Instruction: Runyakitara Story Genres

Response: Martin and Rose (2008) have shown how the different types of stories are realised in both oral and written mediums. Stories have existed in the pre-modern and contemporary cultural contexts throughout the world. In this regard therefore, Runyakitara stories known as emigani, ebigano, or enganikyo have been recounted in South-Western Uganda and beyond, from one generation to the next via oral tradition usually at a fireplace after the evening meal. This oral tradition has, of course, bred dissimilarities in the content. Most of the stories are lost because they were not captured in writing. Runyakitara comprises both short and long stories as well as novels. The short stories usually comprise fables that are narrated to young children while the extended ones take a while to narrate and are enchanting to both children and adults. Because of the limitations of space, we shall analyse two short stories for their generic properties. The first is a short story extracted from a Runyankore Reader for lower level primary learners.


Instruction: Orientation

Response: Ente egyenda ezingura na Warucuncu.


Instruction: Complication

Response: Nyomwabazyo hataaha eifa Kamirakwo. Ente ku eba egiire Rujumbura kushaka, Warucuncu eita encwa-mutwe yaayo. Ente ku eija ehoora enzigu, eita ekibwana kyakyo.


Instruction: Resolution

Response: Eirukanga, esingirwa owa Wakame omu nyanga. Ekicuncu ku kiija, Wakame akibingira omu irembo.


Instruction: Evaluation

Response: Nikyo oreebera Wakame akunda kuza omu nte kwonka. (Source: van Spaandonk (1997), Ninshoma, p. 46). In this story, the narrator begins by presenting the characters of the story, i.e., Ente and Warucuncu. Since this is a fable, the exact place where the characters lived is not revealed, it is assumed to be the in the wilderness. However, leaving out the place provides the narrator with an opportunity to localise the story because stories are told within a certain locality. It is therefore assumed that both characters lived in the wilderness adjacent to where the reader/listener lives. Although, the time element is embedded in the verbal proposition, egyenda ezingura, which portrays the near past tense, it is categorized as the narrative tense, which is often used in storytelling, and it conveys the far past tense. While in most cases, either the tense is conveyed in varying forms of the past tense, as nearpast far-past tense, or even using words such as nyomwabazyo, it does not mean that the actions occurred in the recent past. Therefore, our Orientation stage fulfils the function of designating the setting of the story by introducing the characters, place and time elements. It also presents that harmonious existence between the protagonists, ezingura na Warucuncu. Nyomwabzyo ... The Complication stage presents the problem that has to be resolved. The problem is eifa Kamirakwo, which leads to the killing of the calf and the subsequent revenge from the cow: Warucuncu eita encwamutwe yaayo. Ente ku eija ehoora enzigu, eita ekibwana kyakyo. Note that this particular Complication comprises two problems, one leading to the other. The famine disrupts the social order, and in turn it provokes a conflict between the protagonists. In the Resolution stage, the cow seeks refuge at the Hare's place, Eirukanga, esingirwa owa Wakame omu nyanga and the Hare protects the cow from an impending vengeance by repulsing the Lion, Ekicuncu ku kiija, Wakame akibingira omu irembo. The interpretation of the ever-close relationship between the Hare and cows is then provided in the Evaluation stage. In other fables, the story ends with a moral lesson for human beings, often intended for the reader to relate himself/herself to a similar unjust situation and conveyed via a proverb. For example, in a story of migratory locusts and bald locusts/non-migratory locusts (Ekiharara n'Enzigye), we discover that the locusts learnt that they could not move along with migratory locusts, thus, Akarugire amahanga tikeesigwa. Or in the story of Engwe n'embwa, the story ends in an Evaluation stage with a proverb, Owaakukiza emikono akurasha oine obwawe, portraying the powerlessness of the dog in the face of a dominant and ferocious leopard. The staging structure is mainly marked by temporal adjuncts 4,ku 4 ,ku, obu, aho, kaingaha, (E)kiro kimu indicating a transition from one stage to another; for example, Ente ku eba egiire... Ente ku eija .... Ekicuncu ku kiija...obu yali atakabiriire..., Kaingaha! Zireesire Wankoko... Kaingaha omusaija kahurra akatego nikagamba..., Kiro kimu akamukwata yamusiiga enziro... We also note that process actions marked by the narrative tense: egyenda, ezingura, eba egiire, eita, eija ehoora, esingirwa. Even at this lower level, we also note the use of non-core vocabulary, emiguutuuro, for example, ezingura, eifa Kamirakwo, esingirwa, and omu nyanga instead of etuura, enjara y'amaani, ehungira, and omu ibaare respectively. This demonstrates the significance Runyakitara narrative attaches to the inculcation of intricate linguistic features but also culture via stories at an early stage. Note that although nyomwabazyo is a time adjunct, it does not mean that this event happened yesterday; it situates the event in the far past. Another element in this phrase, hataaha eifa shows that the event took place a long time ago because eifa has not been experienced in modern times. Let's now examine a more extended story in Text 3. 1


Instruction: Orientation

Response: Omushaija akagyenda n'omutabani, baaza kuhiga. Baaritaahamu eihamba, baitamu esirabo, baagyekorera nibagitwara omu bwerere kugibaagiramu.


Instruction: Complication

Response: Ku baabaire nibagihuumuza bati, zaareeta bwahara bw'entare.


Instruction: Evaluation

Response: Yaija ngaaha neeribata neehendekyeza, omujwengye neeguhungura, amaisho nigagitukura oti barasiiremu eshagama, akanwa nikagingana oruteba ruteeka amaizi g'obushera, enyindo ziri emigyeto nk'emambo zibamba emiguta. Weeza ku baagireebire emitima yaabahwa omu nda, omushaija yaatandika kugambisibwa agumize "Ninkushara! Ninkushara!" Omutabani yaamuburira omu kwahwa, n'okwesheeshera kutarekire.


Instruction: Complication

Response: Entare ku etandika neebahika, egira eti "Iwe mushaija we, gambira mutabani waawe amire egi sirabo, naiwe omumire, haza ngurukye nkumire, bihwe". Omushaija n'omutabani bateeraho bagaaragaarirwa. Ngu "Ka twesize, eki eraabe neekora ekikore. Kandi nitukijwara omutanga kutanga ki, twabaire enyama yaarwo?"


Instruction: Evaluation

Response: Ku biba bikiri aho omuri ya kafe ya kaitwe, hareetana engundu y'ekikyere. Kiija nikigurukyera, omubiri n'obu gwakakiiragwire, amaisho gakigurukire, amatama nikihaga nikihaguurura nk'orikucumika enyungu ebuzire etaabe.


Instruction: Complication

Response: Ku kitandika nikihika aho, kiti: Beitu ka mpuriire muri omu rwari, mufiire ki?" Ekicuncu kiti "Ngambiire ogu mushaija ku aragiira omutabani kumira egi nyamaishwa, nawe akamira omutabani, naanye omushaija nkamumira, haza ebigambo bikahwa."


Instruction: Resolution

Response: Ndi ekikyere kiti "ka nikwo shi, k'omugambiire eky'oburyo!" Kiti "Iwe mutsigazi 'we, rahutsya omire egi sirabo, sho akumire, entare emumire, naanye ngurukye ngimire, haza turekye kusiibya amasha omu kibuga." Entare ku ehinduka yaareeba ekikyere oku kirikushusha, n'oku kirikureetsa, n'ebi kirikugamba nikihamiza kimwe kugimira, eti "Biri naagwa egi?" Ebishanga neehunga. Ogwagitwaire tiguramanyirwe.


