure and organisation of sentences. It can also be understood as "a particular way of talking about and understanding the world" (Jørgensen & Phillips, 2002, p. 1). Another meaning of discourse is language in use; it is concerned with how people use language in different specific contexts, which at times, is referred to as 'pragmatics'. Discourse analysis has been defined as the analysis of written and spoken language beyond the sentence level. Some scholars have defined it as "the analysis of linguistic behaviour, written and spoken, beyond the limits of individual sentences, focusing primarily on the meaning constructed and interpreted as language is used in particular social contexts" (Bhatia, Flowerdew, & Jones, 2008, p. 1). It is also understood as "the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which it is used" and involves analysing different written texts as well as verbal communication in various forms (McCarthy, 2001, p. 5). Recently, discourse analysis has embraced other forms of communication including visual images, sounds, icons, etc. which we shall briefly explain below. Discourse analysis therefore, involves the analysis of lin-