Instruction: Coda

Response: Ekikyere kitambira kityo abahiigi; beekorera esirabo n'obwira, bagyenda nibagihwerahwerana, baza kugibaagira omuka. (Source: Mubangizi, B. K. (1989). Nkutebeze 4. Mbarara: Omuhanda gw'Okumanya). In this story, the orientation stage begins with identification of the main participants, omushaija n'omutabani; the main activity of the narrative, kuhiga; and the place, eihamba, omu bwerere. Other narratives in Runyakitara bear almost similar lexico-grammatical features to the present one. In many of the stories, we come across the following constructions signaling the Orientation stage in Runyoro-Rutooro: Oти biro bya ira muno, hakaimuka omusaija ...; Ira muno hakaba haroho ...; or Hakaba hariho omushaija...; Omushaija akashwera omukazi, baazaara...; Omushaija akaba...; or ...akaimuka... in Runyankore-Rukiga. Note that most of these entail a male participant, revealing the patriarchal nature of the Banyakitara society. There are indeed other beginnings that include a female participant. The Complication sets in immediately, Ku baabaire nibagihuumuza bati, zaareeta bwahara bw'entare. The reader knows what the immediate arrival of a lion means [the danger] to the man and his son. The Complication stage is always marked by ku ku to show an abrupt disruption of the social order. The following extracts signal the commencement of a complication in their respective stories: (4) Abaishiki b'ekyaro kimwe bakaimuka aho, baaza kwiha obunyaatsi. Ku baabaire nibaiha, enjura yaacurumbukana kugwa. ... Ku baza kushohora, Waruhiri eguruka eyeroteka aha muryango, eti "Omuriimwe ninyendamu owangye." Ngu "Reero ka mwije mureebe obuhano!" (Nkuganire 1, p. 54) (5) ... Ku ecumitamu omunwa gagitaaha omu maisho. Eronda ogw'okutooramu, gubura (Ninshoma, p. 48). This is followed by Evaluation stage; the storyteller then goes on to describe the appearance of the lion and the imminent danger it poses. We note that the evaluation stages in this story are conveyed via metaphors that exhibit the richness of the language. In this segment, the storyteller employs similes ... amaisho nigagitukura oti barasiiremu eshagama, akanwa nikagingana oruteba ruteeka amaizi g'obushera, enyindo ziri emigyeto nk'emambo zibamba emiguta, to describe the physical attributes of the King of the jungle that portray its ferociousness. In the second evaluation stage, we also note a similar rhetorical technique to show the danger the toad poses before the lion: engundu y'ekikyere..., amaisho gakigurukire, amatama nikihaga nikihaguurura nk'orikucumika enyungu ebuzire etaabe. In this regard, the evaluation stage demonstrates the narrator's attitudes vis-à-vis an event being narrated or a participant appearing in the story. It makes the story worth listening to/reading by employing such linguistic resources of exaggeration or evaluating events that hold the attention of the reader/listener. Although, at first sight, the Resolution appears as a problem (perhaps to a child listening/reading for the first time), it embeds a solution because common knowledge tells us that a toad cannot 'swallow' a lion. Of course, the raconteur reveals the resolution by portraying the foolhardiness of a lion, which is threatened by the physical appearance of the toad. Whereas the lion is mighty, its understanding is lowered and portrayed as lacking astuteness. On the other hand, despite the toad's weakness, it is portrayed as a wise participant whose utterances resolve the problem. Runyakitara tales also exhibit a unique rhetorical technique, ekitongyerero or ekizina (Example 6), which is non-existent in the two stories we have examined. This feature consists in one of the participants singing a song or performing a recitation in the Resolution stage. The song or recitation acts to resolve or points to the resolution of a problem. It appears to possess magical powers that resolve the problem. The song in itself carries an entertainment function. As children, we would prefer our mother or grandmother to tell us a story that has a song in it. (6) Ku aba naatongyerera atyo, Njuma omu muti amuhurira, nawe amugarukamu naatongyerera. Ati "Ya Njunju, ya Njunju, yaiwe mutetsi, Onywe ago mate, orekye kwitwa obutetsi; Otuze ezo nyena, orekye kwitwa obutetsi; Oihe ekyarire, orekye kwitwa obutetsi; Ocwe n'enkoni, orekye kwitwa obutetsi; Ogyende ogambire, taata, yaiwe mutetsi, Njunzire eitama rimweija, n'orubaju rumwe. Mbaire ntungirwe amaizi g'omu bitsigye, Mbwenu goomire, buzima naaza kukaba." (Nkuganire 1, p. 69) (Runyankore-Rukiga). The Coda returns the story to the equilibrium, that is, what would have happened, under normal circumstances, if the problem had not set in. It signs off the story and returns to life's equilibrium. In most Runyakitara narratives, it is marked by temporal conjunction, Ku ntsiga... It is only at this stage that we observe the narrator, for the first time, directly referring to him/herself, telling us that he/she was an eyewitness to the events of story. However, in the oral tradition, this direct reference to the narrator occurs at the very beginning (in the abstract) of the story, thus: Mbaganire mbaganire. The Coda is a bridge between the last event of the story and the present time of narration. It normally includes a recount involving punishment (Example 10), compensation or retaliation (Example 11), behavioural change (Example 7), aborting an adventure especially in hunting expeditions, marrying another wife (Example 9), or restoration of wealth (Examples 8) (Ry/Rk). (7) Ku ntsiga nyamukazi omweburaguzo yaagucwa kabiri, ndaba omu kihambo kya maazaara kicweka emitanga. Nti tori, nti jabu. Nyetaahira, nza kusheenyera tata oruku rw'okwota (Nkutebeze 4, p. 25). (8) Ku ntsiga Muhuuba eka ye n'eitungo rye byagarukaho, omukazi yaaza kutaashura encuro ibiri z'oburo zi yaaraganiise akafunzi, nti tori, nti jabu... (Nkuganire 1, p. 21) (9) Ku ntsiga yaashwera ondiijo mukazi, ... ndabaho niinyija kubatebeza ago goona agu naareebire (Nkuganire 1, p. 50). (10) Nyakaisiki waawe, nkasiga iba naamubinga omu nju habw'obugara nyowe nindugayo (Enganikyo Otasemeriirwe kufeerwa, p. 46). (11) Nkasiga abantu n'ebihangwa ebindi nibajaguza kandi nibatwarra Wakame ebisembo, na nyowe nimbasaba kurugayo (Enganikyo... p. 55) (12) Mpaho akira atyo; arita aha ibega naataaha; omuhiigo gwosha (Nkutebeze 4, p. 33). Other functions that the Runyakitara narrative Coda realises include signalling time to go to bed (after that particular story) - ... mpotoka ntemba akatabo kangye ninza kubyama; or a moral lesson for the listener - ... Nyetaahira, nza kusheenyera tata oruku rw'okwota. The Runyakitara narrative Coda equally exhibits an interesting feature that takes the listener from the story/fiction world to the present time of recounting; i.e., the real world. Like the science-fiction time machine, the narrator encounters transfiguration of the physical world or some chaos in life phenomenon to return to the time of telling the story or present times. Similar to the story of Warucuncu and Wakame (Text 2), the storyteller employs non-core lexical items (emiguutuuro) as well as metaphors to evaluate events or the participants in the story. For example, the storyteller uses such words as bwahara, ngaaha, emigyeto, gakigunuukire, ebisanga, kujwara omutanga, and kusiibya amasha omu kibuga, instead of their common equivalents such as Nyamuhango, buzima kwo, ekishongoize munonga, gakizoire, ehunga, kwerinda akabi, and kushiisha obwire, respectively. However, within the conversational segments, the language is simple and familiar in nature compared to the non-conversational stages where non-core vocabulary is invoked. So, we can tentatively conclude that emigutuuro are used in evaluation stages to assess events or participants in the story. Note that in these examples and other Runyakitara stories, the events in the story unfold in a sequence and we can clearly identify similar phases that mark these events. In other words, the generic structure is fixed; the story starts from the beginning, goes up to the end, and stops. Most of the Runyakitara narratives are similar; however, the deviations that may exist are prompted by geographical locations, which give rise to changes in names, and the songs that are used in each narrative. In the next section, we look at a modern story genre, the news story.


Instruction: A Contemporary Runyakitara New Story Genre - Amakuru

Response: Modernity has ushered in a different kind of stories which are detached from the traditional stories that convey the old sociocultural practices of gathering, hunting, pastoralism, farming, and artisanry such as basket weaving, blacksmithing, tribal wars, witchcraft, etc. Although some of the modern stories are largely modelled on traditional stories, they are influenced by science and technology. For example, the notions of modern science and technology exclusively influence the movie genre. Although the Runyakitara narrative genre is still largely anchored in the traditional story (because there are very limited modern storywriters in Runyakitara), we see a major shift in the stories that are recounted in the media. We now examine this different kind of story genre, the news report, as it unfolds in the print media. In newspaper reporting, news reports are referred to as "stories" because they recount past events (Fairclough, 1995). One major difference that distinguishes a narrative from a modern news story lies in the way events are organised in each of these genres. While there is a chronological flow of events in the narrative, events in a news story do not necessarily follow a sequential ordering; the story begins anywhere and jumps about in time and space to recount news events. The non-chronological ordering of events in a news story started with the beginning of nineteenth century when the contemporary news story emerged (Feez et al., 2010; Martin & Rose, 2008). News stories before this era followed a sequential pattern. Similarly, news reporting in Runyakitara appears to have followed a chronological ordering as exhibited Text 4.


Instruction: Text 4: AGARUGIRE IBANDA (Ry/Rk)

Response: Ibanda twaba turiyo tugumire. Omushana guriyo mwingi. Omu biro ebyayembeirwe Christmas tukaba twine enjara nyingi munonga. Akabaare ka Bamugaya niko kaahwereire baingi omuri eryo ifa. Baitu mbwenu turiyo nitugyesha. Enjara ti tukigimanya. Christmas ekagyenda gye munonga tiharabaireho murabanamu. Kwonka ku yaahweireho obwo aka Ibanda kaimuka. Omu biro ebi ebihingwire, omu gomborora emwe eya Mumyoka Busheshe, hagwiremu abantu bashatu. Okufa kwabo kwaza kushoboororwaho aha ifo: Omushaija Atanazio owa Kashangura akaba aine enshaho ina z'omwani, baaziiba. Mbwenu ku yaagizire, ati: Abaibire enshaho zangye z'omwani bazimanye, abaramu baamutematema n'omuhoro. Omurambwe, Police ekagutwara Mbarara. Nyakufa, orubanja yaarusinga. Omurambwe gwagarurwa, gwaziikwa owe. Baakiita bo bari omuri kabura-muriro. Ondiijo mushaija nuwe Rwomire, akaba arugire Buhweju afurukiire Bigyera, Yaarwana n'omukazi we. Nyamukazi yaagyenda. Yaamuronda yaabura. Yaaruga Bigyera yaataaha Buhweju, obwo aine eicumu n'omuhoro. Ab'oruganda rwe baabimwaka. Ku yaabaire naagaruka Bigyera yaayehanika omu muhanda aha mugongo Kyaikucu, omu muruka gwa Sabagaba-Mumyoka. Owaabaire naaza kusibika embuzi, yaareeba omurambwe omu muti, yaateera enduuru. Abantu baahurura, n'Owegomborora yaabaijamu. (Kwonka yaaba ari omutsigire). Hakateerwa abantu b'ekyaro ekyo. Bakabateerera kimwe baabasaasa munonga. Baagaruka baabata omu kihome Nyabuhikye. Ab'omuruka ogwo baaba ab'okurinda ebiro bina nyomushana na nyekiro. Police ku yaizire yaabuuririza ebirikufa aha murambwe ogwo, ku yaabyetegyereize yaamanyira kimwe omuntu ku ayeitsire, yaaragiira ku baziika omurambwe. Owa kashatu bakamwitira omu muruka gwa Mumyoka-Mumyoka Bisheshe. Ogwo bakamwitsa ekisyo, baamucumita. Akagwa aha kitanda Mbarara. (Source: Ageeteereine, Sunday, 8 February 1959) This news story published in Ageetereine in 1959 recounts largely three events of social unrest in pre-colonial Uganda as well as portraying the conduct of colonial administration. The story had no specific headline related to the events being recounted. The story's introduction provides a recount of the social news and chitchat about the social wellbeing of the people and the area: ... turiyo tugumire... Enjara titukigimanya; weather conditions: Omushana guriyo mwingi. Omu biro ebyayebembeirwe Christmas tukaba twine enjara nyingi munonga; and identifying agricultural activity of the moment, mbwenu turiyo nitugyesha. This is similar to the introductory phase of the traditional letter genre, which is influenced by the community sense and social obligation to provide the recipient (in this case, the putative reader) with news about the well-being or ill-being of oneself, one's family or that of the immediate community. The news reporter then highlights the core event in the next phase: Kwonka ku yaahweireho obwo aka Ibanda kaimuka. Omu biro ebi ebihingwire, omu gomborora emwe eya Mumyoka Busheshe, hagwiremu abantu bashatu. Events that first happened are recounted first: the famine, followed by good weather and harvesting. Thereafter, the disruption of the social order comes on the scene: ku yaahweireho obwo aka Ibanda kaimuka. The reporter then proceeds to elaborate each of the three news events separately. Although information in the news report does not tell the reader whether the events followed one after the other in each news event, there is a clear chronological presentation of events as highlighted by the superscripts in the second news event extract (Example 13) below (Ry/Rk): (13) Ondijo mushaija niwe Rwomire akaba arugire Buhweju afurukiire Bigyera, Yaarwana n'omukazi we. Nyamukazi yaagyenda. Yaamuronda yaabura. Yaaruga Bigyera yaataaha Buhweju, obwo aine eicumu n'omuhoro. Ab'oruganda rwe baabimwaka. Ku yaabaire naagaruka Bigyera yaayehanika omu muhanda aha mugongo Kyaikucu, omu muruka gwa Sabagaba-Mumyoka. Owaabaire naaza kusibika embuzi, yaareeba omurambwe omu muti, yaateera enduru. Abantu baahurura, n'Owegomborora yaabaijamu. (Kwonka yaaba ari omutsigire). Hakateerwa abantu b'ekyaro ekyo. Bakabateerera kimwe baabasaasa munonga..... Whereas the news writer recounts the events in a fairly objective manner, close analysis demonstrates two instances of implicit evaluation that deserve mention here. In the following proposition; Kwonka ku yaahweireho obwo aka Ibanda kaimuka, the expression aka Ibanda kaimuka evokes negative attitudinal values with regard to the people of the area, Ibanda. Although this is not explicitly mentioned, readers would associate aka with the negative perceptions [stereotypes] that people living in Ankore have on the inhabitants of Ibanda, especially witchcraft and murder. This traces its origin to the killing of one of the colonial administrators, Gault, in 1902. In another sentence: Hakateerwa abantu b'ekyaro ekyo. Bakabateerera kimwe baabasaasa munonga, the news writer's use of hakateerwa and bakabateerera kimwe aims to intensify the action, thus rendering the actions of the colonial administration distasteful. In this section, we examine a contemporary news report and describe its generic properties. It is important to define the kind of news reports that we wish to study because they are varied. In such circumstances, one media scholar, Bell (1991, p. 12) provides a context-specific definition of genre. He defines it as "the particular kind of media content in which you [researcher/analyst] are interested"; for example, news, classified advertising, weather forecasts, etc. For that reason, the news stories that we analyse in this chapter derive from a category of news reports known as "hard news". These are news stories that recount conflict, namely wars, accidents, riots, disasters, corruption, electoral violence, political violence, crime, disease outbreaks, etc. They are preferred because they are newsworthy. These events disturb the social equilibrium and are therefore, urgent to report on. They usually appear on the front pages of a newspaper, which is not necessarily the case with Runyakitara hard news reports. Studies on news reporting in the Anglo-American and other societies such as Japan, China, France, Thailand, and Indonesia demonstrate that a hard news report exhibits similar generic features. It unfolds in a non-linear progression to recount events in a given news report. The report is composed of the two major phases (stages): the opening nucleus and the body/development stage. The Nucleus is composed of a headline(s) and a lead while the second phase comprises sub-components referred to as satellites. The Nucleus contains the most significant issues of the news report presented in a summary form. Training literature recommends news reporters to ensure that this phase answers the following questions: what, who, where, when, how, and so what. The satellites go back to the Nucleus, moving in a backward and forward pattern, to explain, contextualise, elaborate or comment on the elements presented in the headline/lead opening (White, 1997; Thomson et al., 2008). A satellite paragraph restates or describes in a detailed fashion the element(s) presented in the headline/lead opening. These satellites are independent of each other. They may also position events in the time and space by describing the location of events that happened before the current event. Another satellite can, via reference to an external voice - usually a direct quotation and known as attribution in media discourse, evaluates an element of the nucleus (Feez et al., 2010; White, 1997). The generic ordering of a news report appears fixed; that is, Headline + Lead + Satellites. However, the development stage, which comprises satellites, can be reshuffled and the story would flow without any dysfunction. This generic feature is associated with hard news genres and is known as radical editability. Radical editability involves reorganising the original positions of the body satellites without creating a new genre or affecting the news report's functionality (White, 1997). However, this feature does not always apply to some news texts (Kitley, 2008). Similarly, preliminary studies of Runyakitara hard news reports have also established that because most of them unfold in a chronological manner, radical editability does not apply to them (Mugumya, 2013). It should be noted that journalists go beyond recounting events; they at times interpret those events, provide their own viewpoints either directly or indirectly: they condemn or appraise events or news actors (see Martin & White, 2005 for a detailed explanation on the language of evaluation). However, other news reports simply convey events as they happened, what is ordinarily referred to as 'objective reporting'. Let us now examine a Runyakitara hard news report to illustrate its generic properties and generic structure.


Instruction: Headline

Response: Aba Museveni barwaine n'aba Col. Kizza Besigye Henry Kwikiriza - Rukungiri [Byline]


Instruction: Lead

Response: Abashagiki ba Col. Kizza Besigye na Lt. Gen. Yoweri Museveni bashenguraine omu tauni Rukungiri Orwakataano 2/3/2001. Bamwe abaserukare abarikukuuma Purezidenti (PPU) bahutaire, baatwarwa omu irwariro Nyakibale.


Instruction: Satellite 1: Elaboration, details of the violence

Response: Orutaro rutandikire obu abaserukare ba PPU n'aba LDU bairukize abashagiki ba Col. Kizza Besigye, ngu barekye kweyerera n'okutimba emitumba omu tauni nk'akamanyiso k'okumwakiira (Col. Besigye) omu kitiinisa.


Instruction: Satellite 2: Elaboration, details of the violence

Response: Dereeva orikwetwa Mwanza, abaire naavuga emotoka eyekoreire emitumba y'okubyara omu nguuto, baagimwihamu, baatandika n'okuteera amasasi omu mwanya, abantu bairuka omu kahuurukano n'abandi baahendeka. Omwe aha bakazi abaire aine enda, ahuriirwe naagira ngu naatiina, "neebaasa kurugamu ekiro ky'okugizaara kitakahikire."


Instruction: Satellite 3: Contextualisation, events before the violence

Response: Abaserukare obu bataire amasasi omu mwanya, bashangire abapooriisi bakuumire obusingye, abantu barikuhunda amaduuka, bategyereize omwana waabo oyetsimbire ahabwa Purezidenti.


Instruction: Satellite 4: Elaboration, further details of violence

Response: Aba PPU bagumiizemu nibairukanzya abashagiki ba Col. Besigye, kwonka ku bahikire aha irwariro rya Rugarama, baabuganaho abandi aba Besigye, batenga orutaro rw'amabaare n'amacupa, orurigirwemu okuhutaazibwa aba PPU. (Source: Entatsi, March 18-14, 2001, p. 8). Text 5 recounts a political conflict in which supporters of presidential candidates were involved in electoral violence in 2001. During the electoral campaigns, two major presidential contestants are highlighted in the print media, the incumbent, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, and his hitherto friend and personal physician during the guerrilla war in the 1980s, Dr. Col. Kizza Besigye. The present-day Runyakitara news report does not recount events of social disorder in such a manner. It does not 'waste time' in pleasantries but rather plunges into the actual event that disrupts life's order and jumps about, and without necessarily following the order in which events occur. For example, in Text 5, we observe that the news report does not recount events in a chronological manner. The story does not begin from the moment when the decoration of the streets started, which, ordinarily, would be the initial event of the story. Instead the news reporter starts from the point when the social harmony (preparations to welcome Dr. Besigye) is destabilised; that is, when the Presidential Protection Unit and Local Defence soldiers started chasing away supporters of Col. Besigye who were decorating the streets. The news report unfolds in two phases, the nucleus and the body. There is a close relationship between the headline and the lead; in other words, the elements in the lead refer back to the headline to specify each of the elements presented. This is an indication that the headline is a summary of the lead. We illustrate this relationship in the Example 14 below. The numbers (superscripts) show that the elements in the headline are repeated in the lead. (14) (14) Aba 1 1 Museveni 2 2 barwaine 3n′aba4 3 n ′ aba 4 Col. Kizza Besigye 5 5 Abashagiki 4 4 ba Col. Kizza Besigye 5 5 na Lt. Gen. Yoweri Museveni 2 2 bashenguraine 3 3 omu tauni Rukungiri Orwakataano 2/3/2001. Bamwe abaserukare abarikukuuma 2 2 Purezidenti 2 2 (PPU) bahutaire, baatwarwa omu irwariro Nyakibale. The Headline and Lead provide the core information that summarises the entire news report. We find that the news writer largely concentrates on the information in this phase. The opening nucleus therefore serves as a summary of the news report. It indicates what - barwaine, bashenguraine; who - aba, abashagiki, abaserukare; where - omu tauni Rukungiri; when - Orwakataano 2/3/2001, but also the consequence - bahutaire. The subsequent components of the body phase serve to specify this crisis point by repeating in other words these elements highlighted in the headline/lead, opening sentence in a satellite structure. The body stage comprises four sub-components. The first satellite locates the origin of the crisis: Orutaro rutandikire obu abaserukare ba PPU n'aba LDU bairukize abashagiki ba Col. Kizza Besigye, and explains its cause: [abashagiki] barekye kweyerera n'okutimba emitumba omu tauni nk'akamanyiso k'okumwakiira (Col. Besigye) omu kitiinisa. In other words, we see the satellite going back to elaborate and provide details to the element of bashenguraine located in the lead. The second satellite also serves to explain further the details of the conflict: the removal of the driver from the truck, the pandemonium after soldiers shot in the air, the fractures sustained by supporters, and the fear of miscarriage by a pregnant woman. Satellite three returns to recount an event that occurred before the on-going social disorder: abapooriisi bakumire obusingye, abantu barikuhunda amaduuka, bategyereize omwana waabo oyetsimbire ahabwa Purezidenti. The last satellite ends the story abruptly by elaborating the violence that ensued when both supporters met each other at an identified location. There is an observed repetition of elements that refer to the crisis point; that is, disturbance of social order throughout the text - Aba [abashagiki] Museveni barwaine n'aba Besigye, abaserukare abarikukuuma Purezidenti bahutaire. Let's now examine another news report in order to establish whether other news reports function in a similar manner.


Instruction: Headlines (Ry/Rk)

Response: Kony ayokize Radiyo hamwe n'ekereziya Lira Agyemire abaziiki kuteeka omufu waabo bakamurya LIRA Omushaki w'Orumuri [Byline] Lead Abaheekyera ba Joseph Kony omu kasheeshe k'ekya 27.9.2002 bataahiriire ekereziya ya St. Peter's Catholic baayosya siteesheni ya Radio ebaire eri omu kyombeko ky'ekereziya egyo aha mairo itaano aha ruguuto rwa Lira - Kitgum. Satellite 1: Elaboration - identifying the radio station Radio egyo ei bookize neemanywa nka Radio Waa FM. Satellite 2: Elaboration - details of the attack [arson] Amakuru agatungirwe Orumuri nigagira ngu omukazi niwe abaire naaduumira abainazi aba obu bataahiriire enju ya Ruhanga bakagyosya. Satellite 3: Attitudinal - condemning the attack Abantu ababaire bari aha mwanya ogwo bateire enduuru yaashekyerera kandi baagyenda nibajumiirira ekikorwa ky'obwiniza ekyo. Satellite 4: Elaboration - further details of the attack Ngu omukazi ogu abaire naajumana ati: 'Kumanyoko, kumanyoko' nikwo kuhika aha kereziya bakagitaho omuriro. Satellite 5: Contextualisation - previous events leading up to the present news event Abaheekyera ba Kony n'obu batwire nibabonabonesa abantu ba Mukama omu matemba ga Uganda barikucwaho abantu amatu, eminwa, bakahamba otwishiki tw'emyaka eshatu nibagira ngu nibarwanisa gavumenti ya Uganda ahabw'okwenda ngu Uganda etegyekyerwe aha biragiro ikumi bya Ruhanga. Satellite 6: Attitudinal - assessing the rebels' detestable conduct by referring to the previous event Abaheekyera aba hoona obwinazi buhikire okubarenga obu baherize kushanga abantu bari aha mukoro gw'okushendekyereza omugyenzi bakagyema abantu ngu bateeke omurambwe gw'omuntu ogwo obaire afire bagurye. Satellite 7: Elaboration - more details on the previous event Amakuru nigagira ngu abaheekyera ba Kony bakareeberera abantu abaabaire bari aha rufu nibarya enyama z'omuntu bariyo nibasheka. Satellite 8: Contextualisation - historical location of war and details of the rebel group Abaheekyera ba Kony baamara emyaka erikuhika 16 nibarwanisa gavumenti ya Muvumenti kandi eilhe ryabo nibagira ngu n'erya Mukama. Nibeeyeta aba Lord's Resistance Army ekirikumanyisa ngu n'eihe rya Mukama. Kwonka obwinazi obu barikukora abantu ba Mukama burengire emigorora. (Source: Orumuri, September 30-October 6, 2002, p. 18) Text 6 recounts the destruction of a church and a radio station as well as other atrocities committed by the rebels of the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) during the Kony war. The war which affected the northern parts of Uganda mainly Acholi, Lango, Teso and West Nile regions, raged on from the 1990s throughout the 2000s. This news report was one of the very few reports carried by Orumuri. If we compare Text 6 to Text 5, significant differences abound. Text 6 is more comprehensive, recounted in eight satellites. The headlines (with a secondary headline) and the lead provide a watershed point for the rest of the story. The subsequent body satellites refer back to the headlines/lead opening to specify her elements. The first satellite identifies the radio that was burnt down while the second and fourth satellites provide more details of the attack, identifying the person that led the attack and what she was saying. The third satellite is an evaluation of the act, that is, disbelief and condemnation from eyewitnesses. A similar attitudinal assessment is exhibited in Satellite 6 where the news reporter abhors an earlier action of the rebels. The news writer provides the context by identifying the rebel group and describing prior actions [atrocities] the rebels have committed in satellites 5 and 8 . The final satellite combines both the contextualisation and attitudinal assessment. An attempt to rearrange the satellites to conform to radical editability is not possible due to the close relationship between satellites and the use of anaphoric references. For example, although Satellite 4 specifies an element in the lead, it relates closely to Satellite 2 such that it would not appear in a position prior to this satellite. Similarly, satellites 6 and 7 equally reach back to the lead to specify one of its elements, Abaheekyera ba Joseph Kony, satellite 7 follows from satellite 6, thus an attempt to position it before satellite 6 would lead to textual unintelligibility. This analysis demonstrates that Runyakitara hard news reports recount news events in a discontinuous manner. Therefore, their generic structure is similar to that of English language hard news (White, 1997; Thomson et al., 2008). The story genres we may have come across either in school or during our life experiences are characterised by a linear flow of events, that is, from the beginning to the end. However, as we have observed in the two news reports analysed above, the Runyakitara news story does not exhibit a similar flow of news events. While its beginning can be clearly identified as the nucleus, it does not exhibit a conclusion nor does it present a resolution to the events it elaborates.


Instruction: Conclusion

Response: In this chapter, we have analysed Runyakitara texts focusing on story genres, namely the traditional Runyakitara tale and a news recount. Using genre analysis, we have observed that the Runyakitara story genre bears resemblance to the story genre obtaining in the European and American societies. The Runyakitara story exhibits a similar rhetorical structure to the English-language one albeit with some differences. We have also noted that the Resolution stage, at times, may comprise a recitation or a song, which contributes to the resolution of a problem. Whereas the Coda is optional and its removal does not render the story incomplete, most Runyakitara stories apparently exhibit one. Since this is one of the preliminary attempts to analyse Runyakitara texts using genre principles, the interpretations are open to further scrutiny. More research is required to examine more texts and other genres in order to establish the occurring and non-occurring stages. More research is also welcome to enhance, supplant or critique the current scholarship. There is also need to extend similar research to other newspaper texts, for example, sports reports, features, opinion pieces, etc. Other texts like the exemplum, recount, anecdotes have not been examined due to space and time limitations. However, they do exist in Runyakitara and we exhort scholars to undertake a generic analysis of such texts. Note that the approach employed in this chapter to analyse the genre of stories can be equally applied to other Runyakitara texts. Therefore, the need to study other texts not examined here is dire, particularly, editorials, endagaano y'oburagwa (Will), and endagaano y'okuguza (Sale Agreement) because they are so far the only existing common written texts in Runyakitara.


Instruction: References

Response: Ayers, G. (2008). The evolutionary nature of genre: An investigation of the short texts accompanying research articles in the scientific journal Nature. English for Specific Purposes, 27(1), 22-41. Bazerman, C. (2004). Speech acts, genres, and activity systems: How texts organise activity and people. In C. Bazerman & P. Prior (Eds.). (2004). What writing does and how it does it: An introduction to analysing texts and textual practices (pp. 309339). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bazerman, C. (Ed.). (2008). Handbook of research on writing: History, society, school, individual, text. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bell, A. (1991). The language of news media. Oxford: Blackwell. Berkenkotter, C., & Huckin, T. N. (1995). Genre knowledge in disciplinary communication: Cognition/culture/power. Hillsdale: Laurence Erlbaum Associate, Publishers. Bhatia, K. V. (1993). Analysing genres: Language use in professional settings. London: Longman. Bhatia, V. K. (1997). Genre-mixing in academic introductions. English for Specific Purposes, 16(3), 181-195. Bhatia, V. (2002). Genres in conflict. In A. Trosborg (Ed.). (2002). Analysing professional genres (pp. 147-161). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Bhatia, K. V. (2004). Worlds of written discourse. London: Continuum. Bhatia, V. K. (2008). Genre analysis, ESP and professional practice. English for Specific Purposes, 27, 161-174. Bhatia, V. K., Flowerdew, J., & Jones, R. H. (2008). Approaches to discourse analysis. In V. K. Bhatia, J. Flowerdew, & R. H. Jones (Eds.). Advances in discourse studies (pp. 11-28). Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge. Biber, D. & Conrad, S. (2009). Register, genre, and style. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McCarthy, M. (2001). Discourse analysis for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (1993). Introduction: How a genre approach to literacy can transform the way writing is taught. In B. Cope, & M. Kalantzis (Eds.). (1993). The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing (pp. 1-21). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh. Devitt, A. J. (2004). Writing genres. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Eggins, S. (1994). Introduction to systemic functional linguistics. London: Pinter. Eggins, S., & Slade, D. (1997). Analysing casual conversation. London: Cassell. Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Arnold. Fairclough, N. (1998). Political discourse in the media: An analytical framework. In A. Bell & P. Garrett (Eds.). (1998). Approaches to media discourse (pp. 142-162). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Freedman, A., & Medway, P. (1994). Locating genre studies: Antecedents and prospects. In A. Freedman, & P. Medway (Eds.). (1994). Genre and the new rhetoric (pp. 1-20). London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. Gillaerts, P., & Shaw, P. (2006). Introduction: Genre and norm. In P. Gillaerts, & P. Shaw (Eds.). (2006). The map and the landscape: Norms and practices in genre (pp. 7-20). Bern: Peter Lang, AG, International Academic Publishers. Hopkins, A., & Dudley-Evans, T. (1988). A genre-based investigation of the discussion sections in articles and dissertations. English for Specific Purposes, 7(2), 113121. Hyland, K. (2002). 6. Genre: Language, context, and literacy. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 113-135. Hyland, K., 2003. Genre-based pedagogies: A social response to process. Journal of Second Language Learning, 12, 17-29. Feez, S., Iedema, R., & White, P. (2010). Media literacy. New South Wales Department of Education and Training: NSW AMES Quality Language & Literacy Services. Jørgensen, M. W., & Phillips, L. J. (2002). Discourse analysis as theory and method. London: Sage Publications. Kitley, P. (2008). Winning an 'information war': An Indonesian case study. In E. Thomson, & P. R. R. White (Eds.). (2008). Communicating conflict: Multilingual case studies of the news media (pp. 203-225). London: Continuum. Kress, G. (1993). Genre as social process. In B. Cope, & M. Kalantzis (Eds.). (1993). The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing (pp. 22-37). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh. Labov, W., & Waletzky, J. (1967). Narrative analysis: Oral versions of personal experience. In J. Helm (Ed.). (1967). Essays in verbal and visual arts (pp. 12-44). Seattle: University of Washington Press. Lee, D. Y. (2001). Genres, registers, text types, domains and styles: Clarifying the concepts and nevigating a path through the BNC jungle. Language learning


Instruction: E

Response: E Technology. 37. Retrieved from http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/infomark.do?. Mackin-Horarik, M. (2002). "Something to shoot for": A Systemic Functional approach to teaching genre in secondary school. In A. M., Johns, (Ed.). (2002). Genre in the classroom: multiple perspectives (pp. 17-42). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Martin J. R., & White P. R. R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. (2008). Genre relations: Mapping culture. London: Equinox. Martin, J. R. (2009). Genre and language learning: a social semiotic perspective. Linguistics and Education, 20, 10-21. McCarthy, M. (2001). Discourse analysis for lananguage teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mencher, M. (2008). Melvin Mencher's news reporting and writing (11 th th Edn.). New York: McGrawHill Higher Education. Mugumya, L. (2013). The discourse of conflict: An appraisal analysis of newspaper genres in English and Runyankore-Rukiga in Uganda (2001-2010). (Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch University). Muntigl, P., & Gruber, H. (2005). Introduction: Approaches to genre. Folia Linguistica, 39(1-2), 1-18. Myers, G. (2000). Powerpoint presentations: Technology, lectures and changing genres. In A. Trosborg (Ed.). (2000). Analysing professional genres (pp. 177-191). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Norlyk, B. (2006). Clashing norms: Job ads or job narratives? In P. Gillaerts & P. Shaw (Eds.). (2006). The map and the landscape: Norms and practices in genre (pp. 43-61). Bern: Peter Lang. Paltridge, B. (2002). Genre, text type, and the English for academic purposes (EAP) classroom. In A. M. Johns (Ed.). (2002). Genre in the classroom: Multiple perspectives (pp. 73-90). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Ramanathan, V., & Kaplan, R. B. (2000). Genres, authors, discourse communities: Theory and application for (L1 and) L2 writing instructors. Journal of Second Language Writing, 9(2), 171-191. Richardson, J. E. (2007). Analysing newspapers: An approach from critical discourse analysis. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Swales, J. M. (1990). Genres analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thomson, E. A., White, P. R. R., & Kitley, P. (2008). "Objectivity" and "hard news" reporting across cultures: Comparing the news report in English, French, Japanese and Indonesian journalism. Journalism Studies, 9(2), 212-228. van Leeuwen, T. (2008). News genres. In R. Wodak, & V. Koller (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of communication in the public sphere (pp. 345-362). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Visser, M. (2013). African languages in a new linguistic dispensation: Challenges for research and teaching at universities (Inaugural lecture delivered at Stellenbosch University on 9 April 2013). White, P. R. R. (1997). Death, disruption and the moral order: The narrative impulse in mass-media 'hard news' reporting. In F. Christie & J. R. Martin (Eds.). (1997). Genre and institutions: Social processes in the workplace and school (pp. 101-133). London: Continuum. White, P. R. (2006). Evaluative semantics and ideological positioning in journalistic discourse: A new framework for analysis. In I. Lassen, J. Strunck & T. Vestergaard (Eds.). (2006). Mediating ideology in text and image: Ten critical studies (pp. 37-67). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.


Instruction: Footnotes

Response: 4 4 See Temporal Adverbials or Time Indicators in Chapter 3. ↩


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: This important feature has not been dealt with in this

Response: study; however, we shall say a few words about tone.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: If one looks closely at the examples given above, one will notice that, out of the 29 sounds illustrated, it has been possible to

Response: give identical examples in Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga for 17 sounds. For a further eight sounds, the examples showed some differences. Finally, for four sounds, namely;


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: ,3, and ts, examples could only be found in Runyankore-Rukiga. Of these last four, only

Response: 3 appears in Runyankore-Rukiga as a whole whereas the other three are somewhat attested in Ruhima.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Tentatively, therefore, one can say that fairly similar examples can be found in the utilisation of about three quarters of the sounds. We need, however,

Response: to examine these sounds in more detail to find out how and where they differ or are similar in their utilisation in the different dialects.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: These two sounds, which are far removed from each other from the articulatory point of view, are

Response: otherwise quite close in Runyakitara. This could be due to the fact that in some languages (like English),


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: p as a sound on its own is rather rare, both in Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga. It is mostly in loan words - such as Paapa (Pope); paasi (flat iron); pakiti (packet); paipu (pipe); kupakira (to pack);

Response: kupima (to measure); kupangisa (to hire); etc. We also have a few words of onomatopoeic nature, such as: Ipapa (wing); kupapamuka (to move excitedly); kupaapaara (move aimlessly everywhere); kupasuka (break suddenly); kupakuka (walk quickly); et cetera.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: h, on the other hand, occurs very frequently both in Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga. Common examples include: kuha (to give); kuhaata (to peel); kuhaba (to lose one's way); kuhaga (to inflate or to

Response: get filled up); kuhama (to take root); kuhamba (to seize, to rape); kuheeka (to carry on one's back); kuhika (to arrive or to reach); kuhoma (to plaster); kuhunda (to decorate); et cetera.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: v, on the other hand, is not frequent in Runyakitara. It is

Response: mostly found in loan or foreign words, especially in Runyoro-Rutooro. Examples include:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: t.t is overwhelmingly used among the speakers of Rukiga, Runyankore and by a large majority of the Rutooro speakers. A

Response: section of Rutooro speakers, however, particularly in the Kyaka area and an overwhelming majority of Runyoro speakers, use the alveolar


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: t ' pronounced as an alveolar by most Banyoro and some Batooro and as a

Response: dental by the Bakiga, Banyankore and most of the Batooro. Note that the dental '


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: t ', in phonetics, is usually transcribed by adding a diacritic symbol

Response: looking like the profile of a stool on two legs below the '


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: t among the Bantu speakers of Uganda. From the Rutooro

Response: speakers westwards up to and including Kinyarwanda and Kirundi speakers, dental


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: t is used predominantly. As one goes eastwards from a section of Rutooro speakers, through

Response: Runyoro, Luganda and Lusoga speakers up to the Lumasaba speakers on the Kenyan border, the alveolar


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: t is one of the most frequent sounds in Runyakitara in

Response: the same way as it dominates in many other languages. Contrary to


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: ts sound, on the other hand, is not widely used in Runyakitara. It is mainly used by the pastoral Bahima among the Runyankore

Response: speakers, with a few other Banyankore using it. It is also used by Kinyarwanda speakers outside Runyakitara area. Elsewhere in Runyakitara area, the


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: rr These sounds are very frequent in Runyakitara particularly [f].

Response: This latter is the sound most heard in Runyankore-Rukiga, whereas where


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: r, is most common among Rutooro speakers, although it is heard

Response: under different variations throughout the area under study, especially in Ankore.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: r, it will be noted that throughout the Runyakitara area, it is

Response: usually pronounced flapped /f/, such that the following will be pronounced thus:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: [l] is used as in RunyoroRutooro although many Bakiga believe they do not have it simply because it

Response: is not in the Runyankore-Rukiga orthography. As mentioned earlier, it is most frequent in RunyoroRutooro, where it varies with


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: rr - also called a trill - is concerned, as mentioned earlier, it is most widely

Response: used among the Rutooro speakers but can also be found in other cases. In Rutooro, the sound


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: rr in Rutooro is translated. The most common pronunciation seems to be that of Runyoro 1. Runyoro 2 seems to be more common among those who had some formal training in

Response: Runyoro-Rutooro because that was the standard pronunciation as reflected in the standard orthography. The speakers of Runyoro 3 are also many and seem to have some Luganda influence in their pronunciation.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: r such that the equivalent of the Rutooro omurro (fire) would be

Response: omuriro. In real pronunciation, however, different sounds can be heard as shown below:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: r is clearly rolled but the difference between this pronunciation

Response: and that of Rutooro is that the vowel preceding the rolled


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: r is lengthened in Rutooro. Note also that among the Rutooro speakers,

Response: especially the younger generation, there is a tendency to pronounce the rolled


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: r in Rutooro and Runyankore and the flapped f in Runyoro have reached the highest stage of

Response: simplification from a historical point of view. One can postulate that the older pronunciation of the rolled


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: In the case of kye and gye, there is need

Response: in the orthography to add or not to add the palatal


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: g has some variations. The Rukiga speakers tend to pronounce them as full palatals; that is, omukyeeka (mat), is pronounced [omuceeka] and omugyenyi (visitor),

Response: is pronounced [omujeni]. Many Runyankore speakers, especially among the agricultural Banyankore or the non Bahima, also tend to pronounce in the same manner. The


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: y. In the above two examples, the Bahima would, therefore, pronounce [omuk'eeka]

Response: and [omug'eni]. This latter pronunciation by Bahima, however, seems to be disappearing.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: gi, which are pronounced as full palatals by Rukiga speakers and many

Response: Runyankore speakers but as palatalised velars by a few Runyankore speakers. Note on


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: y are usually called, in phonetics, frictionless continuants or approximants. They are

Response: also called semi-vowels or semi-consonants. In their production, the articulatory organs (lips for


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: y ) neither come in real contact (as in the case of consonants)

Response: nor are they totally separated from each other (as in the case of vowels).


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Note that this chart emerges out of a combination of

Response: all sounds in Runyakitara as shown in Charts 1-5 above.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: The root is therefore the basic form containing the basic meaning of a word and not reducible to any further meaning. The morphemes that come before, after, or within

Response: the root are called affixes. The affixes before the root are called prefixes while those after the root are suffixes while those within the root would be called infixes.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Bantu languages (including Runyakitara) are well known for making their sentences

Response: by agglutinating different affixes before and after a root as in (Runyoro-Rutooro):


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: 'We have never seen him/her at all'. Literally, 'We did not see him ever, even a little.' This very long sentence could be said to be a one-word sentence. If we can define words as

Response: items which are usually found in dictionaries, however, then clearly the above is not a word but an item belonging to the grammar of the language. It is therefore more of a sentence than a word.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: From the above examples, one can see that the root remains invariant except when followed by any other tense/aspect except -ire or -irege when -gend-becomes genz - to go -rund-becomes runz - to heap -cand-becomes

Response: canz - to suffer It can be said that -gend-, rund- and cand-become genz, runz, and canz when followed by -ire. The perfective -ire, especially in Runyoro-Rutooro, also gives a good example of morphemes and allomorphs.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: The most common allomorphs for the perfective are -ire and -ere. This means that -ire and -ere are different manifestations of

Response: the same morpheme (the perfect or perfective). Furthermore, these allomorphs appear in specific, well-determined conditions as in the following examples in Runyoro-Rutooro:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Generally speaking, the above examples bring out the following rules: In bisyllabic verb

Response: stems (1), -ere is found when the vowel preceding the last consonant is either


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: In bisyllabic verb stems, -ire is found in all other conditions,

Response: i.e. when the vowel preceding the last consonant of the stem is


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: (See previous examples in (ii)). In verb stems of more than two syllables, the

Response: tendency is always to have -ire as the perfective in the examples in (ii) above.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: The allomorphs for the perfective are not only -ire and -ere, although these are the most

Response: common. Others are -ize, -eze and -ine, as will be shown in the study on the verb.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: -ire seems to be more acceptable in Tooro while the rule

Response: would make one expect -ere as most people in Bunyoro do. 1


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: It could also be noted that in Runyankore-Rukiga, -ere is hardly heard but ire seems to be the general form for not the perfective as in Runyoro-Rutooro but the near past

Response: as we shall see later. 3. In trisyllabic and longer verb stems, the presence of -ire, though fairly systematic, can sometimes be replaced by -ere in such verbs in Runyoro-Rutooro as:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Class 1 (People class): This class is marked by -mu-

Response: and is exclusively for human beings. In terms of number,


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: This class also has nouns that remain only in singular form; for example, o-muhangi, creator and o-mu-cunguzi, saviour. They remain in singular because they are referring to a deity, and there is, at least in the Judeo-Christian tradition, there is no more than one creator. These are denoted by 1a on the table. 1a also

Response: consists of nouns of people that have no prefixes; for example, shwento (uncle) shwenkazi (aunt). Class 2 (People class, plural): This class is marked by -ba- and includes only human beings. Note that the same class, -ba-marks number as well; that is, -ba- has a double role, both as a class marker and also marks number.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Class 2 is divided further to 2a to cater for those nouns with no class prefix marker in singular form but with a prefix marker in plural form. For example, baa-shwento. Class 3 (MU):

Response: This class is marked by -mu- and it covers names of trees, some plants and their products as well as household items and borrowed terms. Nouns in this class are singular. a) Trees and Plants


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Singular Gloss o-mu-sana Sunshine, daylight o-mu-aka Year o-mu-irima Darkness o-mu-ika Smoke There are nouns in this class

Response: which can occur only in singular and are marked by 3a in the table above, examples: o-mu-irima (darkness).


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Class 4 (MI): This is the plural of class 3

Response: and is marked by prefix -mi- in the following examples:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Singular Gloss e-i-baare/i-baale stone e-i-cumu/i-cumu spear e-i-baati/i-baate iron sheet 5a includes nouns which do not change to either singular or plural; for instance: eisiru

Response: (stupidity). Class 6 (MA): This is a plural class of 5 and is marked by -ma-. Examples for Class 5 can change as listed below:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Singular Gloss a-ma-baare/a-ma-baale a-ma-cumu a-ma-baati stones spears iron sheets Class 6a consists

Response: of mass and abstract nouns that do not change to singular form:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: e-. The reason is likely to be that these nouns are used as proper nouns

Response: for these cows and proper nouns normally do not bear the initial vowel in Runyakitara.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: A few loan words seem to have adopted both the

Response: initial vowel and the class prefix as can be seen below:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: E-n-te z-a-nge zi-nu nooha a-zi-rees-ire hanu? "Who has brought my cows here?" It seems it

Response: is this zi- allomorph which transforms into zaa- and used as a plural equivalent of


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: The plural of the above nouns seems to be problematic,

Response: and one would seem to navigate between the prefixes ga- and


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Class 12 (KA): This is an attributive class for it denotes "thin and

Response: small". The prefixes can be used with nouns that normally belong to other classes.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: tu - is a form of diminutive usually denoting very tiny things which

Response: are reduced in quantity or size. There are three major ways in which


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: 12−ka-, when something small is made to look even smaller, as in: a-ka-sera

Response: / a-ka-shera some little porridge o-tu-sera / o-tu-shera a tiny amount of millet porridge


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: iii) As a substitution to any noun from any other class, particularly uncountables, when

Response: one wants to lay emphasis on the object being tiny or minute, as in:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Rubongoya (1999) points out that there is only one word which originally belongs to this class, namely: o-tu-ro 'sleep'. Class

Response: 14 (BU): Nouns in this class operate in the following ways: a) As the plural of the nouns in class


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: One notes that when a verb at the infinitive is nominalized, the nominalization process often brings about a new element in the form of a

Response: suffix added to the verb stem as seen in most of the examples above. As the plural of class 6, ma- in such nouns as:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Class 15 (KU): This class is marked by -ku- and nouns are in singular form.

Response: Nouns found here are mainly for body parts and other items. Examples: o-ku-guru (leg) o-ku-tu (ear)


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: o−ku-ju (knee) The plural of this class is class 6 (MA) examples: a-ma-guru (legs) a-ma-tu (ears) a-ma-ju (knees) One notes that

Response: the overwhelming majority of the words in this class are verbal infinitives both in their affirmative and negative forms as shown below:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Class 16 (HA): This class is marked by -ha- and has nouns that mark/indicate location. a-ha-kaanyima / ha-kaanyuma (behind

Response: the...) a-ha-muryango / ha-mulyango (by the sitting room) a-ha-iguru / ha-iguru (on top, up) Class 17 (KU): This class, marked


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: ku-, is also a locative with a limited number of examples such as: o-ku-zimu "underneath, underground" Class 18

Response: (MU): This too is a class for locative nouns. Examples include: o-mu-nda (in the stomach) o-mu-nju (inside the house)


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Class 20 - 21 (GU-GA): This is a pejorative class which denotes "gawky, unwieldy". The

Response: prefixes, though unfamiliar and used derogatively, can be used with any nouns except the mass ones.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Note that for you (pl.) and they (pl.), the object pronoun is the same

Response: -ba-. It is from the context that we can tell who is being talked about.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: It should be noted that for the non-human third person, the noun

Response: takes pronoun according to the noun class. These pronouns are also dependent.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Examples (Ry/Rk) gu-gw-ire haihi n'eishomero it fell near the school gu-gu-gw-er-e-ire it

Response: fell on it tu-ka-reets-ire we brought it ti-bu-ka-sheesh-ire it is not yet dawn


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: We should note that in Runyoro-Rutooro 'that one there' and 'that one at a distance' are rendered by the same morpheme; i.e., --li(ri), whereas in RunyankoreRukiga the suffix -ya is added to -ri meaning 'that' far. In Runyoro-Rutooro, in order to differentiate between 'that one there' and 'that one at a distance' or 'far' one tends to use a

Response: rising intonation in the second instance, i.e. for 'that far'. If we used tone markers, we can illustrate this differentiation by the following example: óli- 'that there' as opposed to óli- 'that far'. (2) Interrogative Pronouns: Interrogative pronouns are used in inquiry to ask direct questions. They are made up of class prefix, followed by the following markers: -ha,


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: −ki as in the following examples: oha? 'who', ki? "what"

Response: hi? "who" (Ry/Rk). The following sentences (Ry/Rk) will illustrate the above:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: N'oha? (Who is it?) Ni baahi? (Who are those?) Niki? (What is it?) Nikiha? (Which one?) (3) Possessive Pronouns: These are pronouns that show ownership or possession. The

Response: possessive pronoun consists of markers indicating: i) the possessed, ii) the possessive marker, iii) the possessor. For example, ekyange [e-ki-a-nge] (mine) in Runyoro-Rutooro can be broken down as follows:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: In Runyakitara, the following examples show the use of cardinal pronouns: Mushanju bakaba baine abaana, ikumi bataine. Seven had children, ten did not. (Ry/Rk) Ababiri bamira ebigambo, abasatu babisatura. The two swallow words, the three scatter them. (Rn/Rt) Bataano bahikire, ikumi tibakahikire. Five have reached, ten have not yet reached.

Response: (Rn/Rt) (5) Indefinite Pronouns: Indefinite pronouns are those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or places. They are called "indefinite" simply because they do not indicate the exact object, being, or place to which they refer. Boona, bakye, baingi, bingi, kikye, kakye, gamwe, are some examples in Runyankore-Rukiga.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Indefinite pronouns in Runyakitara can be used as follows: Boona baija hati All of them have come now. Bamwe baine, abandi tibaine Some have, others do not have Baija baine bukye kwonka batwara bwingi They have come with few, but they have taken much (6) Relative Pronouns: These normally replace a noun in a relative clause, where they

Response: play the role of subject or object. They are normally represented by a class prefix with its initial vowel with some minor modifications. This can be demonstrated in the following Runyankore-Rukiga sentences: Abaana abu naareeba n'abaawe. The children whom I have seen are yours. Abaana abarikwija n'abaawe. The children who are coming are yours. In the first sentence,


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: A few examples with Class 7 are given below in Runyoro-Rutooro: Ekisono eki tuhiigire tukiriire. The animal that we have hunted, we have eaten (We have eaten the animal that we have hunted). Ekihuka ekimurumire tukiisire. The insect that has bitten him, we have killed. (We

Response: have killed the insect that has bitten him.) As a general rule, in Runyakitara orthography, when the relative pronoun plays the role of subject, it is attached to the clause that it heads, whereas when it plays the role of object, it is separated from it.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Certain literature on Bantu languages indicates that such cases as exemplified above are demonstratives (Rugemalira, 2007). We also support the fact that

Response: they are demonstratives, but since what they demonstrate is the noun they succeed, we maintain that they are demonstrative adjectives in Runyakitara.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: In Runyankore-Rukiga, there are four positions that are described with demonstrative adjectives. These are:

Response: 'this here': near, 'that there': some visible distance, visible/previously referred to, and 'that': far away.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: the star indicates that it is difficult to imagine a habitual occurring in a near future or

Response: a near past because these tenses do not permit enough time to make an act habitual, for example:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: He used to come (yesterday!!) The above are combinations between tense and aspect but one can also

Response: have combinations between aspect and aspect, whereby one of the aspects plays the role of tense as follows:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: ni−tu−bani−tu−kur−a pres. pron. be progr. pron. mv vf subj. subj. The meaning is

Response: not "we are working now" but "we are usually working". The explanation is that


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: ni - also expresses the habitual both in RunyoroRutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga. So when in Runyoro-Rutooro ni- combines

Response: with ni-, what comes out is that the first ni- expresses the habitual present while the second


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: At that time, what are you usually doing'? Or 'At

Response: that time, what would you be doing? The answer would be:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: ni−+ni - tends therefore to introduce the notion of a hypothetical habitual

Response: action in the present, i.e. Something that one should usually be doing.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: −∅ - plays essentially the role of a tense and the corresponding morpheme that of an aspect as in: tu -ø- ba ni- tu- li- a pron. pres

Response: aux. pres pron mv. fv subj. hab be progr. subj. eat we "We are usually eating" The summary of combinations in Runyankore-Rukiga would be as follows: Tense + aspect


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: The combination involving -ire + is interesting in Runyankore-Rukiga because it brings out

Response: clearly the function of -ire as a recent past. The possible combinations are:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: 'We were sick' (for example, the day before yesterday), we see clearly that the

Response: first -ire express the recent past while the second -ire expresses the stative aspect.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: It should also be noted that Runyoro-Rutooro uses the compound verb forms much more than Runyankore-Rukiga. The latter has other ways of

Response: bringing out these concepts more particularly through phrasal expressions, for example: tu- ri-yo ni-tu-zina pron. aux. pron. 'We are dancing right now'


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Ndozire nti nookora kurungi. I have seen that you are

Response: working well. I have seen that your work is good.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: of words in terms of the different semantic properties as outlined above would not be as consistent if a category like nouns for class 3 and 4 are taken to be nouns referring to living things, yet others that refer to living things cannot fit in these particular noun classes. Class 5 nouns in Rubongoya (1999) are seen to belong to various categories

Response: yet many of them could be subcategorised under a few categories only. For instance, there is no difference between igamba (talk, n) and igenda (travel, n). They can belong to the same category. A revised categorisation would therefore bring about a concrete representation of the correspondence between a mind view of these words and the objects which they represent in the real world.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: The list is a range of entities that exist. All sub-entities that fall under an entity have 'names'. Examples are shown in Table 5.3 under the column for objects. The names are the words in the vocabulary of a language. For instance, the term 'flower' is under 'plant' because a leaf is a plant object. The term 'house' is

Response: under material objects. This shows that what is in the language is also in the world, and most likely vice versa. Hence, the terms 'four' and 'tomorrow' come under quantity and temporal objects respectively. These kinds of divisions qualify to be the domains of words. The above are taken as the domains into which the mind divides up all things.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Apart from the domains and the terms (words) under each of them, the situa-tion-role theory specifies that the entities referred to by the terms (words) are acted on, and the actions

Response: are spoken about. For example, 'a flower withers'. This is an action which is a result of force/conditions of nature. Seen from another example, a number is counted or added to another.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: It is possible that when actions take place, they are spoken about. Speech is in terms of sentences. Sentences follow the logical order of the action (depending on the language). For instance, the

Response: order of the event 'a flower withers', has the intrinsic structure 'something changes', which in speech (in English expression) is SV (Subject + Verb); that is, The flower withered or The flower has withered.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: To view the above as actions, we can talk of 'changes', 'causations', 'nonchanges', etc. On the other hand, they can be considered as roles if seen against the background of the entities that

Response: perform them; for example, in 'The car is moving slowly', 'move (verb) denotes change in space. In 'The key opened the door', 'open' denotes causation (that is, the key causes the door to open).


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Based on the the situation-role theory, whose concepts are semantic categories and semantic-roles as listed and symbolised above, sentences can be symbolically formalised to show

Response: their semantic structure (thst is, pattern), as in the examples below. (The upper-case symbols are from Table 5.4 and the lower-case symbols are from Table 5.3).


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Formalization (that is, semantic structure): Vh Gq Sentence: The ball hit me on the head. Formalization (that is, semantic structure): Zr Wh

Response: Rl The formalization above corresponds to the sentence structure SVC and SVOA respectively on a one-to-one correspondence. This correspondence is called syntaxsemantic isomorphism.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: The semantic situation-role theory has practical implications for lexicon (vocabulary) and dictionary making. In terms of lexicon, it is possible for one to choose to compile a lexicon (vocabulary) of a plant object, e.g. 'leaves'. It will not make sense

Response: to compile the terms of all leaves, but for a particular type of leaves, and in a particular way. For instance, in Runyakitara, it makes sense to compile the specific names of leaves of types of plants. Examples are (


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Ry/Rk ): amashansha (banana leaves) - amababi g'emitumba (leaves of a banana tuber) ebishuusha (pumpkin leaves) - amamabi g'ebihaaza/ebyozi

Response: (leaves of pumpkins) This kind of compilation is a called a subject dictionary, or a lexicon in general terms.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: For a defining dictionary, the semantic situation-role theory has the implication that meanings of words can be determined on the basis of the action that impacts on an entity. For instance, in 'The car is moving slowly'

Response: we know that 'to move' is to change in space relative to a location. For a 'car' in particular and other things which 'move', the definition of 'to move would be to go from one point to another'.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: A new meaning can also be sought if a different entity were the one undergoing the action (of the verb), e.g. 'The time is moving slowly'. In this case, 'move' means 'to complete a cycle'. It shows that if a different entity other than the normal entity performs the action, the implied meaning changes. This is an aspect of metaphoricity, and therefore meaning extension. How

Response: is this? 'move' as an example, is normally in relation to concrete objects if they change in space from one position to another. A non-concrete object such as time cannot be said to 'move' in this context. In cases where this verb is used to refer to time or any other non-concrete object, then the intended meaning is metaphorical (an extension of the basic meaning).


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Also, it is possible to use the semantic situation-role theory to write a systematic thesaurus. For instance, in terms of synonyms, the words 'price' (n.) and 'measure' (n.) may not belong to the same domain (that is, semantic category) of quantity objects if they are looked at from the perspective of their meaning. If 'price' is meant to mean 'value' it needs to belong to the

Response: abstract objects. But if it is meant to mean 'figure' (as in price tag), it needs to be put under quantity objects. Therefore, the specific meaning of words will be the basis of grouping words as synonyms under the different domains. This explains why 'price' and 'measure' may not be synonymous in certain cases. Indeed, it is the reason the two words are not direct synonyms


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: of each other in the following list of synonyms recorded in Fergusson (1986, p. 323) demonstrated below. price, n. cost, expense, fee, rate, charge, value, worth, amount, figure, expenditure, outlay, valuation, assessment, estimate, quotation, bounty, reward. measure, n. size, magnitude, quantity, amount, extent, degree, scope, range. Using semantic categories

Response: to identify synonyms, it is justified to have the word endorero (Runyankore-Rukiga) being a synonym of ekifumuka (Runyankore-Rukiga) and vice versa. This can be judged from their meaning below as portrayed in Oriikiriza (2007, p. 161), whereby the meaning situates the words in the domain of material objects: endorero (n.)


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Akahengyere aku baabire bafumura omu kisiika ngu abakazi bareeberemu abagyenyi omu ... ibanga, ahabw'okuba bakaba bataikirizibwa kuzayo kubareeba nari kubahikaho. (A hole in one of

Response: the rooms in the house, which was used by women to see visitors. Women were not allowed to see visitors or come close to them.)


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Ekifumuka ky'orwigi eki baabaire bareeberamu enyamaishwa nari omuzigu aheeru nyekiro. (A hole in the door through which one observed an animal or enemy when it is outside at night.) According to

Response: the meanings above, the word endorero is a sub-set of ekifumuka. The latter includes the meaning of the former. Nonetheless, they depict entities that belong to the same domain, i.e. material object.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Similarly, the Runyoro-Rutooro word enkamyo (n.) would belong to the domain of material object and plant. It is given in Ndoleriire et al. (2009, p.

Response: 44) with the following senses, which can be a justification for this: enkamyo (n.) (1) sour milk, (2) a plant used to turn milk sour.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Clearly, in terms of semantic isomorphism of language, the semantic role-theory of language is reflective of situations that happen independent of language. It tells us of the phenomena (objects/entities) that exist in the real world independently outside language, but which are encoded in language (for purposes of communication). In the world of a Runyakitara speaker, there are objects/entities whose names have been illustrated through examples. The examples are, therefore, part of the vocabulary of Runyakitara. An attempt has

Response: been made to show how this vocabulary can be categorized systematically into ways in which the mind divides up all things. This has been done on the basis of the semantic situation-role theory. In the next section, emphasis now will be put on situations that take place and how they are encoded and expressed in language. The analysis will be based on the semantic situation-role theory (explained in the preceding section), with examples taken from English and Runyakitara.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: When the words in the pairs above are analysed, they are not

Response: exactly the same in meaning. Each will have a slight difference in meaning.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Some of the factors that influence synonyms in Runyakitara are: (a) Word borrowing: Some words are loan words in Runyakitara. For instance, kuyamba (help) is a loan word both in Runyankore-Rukiga and Runyoro-Rutooro. (b) Dialectal differences: For instance, omugyera (river)

Response: is predominantly used in Runyankore, whereas its counterpart omurindi (river) is predominantly used in Rukiga. (c) Social usage: In Runyoro-Rutooro some words are synonyms of others as a result of the palace language. For instance, okufa (die) is synonymous with okutu


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: uza (die) used in the case of the death of a king in Bunyoro and Tooro. Synonymy implies that a word has the same meaning as the other; at least one of its meanings if it is a word with multiple meanings. Even if it does not have multiple meanings, still it will

Response: have a sense in which it is similar and different to the other in meaning. Synonymy is an aspect of words (language) which originates from the realities of what is in the real world (linguistic isomorphism). We will take the meanings of 'hide' (v.) and 'conceal' (v.) (Hurford & Heasely, 1983) to illustrate this.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: In Runyoro-Rutooro a /b/ at the beginning of a sentence can sometimes be pronounced either as fricative

Response: or as plosive. But in this latter case, a single /b/ is used in spelling, for example:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Baitu omwana araha? Banura agenzire. Binu bintu ki? Baraatugamba ki? Buganda okarugayo di? But where is the

Response: child? Banura has gone. What are these? What will they say about us? When did you leave Buganda?


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: It is recommended that Runyankore-Rukiga adopts the same rule where onomatopoeic

Response: and loan words pronounced with a plosive are concerned, for example.:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Note that Runyankore-Rukiga orthography usually uses niinye while RunyoroRutooro uses ninye. The necessary doubling of the vowel

Response: ii does not seem to be necessary since it is brought about by the nasal ny [n].


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Proper nouns, whether foreign or local, are written with capital letters

Response: at the beginning; for example: Petero, Maria, Kasaija, Kaabataleesa, Bwengye, Twinomujuni.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Local or foreign words are usually written as they are pronounced

Response: except among the educated who would pronounce English loan-words in English:


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: The young educated person may, however, say: kulya sweets, instead of kulya switi (Rn/Rt) kugenda mu dance

Response: instead of kugenda mu dansi (Rn/Rt). (g) Doubling of vowels at the beginning and end of words


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Pita Kalyaki omusaija enyamibwa ou orukwija kusomaho omu mpapura z'akatabu kanu akaba ali musigazi w'emyaka abiri na musanju, w'emibiri ebiri, akaba akuzire amatukire n'ekyemo kirungi w'ensaya z'emihoiho, n'amaino g'ensiika akaba aine omutwe gw'ebyeyera n'enyindo y'abahuma ayamuroraga weena yamuligiraga, musaija murungi, kandi oburungi bwe nawe akaba abwemanyire. Musigazi mwecumi, ayamaraga omwanya buli kiro naakoraho isoke rye, amaino ge, omuleju

Response: gwe ogw'eruguru y'omunwa, ogu yakyahaga kurungi gusemeza abarozi; obundi yakuzaaga ebitarra. Okujwara kwe yakurolerraga nkooku ya rolerraga enzooka ye omu bantu. Yajwaraga empale eraihire, n'esaati ez'omulembe, n'ekooti ezirukwanguhirra ez'omusana, obundi yajwaraga enkufiira enungi na yo erukwanguhirra, ei yayetahoga kanyarubaju, hatali nk'abantu boona oku baijwara. Yagonzaaga kujwara gaarubindi ezirukwiragura ziroho akaguha akarukwiragura nako, ezaamulengiiziraga omu bikya obuzaabaga zitamuli ha nyindo.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Akaba ali Mugweri mwihwa w'Ababiito. Ise ha yaferiire akaba ahikire ha bunyoro bw'isaza. Kalyaki akaba asomere yahika omu masomero ga Sekendure. Ha kiro kimu omusigazi

Response: onu Kalyaki obu yagarukire omuka y'owanyina Bukwali orwebagyo ataire orupapura rw'amakuru omu nkwaha, akwasire n'akapakiti ka bisikiti, akasanga owanyina Violeti Nyakaisiki amulindiriize yamugira ati: "Koowe Acaali"


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Yamujuna ebi akaba akwasire namugira ati: "Leero koiizire ojwahiireyo kundi kiki?

Response: Nandi Kalyaki ati: "Banza ogende ontekanirizeeyo akakopo ka caai oije nkugambire."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Nyakaisiki ahingura hakaanyuma omu icumbiro ateekaniza caai enogere kurungi, nk'owanyina oku yagonzaaga, agimuleetera ha mulyango, aleteeraho n'ekikopo kye, habwokuba nawe

Response: akaba atakanywire. Obu yamazire kugimuteera omu kikopo, yakimwiriza haihi, amugira ati: "Mhu, gira turole, bintebeze ebikufwiireho kiro kinu omu rubuga."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Akasibura ebohiire, habwokuba Kalyaki akaba anyina ekihika okutebya ekimu eki yaboine, nkooku n'owanyina Nyakaisiki akaba aine ekihika ky'okuhuliriza. Agira owanyina ati: "Abwoli mmugwireho anyakuntaaha ha mutima, ou ndora buli kiro omu birooto byange, murungi nk'amata, naanuliirra nk'obwoki, kandi amagezi ga Ruhanga goona omukubumba omuntu akagamaliza

Response: ha ngingo ze. Akamuha omutwe gw'ekisorongyo n'obuso butiire empuuga, amaiso ge oti rundi gararagara, akamuha akanyindo k'engusuuru, n'amaino g'obutaagi, yamwongera ebikya by'entwiga n'amaguru g'enziringe, yamutaho ekyemo ky'omu bantu, n'omubiri ogurukumuliikana. Akamuha n'iraka erirukuheheera, eriijuliriza oburungi bw'omukazi weena. Ebyokujwara bye ni bimufubata kurungi, by'ecumi nk'omujwazi wabyo."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Obu akaba nabaza ebi byona n'ekihika nk'omuntu oku aba naatebya ebyokulya ebi yaliire byamunurra muno, Nyakaisiki

Response: amutaireho abiri n'ebimwemwe ha maiso n'ekikopo kya caai eki akaba naasa kwimukya kuta ha munwa abandize yakyegeka


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: ha meeza, nkooku Kalyaki na uwe akaba akozire, nubwo yamukagwize

Response: naaseka n'okuhunirra ati: "Deero nooha ogu anyakukumaziremu omutima ati; tomugamba tukamuhurrra?'


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Nandi Nyakaisiki ati: "Deeru nyowe ninsobora nta kuronza omwisiki anyakukutaaha ha

Response: mutima, kandi oworora omu birooto byawe, baitu owotakaboneraga kimu, kandi owotangambiire ibara!"


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Hanu Nyakaisiki aimuka ekikopo kye kukitá ha munwa naaseka habwokuba akaba naagenderra kusisana nk'arukuburanganiza owanyina Kalyaki. Kalyaki ayanguha kugarukamu bwango ati: "Onu hati ou ndukukusubirirra mmuboine n'amaiso gange kiro kya hati. Mmusangiriize omu Posita; twaba nitugenda Kilembe na Sebi, yayemerraaho kake ha posita kwihayo ebbaruha ye ya Regisita, na nyowe namukurata omu posita offiisi. Nyikaire ninkyatamu nti okuguru gaanyoleka omwisiki ogu

Response: ou naruga kukutebeza burungi butoonya, akaba ayemeriire haihi n'emeeza nabaza na mmutaahi we, naikara mmurolerire uwe atamboine, namwiha ha nono namuta ha kasoke eruguru, nagira omunda yange nti mwana wa muhuma we okasemera!" Deeru obu baikaire nibaija kuturuka nubwo twitiraitirainege omu mulyango namuramukya, yangarukamu n'okusemererwa nk'anyakuumanyire; baagenda. Sebi aikaire amazire kwihayo ebbaruha ye omu posita, arugayo naayanguhiriza tukingura motoka yaitu tugenda.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Obu mmukagwize nawe obu araaba amanyire omwisiki ogu yahakana. Kuruga obu Abwoli

Response: n'okuhikya hati buli kintu kyona eki rukunyija ha mutima omwisiki tarukukiikiriza kwikaramu.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Kalyaki: "Nkugambire nti naasisa amata, kandi naajwa nk'obwoki, nooragirwa kumunserurra

Response: obu oraaba otali w'okwikara noncumbira caai, noonyarra n'ekitabu ebiro byawe byona."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Nandi Nyakaisiki ati: "Obu araaba alimwikazi wa munu turaamumanya, obu araaba ali mugenyi nabwo turaamwetegereza. Akasi kaitu kake n'orubuga rwaitu rukyali rutoito omuntu tasobora kuburramu; n'abantu b'omwaitu munu

Response: bakwima byona tibakwima ngambo, obu baraaba baamuboineho kandi bamanyire okuligira balingambira, kyonka omurungi omu maiso g'omuntu omu asobora kutaba murungi omu g'ondi, rundi nkooku abandi bagamba: "Tikinurra matama abiri."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Pita Kalyaki akaruga omu Isomero ali w'emyaka abiri nebiri, ahonaaho yatunga omulimo gw'okukora omu Kampuni y'etaaba naaguza segereti. Akaba ahairwe kukorra omu Bugwaizooba bwa Uganda. Habw'amakune ge n'engeso ze ez'obuntu n'okubaza kurungi n'abantu akaleetera Kampuni ye abaguzi n'amagoba maingi; baitu hanyuma y'emyaka esatu bagole be bakamwemereza nabakozi bagenzi be abandi, obu baagwire omu musango gw'okuburanganiza etaaba, peterooli na sente ezimu. Gunu

Response: omulimo obu gwa muhoireho guti yagira ati: "Kangye Kenya." Akahikira ha basaija ba Kampuni enyakuguza peteroli okusabayo omulimo. Habw'omugisa gwe atasimbye atagugwireho, omu ba kampuni ya Shell. Baamukwasa Motoka okugendagenda naaranganiza amagita-ago naakebera na bbomba ezinyakugaguza hoona hoona. Na gunu omulimo akagugonza kandi akagukora kurungi. Bakama be baamusiima kyonka omu by'okuhemba bye eby'ensimbi, byona tibyasangwaga bihikiriire kimu, n'obu araaba yabikiraanuraga n'akalimi ke.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Hanyuma y'emyezi ikumi na munaana naakora omu Kampuni enu Kalyaki akaheebwa okuhumura kwa Sabbiiti ina; yagonza okugarukaho owaabu omu Uganda nuho okuhuumurra. Obu yahikire Kampala yasangaho abasigazi abamu aba yamanyire ira, n'abandi

Response: aba yasomere na bo, baatandika okusemererwa ekiro n'omusana omu Kilaabu, n'omu biikaro by'okuziniramu. Akaba yakamara Kampala ebiro ikumi, baamukwata hamu n'abasigazi abandi bbana habw'okwiba motoka n'okuburanganiza ebintu ebikaba birumu. Omusango obu gwahikire


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Akabuyangaine k'omusango gunu kakamutwarra akasumi ke ak'okuhuumura kandi nambere kaahweriireho ebiro bye eby'okuhuumura bikaba bihinguraineho. Kandi

Response: eky'omugisa gwe mubi bakama be omu Kenya na bo bakaba bamanyire nkooku yagwire omu musango gw'okwiba motoka.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Obu yagarukireyo akeereriirwe akakora kubi kutabaza amananu goonyini, yababiiha ati akakeererezibwa oburwaire kunu omu biro binu eby'esimu n'empapura zamakuru na Rediyo

Response: n'akacumu n'ekalaamu, n'abapolisi n'abambega, kizibu kubiiha ebisuba batakuzonzoire. Omu nsi z'abajungu ez'amagezi banyina n'ebyoma by'okukenga abantu obu baraaba nibabaza amananu rundi nibabiiha.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Nubwo Maneja yamwesire ya mugira ati: "Pita nsaaliirwe muno titurukwija kwongera kukukozesa omu kampuni enu, emirimo yaawe ky'amananu nyikaire ningisiima, naiwe ninkugonza,

Response: baitu nikisobora okuleetera abaguzi baitu n'abakozi ba bomba za peteroli okuteesiga Kampuni okurora nitukozesa abantu ababaireho omumusango nk'ogu wabairemu ogu omu Uganda."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Pita agarukamu ati: "Mukama wange omusango kankagusinga." Mukama we agira ati: "Ego mmanyire okagusinga, kandi mmmanyire

Response: n'ebyakwihire omu Kampuni y'etaaba, ha wabandize okukora, niinyija okukuha omusaara gwawe ogw'ebiro eby'okuhumura, ogende oserre handi."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Maneja yateera akade omukeeto we yaija yamuragira okutwara Pita Kalyaki okumusasura omusaara gwe gwona ogw'ebiro yamazire ali omu kuhuumura. Obu yahikire aheeru n'omunju ha yaraaraga yayegumya

Response: nk'abasaija ati: "Baitu ogu nugwo mulimo gwonka omunsi? Guhoireho guhoireho, ndaserra gundi. Ngira emirimo neesisa bbaasi, enu obu ogirugamu okwata endi, obu eba etakaizire olindirraaho kuhikya izire."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Yayeta mutaahi we nkooku baakoraga yamutwara omu bbaara, baatayo entambabujune, obu baarugire aho baahingura ha kaifo omu kisiika kya ddanzi, nambere basangire abaisiki abeecaywire kurungi, obuheta butairwe omu matu, isoke oti rundi Bajungu, okuboya kwa

Response: pauda yaabu oti rundi rooza. Binu byona obu byatooraine ahamu n'amaraka ga bbanda emihito yayeba. Pita akagaruka ha yaraaraga buli haihi n'okukya, obu akaba naata ati orusaya omu kaganja, oturo kahuumuza enjwahi, keebesa mihito, twamutwara.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Baitu Pita Kalyaki akazaarwa ali munyamugisa, obu orukulengesaniza ebintu ebi akaba arabiremu kuhika aho noorora omugisa gwe nkooku gukaba gukyahambire. Na hanu hakahinguraho Sabbiiti emu yonka yatunga omulimo gundi. Akagwaho omujungu owaakaba aizire omu East Africa kuhuumura, omu kasumi ako

Response: akaba naaserra anyakumanyire Dereva owokumubingira motoka ye anyakumanyire Orungereza n'Oruswahiri n'endimi ezindi, kandi ou arukusobora n'okumwogeza engoye ze. Kalyaki yayesimbayo. Omujungu obu yamunagiire eriiso, yarora enzooka ye, obwecumi bwe n'oburabukya bwe, yahurra nooku arukubaza Orungereza yamuha omulimo kumara emyezi mukaaga.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Omusaija onu Omujungu akaba ali byandaara, yamusasuraga omusaara murungi, ataireho n'ebisembo ebi yamuhaga; obu baagenzire nibamanyiirangana baasisanaga oti Iseemu. Pita kurorra hali ebi ebikaba bimubaireho enyuma obu sente bwe yatungaga yamalirra okubwahura kurungi. Nahabweki hayayahukaniire na mukama we omujungu

Response: onu ayayetwaga Misita Burawuni, akaba ali kurungi. Yahanuura omu mutima gwe ati naasemerra agarukeyo omu Uganda, aikale na mugenzi we Nyakaisiki Bukwali Tooro, aserre oku emirimo. Kandi obu yaijukire ebyamubaireho buli omu Kampala yamalirra kurabamu atarairemu agende owaabu omuka.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Kalyaki obuyahikire Kampala omu gaali y'omwika omu bwire bwa nyenkya naaruga Nairobi kandi yayetegereza nkooku haroho bbaasi enyakwimukya omu rwiririzi okugenda Tooro, yahwera

Response: omu Posita offiisi yajugumbya esimu hali owanyina Violeti Nyakaisiki ati: "Nyakaisiki, neeraba hali Kairungu, Medikoro Fort Portal. Ondindirre nyenkya kara ha bbaasi Pita."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Kairungu ou yarabizeho esimu enu akaba ali nyinarumi bo, yakoraga Medikoro, naaraara omu Ihani haihi na Bukwali. Esimu ekamuhika esaaha nka mukaaga aho nahabweki obu akaba naagya okuhumura yaraba Bukwali yasiga esimu yagiha Violeti, ayabandize kucwekwa enkizi obu yaboine esimu

Response: nyinarumi naagiiha omu nsahu naagimukwasa. Abantu baingi abanyakwine abaabu omu mahanga batiina amasimu, baitu obuyamazire okugisoma yaikya-yagira ati: "Ruhanga wange, kinu kyakurugaha! Hati myaka haihi n'esatu Kalyaki yakaba kugenda, obu yaizire obw'okubanza akagarukira oku Kampala. Nuwe atahandiika, nuwe atagira ati kaamutumeho."


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Nubwo Kairungu nyinarumi amugira ati: "Kandi ebi byona byaki Abwoli esimu ngigyo izire, agizire ati naataha

Response: ha bbaasi ya nyekya kara, ndatuma Karugaba mugende hamu mumulindirre, habwokuba bbaasi enu obundi neetahaga butakakiire kurungi"


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Nandi Nyakaisiki ati: "Otyo Araali kantandike kuteekaniza: Esaaha kwija kuhika ikumi

Response: n'emu Kalyaki akaba amazire ira kusara tikiti ye, ha saaha ikumi


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: na ibiri n'ekicweka akaba naataha omu bbaasi, yarora akaikaro karungi haihi n'idirisa yaikarra. Baasi yatandika okuhuuma, dereeva Omunuubi yasumurra ekiziiza, yateera engombe ati Dipu! Dipu!, Bbaasi yasimbura. Naaho na hali eri ha rwa kolasi, tetiire tejunjwire eri Mityana, obu yarugire aho

Response: yatenterra neerora ogwa Mubende, nambere yahuumwire akaanya kake, yakwata ebyezigooro bya Mubende yabiteera yabirabamu; aba Nyabingora baagyecurra omu maduuka. Omunubi ou baayetaga Musayimuto yagira ati, "Nkwine." Dara we Kyegeegwa, naayekumbya eyali Nsonda itaano. Esaaha obu ikaba niirooma ikumi n'emu bbaasi neyetuna Kabarole.


Instruction: Continue the following story in Rutooro: Nyakaisiki na Karugaba n'etaara yabu, amaiso bakaba bagahunzire bbaasi eyekaba erumu etaara ezirukwaka, bakaija okurora dara we Kalyaki. Nyakaisiki airuka bwango ha idirisa lya bbaasi n'okusemererwa, agenda baasekerangana n'engonzi ezirukubooga. Aruga aho agenda ha rwigi rwa bbasi alindirra okugwa owanyina omu kifuba. Pita na

Response: uwe akaba aine ekihika ekirukwerenga ekya Violeti, baitu abasiaja tibasobora kwerenga abakazi okwoleka engonzi. Amujuna omupiira gwe ogw'enjura na Buriifukeesi entoito, obu baamazire kwiha ebintu bye ebindi, ha rusu-rwa bbaasi, baabibohera ha gaali ya Karugaba, baatandika okurubata okugenda omuka Bukwali, habwokuba abaatakisi bakaba batakaizire.